Strand; 3.

0 Living Things and their Environment

Sub-Strand; 3.2 Cell Physiology

Specific Learning Outcomes;
By the end of the sub-strand the teacher trainee should be able to;
a. demonstrate diffusion and osmosis in nature,
b. describe the process of active transport in living organisms,
c. describe endocytosis and exocytosis in a cell,
d. explain the role of physiological processes in living things,
e. explain factors affecting rates of diffusion, osmosis and active transport,
f. Formulate key enquiry questions for the sub strand of cell physiology,
g. reflect on the relationship between the structure of the cell and its functions.

Suggested Learning Experiences

Teacher trainee to:

• carry out experiments to demonstrate diffusion using perfumes/scented flowers and fruits,
• carry out experiments on osmosis using plant materials and visking tubing,
• observe and account for the changes that occur in the herbaceous plant leaves at different
times of the day,
• discuss the process of active transport in living organisms,
• search and watch animations on endocytosis and exocytosis,
• discuss the role of diffusion, osmosis and active transport in living things,
• discuss the factors affecting rates of diffusion , osmosis and active transport,
• discuss with peers some key inquiry questions on the sub strand of cell physiology.

Key Inquiry Question(s)

1. How is diffusion and osmosis important in living organisms?

2.How can a teacher effectively teach the sub strand of cell physiology?

CELL PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is defined as the branch of science that deals with the function of living organisms.
For the cell to carry out its functions there is a lot of exchange of materials between the cell and
its environment. This exchange of materials occurs across the plasma membrane.

Physiological processes
There are five mechanisms by which substances move across the cell membrane
These are
(a) Diffusion
b ) Osmosis
(c) Active transport
(d) Pinocytosis+ phagocytosis =Endocytosis
(e) Exocytosis.

1. DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of molecules or ions from a region high concentration to a region of
their low concentration along a concentration gradient until the molecules are evenly distributed
or an equilibrium is reached.

Note: Molecules diffuse from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
until the concentration is the same on both sides of the membrane.

FACILITATED DIFFUSION
Facilitated diffusion occurs when a substance is helped across a cell membrane by the action of a
special molecule in the membrane called globular/carrier proteins.

Note: In this diagram, the channel and carrier proteins are helping substances move into the cell
(from the extracellular space to the intracellular space).
Suggested Learning Experiences
Teacher trainee to: carry out experiments to demonstrate diffusion using perfumes/scented
flowers and fruits

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF DIFFUSION

1. The concentration / diffusion gradient
The greater the difference in concentration between two regions the greater the amount which
diffuses in a given time. For this to happen a fresh supply of substance for diffusion needs to
reach the surface and substances that have crossed it need to be transported away e.g. the high
concentration of O2 in the lungs enables it to diffuse into the bloodstream to these cells Co2
diffuse from the tissue cells where it is formed through respiration into the bloodstream from
the blood stream it diffuses into the lungs from where it exhaled.
2. 2. The surface area to volume ratio
The ratio of surface area to volume of an object decrease sharply with increase in its size. Thus
the smaller an object is, the higher is its surface area to volume ratio .Hence small organisms
have a considerably higher S.A:V ratio than larger ones consequently, small organisms have
higher rates of diffusion.
3. Thickness of cell membrane
The shorter the distance over which diffusion occurs, the greater the rate of diffusion across it.
Thus for rapid diffusion to occur the structure or surface needs to be thin.
4. The types of diffusing molecules
Molecules soluble in substance(s) of a barrier diffuse faster through it. Fat- soluble molecules in
the substance diffuse faster across cell membranes than do water–soluble substance
5. The size of diffusing molecules
Smaller molecules diffuse faster than larger molecules. Thus O2 may diffuse more quickly than
CO2 does.
6. Temperature
The higher the temperature, the greater the rate of diffusion. High temperatures increase the
kinetic energy of the molecules thus faster movement of molecules.

IMPORTANCE/ ROLE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING THINGS

Diffusion allows exchange of materials between organisms and their external environment and
between different parts of the same organisms e.g.
(a) Entry of gases and nutrients and exit of waste products in microorganisms.
(b) Gaseous exchange in plants and animals across the respiratory surfaces.
(c) Absorption of soluble products of digestion e.g. glucose.
(d) Exchange of food substances and waste products between tissue fluid and cells.
(e) Transport of nutrients and water in unicellular organisms.
(f) Diffusion of manufactured food from the leaves to other parts of the plant.
(g) Absorption of salts from the soil by root hairs.

2. OSMOSIS
Osmosis a process by which water or solvent molecules move from a region of high (water)
concentration to a region of low (water) concentration through a semi permeable membrane until
an equilibrium is reached

WATER MOVEMENTS AND THE CONCEPT OF WATER POTENTIAL

Pure water has the highest water potential. The effect of dissolving solute molecules into pure
water is to reduce the concentration of water molecules and therefore to lower water potential.
Water diffuses from a region of high water potential to a region of lower water potential.
A higher osmotic pressure will develop if the solution has a high solute concentration than if it
has a low solute concentration
Osmotic pressure therefore is the pressure that water exerts on a cell as it diffuses into the
cell
Osmotic potential It is defined as the tendency of water molecules to diffuse out of a
solution (water potential if solvent used is water)
A concentrated solution has a few free water molecules to diffuse out of it and it has low osmotic
potential
Hypotonic solution has a high osmotic potential and lower osmotic pressure than hypertonic
solution

Hypotonic solution Hypertonic solution

Low Osmotic Pres. High Osmotic Pressure
High water pot. Low water potential

Osmosis in animal cell

The cell membrane of animal cells is semi-permeable. The cytoplasm has dissolved salt and
sugar which are in solution form. If an animal cell eg a red blood cell is placed in distilled water
or hypotonic solution there will be a net flow of water into the cell by osmosis. The RBC would
swell up and eventually burst also known as haemolysis
If a similar RBC is placed in a more concentrated solution (hypertonic) than its contents then
water would be drawn out of the cell by osmosis. The cells would shrink by a process called
crenation
This behaviour of RBCs placed in various concentrations of solution indicates that body fluids
and the blood plasma surrounding the cells must be kept at the same concentration (isotonic) as
that which is found inside the cells. If this is not done the cells will either gain water and
burst/haemolyse or lose water and shrink/crenate and so their functions will be impaired. The
body has mechanism of keeping these concentrations constant within a narrow range like
through osmo-regulation Or like in fresh water protozoa eg amoeba have a contractile vacuole
which they use to remove excess water.

Osmosis in plant cell

A plant cell has both a cellulose cell wall and cell membrane. When the cell is placed in
hypotonic solution water is drawn into the vacuole by osmosis. Cellulose cell wall is rigid and
does not allow cells to burst as in animal cells when plant cell is placed in hypotonic solution. As
the cell gains more water its vacuole enlarges and exerts an outward pressure on the cell wall
called turgor pressure.

Turgor pressure is opposed by the back pressure exerted by the cell wall called wall pressure.
Turgor pressure reaches its maximum when the cell wall can be stretched no more and the cell is
said to be turgid. Turgidity plays a very important part in supporting plants and maintaining their
shape and form. The stems of herbaceous plants are held erect by being filled with fully turgid
cells packed tightly together and leaves are held in a flat horizontal position to trap light for
photosynthesis. When a plant cell is placed in hypertonic solution (a solution which has a higher
solute concentration than a cell sap) within a few minutes the protoplast shrinks to such an extent
that it pulls away from the cell wall and the cell/plasma membrane. This shrinkage of the
protoplast from the cell wall is called plasmolysis. Eventually it causes plant to wilt.

IMPORTANCE/ ROLE OF OSMOSIS

Osmosis is involved in the following processes in living things.
(a) Uptake of water from the surrounding medium into the cells of microorganism
(b) Uptake of water from the surrounding medium into the root hairs of plant roots.
(c) Transport of water from the epidermal cells of the root to the cells at the centre of the
root.
(d) Re-absorption of water from kidney tubules.
(e) Re-absorption of tissue fluid into the bloodstream at the venous side of the capillaries.
(f) Movements of water from the veins of leaves through the leaf cells to the atmosphere
during transpiration.
(g) Facilitates feeding in insectivorous plants.
(h) Involved in opening and closing of stomata.
(i) Makes cells turgid, firm and rigid giving support to seedlings and herbaceous plants.

Factors affecting osmosis

Concentration gradient
Temperature

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
This is movement of molecules or ions from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration and energy in form of ATP is required. Active transport only occurs in living
systems that are actively producing energy by respiration. Variables e.g. temperature and oxygen
concentration which affect the rate of respiration also affect active transport.

Factors Affecting Active Transport

Oxygen is used to break down food to release energy. When the concentration of oxygen is low,
less energy is produced; hence rate of active transport is slow. The higher the oxygen
concentration the more energy is released and therefore the rate of active transport is increased.
Temperature
Increase in temperature up to optimum levels increases rate of chemical reactions that release
energy in the cell. Increase in energy increases the rate of active transport. Temperatures above
optimum levels denature enzymes that speed up chemical reactions. This results in low energy
production and therefore rate of active transport is slowed down. Low temperatures inactivate
enzymes hence less energy is produced. This slows down active transport.
3. Enzyme inhibitors
These are substances that slow down the rate of enzyme activity. Presence of enzyme inhibitors
slows down the rate of active transport. These block the enzyme active sites which makes it hard
for the enzymes to bind and react with the substrates.
4. pH
This is the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Some enzymes function best in acidic, alkaline or
neutral pH. If the pH of a chemical reaction is altered, enzyme activity will be slowed down or
stopped. This will slow down or stop energy production. Consequently active transport will be
slowed down or may stop.
5. Co-factors and Co-Enzymes
Co- factors and Co-enzymes are substances that activate enzymes. Their presence increases the
rate of chemical reactions leading to more energy production. This increases rate of active
transport.
6. Concentration of glucose
The higher the glucose concentration the more energy is released and therefore the rate of active
transport is increased.

IMPORTANCE/ ROLE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT

1. Reabsorption of glucose and salts in the kidney tubules.
2. Absorption of mineral salts from the soil by roor hairs
3. Absorption of digested food in the alimentary canal into the blood.
4. Helps in accumulation of substances in the bodies of marine organisms to offset osmotic
imbalance.
5. Aids in excretion of waste materials from the cells of the body.

ENDOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis is a form of bulk transport of materials. It occurs by invagination (in tucking) of the
cell membrane which forms small vesicles or food vacuoles that become detached and enter the
cytosol. When materials that are engulfed this way are solids the process is called phagocytosis
(cell eating). When the materials taken in are liquids the process is called pinocytosis (cell
drinking).

EXOCYTOSIS
This is the reverse of endocytosis whereby substances are secreted from cells e.g. milk secretion.