ANIMAL KINGDOM

15 September 2025 11:06

Basis of Classification in Animal

Kingdom

○ Cellular level: Seen in sponges (Porifera); cells loosely arranged.

○ Tissue level: Coelenterates and ctenophores; cells form tissues.
○ Organ level: Platyhelminthes; tissues form organs.
○ Organ system level: Annelids to Chordates; organs form systems
with specific functions.

○ Asymmetrical: No symmetry (e.g., sponges).

○ Radial symmetry: Body divided into identical halves through any
plane (e.g., coelenterates, ctenophores, adult echinoderms).
○ Bilateral symmetry: Body divided into mirror-image halves in one
plane (e.g., annelids, arthropods).

○ Diploblastic: Two layers—ectoderm and endoderm (e.g.,

coelenterates).
○ Triploblastic: Three layers—ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm
(e.g., platyhelminthes to chordates).

○ Acoelomates: No body cavity (e.g., platyhelminthes).

○ Pseudocoelomates: Body cavity not lined by mesoderm (e.g.,
aschelminthes).
○ Coelomates: True body cavity lined by mesoderm (e.g., annelids,
molluscs, chordates).

○ Metameric segmentation: Body divided into segments with

repetition of organs (e.g., earthworm).

○ Chordates: Have a notochord (e.g., vertebrates).

○ Non-chordates: Lack a notochord (e.g., porifera to echinoderms).

A VERY IMPORTANT FLOWCHART ( figure 4.4)

*Echinodermata exhibits radial or bilateral symmetry depending on the
stage.

Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

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Phylum Porifera (Sponges)
General Characteristics
• Commonly known as sponges
• Mostly marine, a few are freshwater
• Primitive multicellular animals
• Exhibit cellular level of organization
• Mostly asymmetrical

Body Structure
• Body has a canal system for water transport:
○ Water enters through ostia (pores)
○ Flows into spongocoel (central cavity)
○ Exits via osculum
• This system aids in:
○ Food gathering
○ Respiration
○ Excretion

Specialized Cells
• Choanocytes (collar cells) line the spongocoel and canals
• Responsible for intracellular digestion

Skeleton
• Made of spicules (calcareous/siliceous) or spongin fibers

Reproduction
• Hermaphroditic: same individual produces both eggs and sperm
• Asexual reproduction: by fragmentation
• Sexual reproduction: via gametes
• Fertilization: internal
• Development: indirect (larval stage morphologically distinct from
adult)

Common Name Scientific Name

Sycon Scypha
Freshwater sponge Spongilla
Bath sponge Euspongia

Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

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Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
General Characteristics
• Aquatic animals, mostly marine
• Can be sessile (attached) or free-swimming
• Exhibit radial symmetry
• Show tissue level of organization
• Diploblastic: two germ layers—ectoderm and endoderm

Unique Features
• Possess cnidoblasts (stinging cells) on tentacles and body
○ Contain nematocysts used for:
▪ Defense
▪ Anchorage
▪ Capturing prey
• Body has a gastrovascular cavity with a single opening (mouth)
• Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular

Body Forms
• Polyp: Cylindrical, sessile form (e.g., Hydra, Adamsia)
• Medusa: Umbrella-shaped, free-swimming form (e.g., Aurelia)
• Some species show alternation of generations (Metagenesis):
○ Polyps reproduce asexually to form medusae
○ Medusae reproduce sexually to form polyps (e.g., Obelia)

Skeleton
• Some (like corals) have calcium carbonate skeletons

Reproduction
• Can be asexual (budding) or sexual
• Fertilization is usually external
• Development may be indirect

Common Name Scientific Name

Portuguese man-of-war Physalia
Sea anemone Adamsia
Sea-pen Pennatula
Sea-fan Gorgonia
Brain coral Meandrina

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Phylum Ctenophora (Comb Jellies)
General Characteristics
• Commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies
• Exclusively marine organisms
• Exhibit radial symmetry
• Diploblastic: two germ layers—ectoderm and endoderm
• Tissue level of organization

Locomotion
• Body bears eight rows of ciliated comb plates
○ These comb plates help in locomotion
○ Cilia beat in coordinated waves for smooth movement

Digestion
• Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular

Special Feature
• Exhibit bioluminescence: ability to emit light
○ A distinctive trait among marine organisms
Reproduction
• Sexes are not separate (hermaphroditic)
• Reproduction is sexual
• Fertilisation is external
• Development is indirect (involves larval stages)

Common Name Scientific Name

Sea walnut Pleurobrachia
Comb jelly Ctenoplana

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

General Characteristics
• Commonly called flatworms
• Body is dorso-ventrally flattened
• Mostly endoparasitic in animals, including humans
• Exhibit bilateral symmetry
• Triploblastic and acoelomate
• Organ level or organ-system level of organization

Body Features
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 Body Features
• Hooks and suckers present in parasitic forms for attachment
• Some absorb nutrients directly through body surface
• Specialized cells called flame cells help in:
○ Osmoregulation
○ Excretion

Reproduction
• Hermaphroditic: both sexes in one individual
• Internal fertilization
• Indirect development with multiple larval stages
• Some (e.g., Planaria) show high regeneration capacity

Common Name Scientific Name

Tapeworm Taenia
Liver fluke Fasciola
Regenerative worm Planaria

Phylum Aschelminthes (Roundworms)

General Characteristics
• Also called roundworms
• Body is cylindrical and elongated
• Found in aquatic, terrestrial, and parasitic environments
• Exhibit bilateral symmetry
• Triploblastic and pseudocoelomate
• Organ-system level of organization

Digestive System
• Complete alimentary canal with:
○ Mouth
○ Muscular pharynx
○ Anus

Excretion
• Excretory tube removes waste via an excretory pore

Reproduction
• Sexes are separate (dioecious)
• Females are often larger than males
• Fertilisation is internal
• Development may be:

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 • Development may be:
○ Direct (young resemble adult)
○ Indirect (involves larval stages)
Common Name Scientific Name
Roundworm Ascaris ( causes Ascariasis)
Filaria worm Wuchereria (causes filariasis)
Hookworm Ancylostoma

Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms)

General Characteristics
• Found in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
• Can be free-living or parasitic
• Exhibit bilateral symmetry
• Triploblastic and coelomate
• Organ-system level of organization

Segmentation
• Body is metamerically segmented
○ Segments are called metameres
○ Gives the phylum its name: Annelida (Latin: annulus = little ring)

Locomotion
• Movement aided by longitudinal and circular muscles
• Some aquatic forms (e.g., Nereis) have parapodia (lateral
appendages) for swimming

Circulatory System
• Closed circulatory system present

Excretion
• Nephridia (excretory organs) help in:
○ Osmoregulation
○ Excretion

Nervous System
• Consists of:
○ Paired ganglia
○ Double ventral nerve cord
○ Connected by lateral nerves

Reproduction
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 Reproduction
• Nereis: dioecious (separate sexes)
• Earthworm and leech: monoecious (hermaphroditic)
• Reproduction is sexual

Common Name Scientific Name

Marine worm Nereis
Earthworm Pheretima
Blood-sucking leech Hirudinaria

Phylum Arthropoda (Jointed-legged Animals)

General Characteristics
• Largest phylum in Animalia—over two-thirds of all named species
• Includes insects, crustaceans, arachnids, and more
• Found in terrestrial, aquatic, and aerial habitats
• Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate
• Organ-system level of organization
• Body is segmented and covered by a chitinous exoskeleton

Body Structure
• Divided into head, thorax, and abdomen
• Possess jointed appendages (arthros = joint, poda = foot)
• Exoskeleton provides protection and support

Circulatory & Respiratory Systems

• Open circulatory system
• Respiratory organs vary:
○ Gills (aquatic forms)
○ Book gills, book lungs, or tracheae (terrestrial forms)

Nervous & Sensory Systems

• Well-developed sensory organs:
○ Antennae
○ Compound and simple eyes
○ Statocysts (balancing organs)

Excretion
• Malpighian tubules for excretion

Reproduction

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 Reproduction
• Sexes are separate (dioecious)
• Fertilisation is internal
• Mostly oviparous
• Development may be direct or indirect

Category Example
Economically Apis (Honey bee), Bombyx (Silkworm),
important Laccifer (Lac insect)
Vectors Anopheles, Culex, Aedes (Mosquitoes)
Pest Locusta (Locust)
Living fossil Limulus (King crab)

Phylum Mollusca (Soft-bodied Animals)

General Characteristics
• Found in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
• Bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, and coelomate
• Exhibit organ-system level of organization
• Body is unsegmented and soft

Body Structure
• Divided into:
○ Head: with sensory tentacles
○ Muscular foot: for movement
○ Visceral hump: contains internal organs
• Covered by a calcareous shell (external skeleton)
• A soft layer called mantle covers the visceral hump
• Mantle cavity contains feather-like gills for respiration and excretion

Feeding
• Mouth contains a radula: a file-like rasping organ used for feeding

Circulatory & Nervous Systems

• Open circulatory system
• Nervous system includes paired ganglia and nerve cords

Reproduction
• Sexes are separate (dioecious)
• Oviparous (egg-laying)
• Indirect development (involves larval stages)

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 Common Name Scientific Name
Apple snail Pila
Pearl oyster Pinctada
Cuttlefish Sepia
Squid Loligo
Devil fish Octopus
Sea hare Aplysia
Tusk shell Dentalium
Chiton Chaetopleura

Phylum Echinodermata (Spiny-skinned Animals)

General Characteristics
• Exclusively marine animals
• Exhibit organ-system level of organization
• Triploblastic and coelomate
• Adult echinoderms: radial symmetry
• Larvae: bilateral symmetry

Body Structure
• Body has calcareous endoskeleton made of ossicles
• Surface often spiny or rough
• No segmentation

Digestive System
• Complete digestive tract
○ Mouth on ventral side
○ Anus on dorsal side

Unique Feature
• Possess a water vascular system
○ Used for:
▪ Locomotion
▪ Food capture
▪ Respiration
○ Includes tube feet for movement

Circulatory & Excretory Systems

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 Circulatory & Excretory Systems
• Circulatory system present
• Excretory system absent

Reproduction
• Sexes are separate (dioecious)
• Fertilisation is external
• Development is indirect (free-swimming larva)

Common Name Scientific Name

Starfish Asterias
Sea urchin Echinus
Sea lily Antedon
Sea cucumber Cucumaria
Brittle star Ophiura

Phylum Hemichordata (Worm-like Marine Animals)

General Characteristics
• Previously considered a sub-phylum of Chordata; now a separate
phylum under non-chordates
• Exclusively marine, worm-like animals
• Exhibit organ-system level of organization
• Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, and coelomate

Body Structure
• Body is cylindrical, divided into:
○ Proboscis
○ Collar
○ Trunk
• Possess a stomochord (a rudimentary structure in the collar region,
similar to notochord)

Circulatory & Respiratory Systems

• Open circulatory system
• Respiration via gill slits

Excretion
• Proboscis gland acts as the excretory organ

Reproduction
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 Reproduction
• Sexes are separate (dioecious)
• Fertilisation is external
• Development is indirect

Common Name Scientific Name

Acorn worm Balanoglossus
Marine worm Saccoglossus

Phylum Chordata
Defining Characteristics
• Presence of notochord (at least during embryonic stage)
• Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
• Paired pharyngeal gill slits
• Post-anal tail
• Closed circulatory system
• Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate
• Organ-system level of organization

Subdivisions of Chordata

Urochordata (Tunicata)
• Notochord present only in larval tail
• Exclusively marine
• Examples: Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum
Cephalochordata
• Notochord extends from head to tail
• Persistent throughout life
• Example: Branchiostoma (Amphioxus)

• Notochord present in embryo, replaced by vertebral column in adults

• Possess:
○ Ventral muscular heart
○ Kidneys for excretion and osmoregulation
○ Paired appendages (fins or limbs)

Vertebrata Divisions
Agnatha (Jawless)
Class: Cyclostomata

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Class: Cyclostomata
• Ectoparasites on fishes
• Jawless, circular sucking mouth
• Cartilaginous skeleton
• Examples: Petromyzon (Lamprey), Myxine (Hagfish)

Gnathostomata (Jawed Vertebrates)

Superclass: Pisces (Fins)
• Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous fishes)
○ Marine, placoid scales, no air bladder
○ Examples: Scoliodon, Pristis, Trygon
• Osteichthyes (Bony fishes)
○ Freshwater/marine, operculum, air bladder
○ Examples: Catla, Labeo, Hippocampus

Superclass: Tetrapoda (Limbs)

• Amphibia: Dual life, moist skin, 3-chambered heart
○ Examples: Rana, Bufo, Salamandra
• Reptilia: Dry, scaly skin, mostly 3-chambered heart
○ Examples: Chelone, Naja, Crocodilus
• Aves: Feathers, wings, 4-chambered heart, air sacs
○ Examples: Pavo, Columba, Struthio
• Mammalia: Hair, mammary glands, 4-chambered heart
○ Examples: Macropus, Camelus, Panthera leo

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