Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Materials Today: Proceedings

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Flexural performance of fly ash bubble deck slab

Ahmed Nisar a, *, Yasir Hameed Khan b, Tawfeeq Ahmad Wani b
a
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Government College of Engineering and Technology, Safapora, Ganderbal 193504, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Several construction techniques have been used for cement content reduction in building construction. Some of
Bubble deck slab the techniques that are used for a slab include the use of waffle slab, ribbed slab, and hollow core slab. Each of
High-density polyethylene these techniques aims to reduce the cement content in a slab, thereby reducing the generation of CO2, a major
Flexural capacity
greenhouse gas that contributes to environmental instability. A bubble deck slab is a feasible method for
Deadweight
Fly-ash
removing concrete from the central portion of a floor slab that serves very little structural purpose, thereby
Sodium sulphate directly reducing the structural dead weight. HDPE hollow spherical balls replace the redundant concrete in the
slab’s central region, which lowers the dead weight and increases the floor efficiency. This study explores the
flexural performance of Fly Ash Bubble Deck Slabs, revealing the impact of fly ash and sodium sulphate on
flexural strength vis-à-vis traditional RCC slabs. Incorporating fly ash not only optimizes cement content, pro-
moting sustainable construction practices but also significantly contributes to environmental sustainability by
reducing CO2 emissions. This research underscores the potential of Fly Ash Bubble Deck Slab technology in
revolutionizing building construction, achieving structural efficiency, and fostering eco-friendly development.
The results indicated an average reduction in volume, weight and cost to be approximately 11 %, 13 % and 11.6
% respectively, along with a 38 % reduction in cement content and a 30 % reduction in CO2 emissions. The
flexural strength of fly-ash incorporated slab comes out to be 70 % as that of a regular RCC slab which is similar
to the results of a plain bubble deck slab with 0 % fly ash. Furthermore, the use of sodium sulphate with fly ash
seems to have a minimal effect on increasing the flexural strength which was no more than 5 %.

1. Introduction the carbon dioxide emissions produced during the process of

manufacturing of concrete [1]. For the construction to be environmen-
Amidst escalating environmental concerns, the construction industry tally sustainable and to minimize the impact of construction projects on
faces the imperative challenge of reducing cement content to mitigate the environment, cement content in the building should be reduced to
CO2 emissions. The introduction of Fly Ash Bubble Deck Slab technology the extent as far as possible, as the use of concrete involves a huge
emerges as a pioneering solution, not only advancing structural effi- amount of production of CO2, as for the main ingredient of concrete,
ciency but also aligning with sustainable construction paradigms. This which is cement, 0.9 kg of CO2 is emitted for producing 1 kg of cement
study bridges the gap in current literature by evaluating the flexural [2]. Approximately 8 % of man-made CO2 is produced during the con-
performance of this innovative technology, enriched with fly ash and struction of buildings and infrastructure [7]. The bubble deck slab is an
sodium sulphate, against traditional RCC slabs, marking a significant innovation that is not yet widespread. Although it has been used in some
stride towards eco-conscious construction practices. A bubble deck slab notable construction projects in Europe and the U.S., such as the
is a bi-axial hollow core slab made of concrete with hollow plastic balls Teaching and Learning Building at Harvey Mudd College which was
or “bubbles” embedded in it. It was created in the 1990 s in Denmark. designed by Boora Architects.
The concrete in the floor slab’s center can be almost eliminated utilizing By using this technique, one can directly introduce pockets of air
a novel technology, which decreases structural dead weight and the within the concrete, thereby reducing the slab’s self-weight while
amount of concrete required, resulting in cost savings. By reducing the maintaining its strength and durability requirements. Because the voids
amount of concrete needed, bubble deck slab usage can also help to created in the central portion of a slab by the introduction of HDPE
reduce the environmental impact of construction projects by lowering spheres reduce up to more than 30 % of the slab’s weight, extended

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A. Nisar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.04.016
Received 17 February 2024; Received in revised form 17 March 2024; Accepted 5 April 2024
Available online 11 April 2024
2214-7853/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Conference
on Materials Science and Engineering. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Ahmed Nisar et al., Materials Today: Proceedings, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2024.04.016
A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

spans between supports of bubble deck slabs can be created than 1.3. Properties of bubble deck slab
traditional concrete slabs, reducing the number of columns or other
support structures required in a building. The slab’s adaptable layout 1.3.1. Flexural strength
can easily accommodate irregular and curved plan combinations. The Flexural strength is the material’s capacity to withstand breaking or
above technology easily enables longer spans (approximately 20–30 bending under bending loads. When designing and building bubble deck
times the deck thickness), faster and cheaper erection (economic), and slabs, flexural strength must be taken into account. While some research
the elimination of down-stand beams [3,4]. Another advantage of has revealed that the flexural strength of bubble deck slabs is similar to
bubble deck slabs is that they can greatly cut construction time and or even greater than that of conventional concrete slabs, other studies
expense by using less concrete. Additionally, the reduced weight of the have found that the bubbles in bubble deck slabs have the potential to
slabs can make them easier to handle and install on-site, potentially impair the strength of the structure if they are not evenly distributed or
leading to faster construction times and lower labor costs [18]. adequately cured. In order to ensure that the slabs fulfill the necessary
The bubble deck slab is an exciting innovation, it has several po- standards for strength and durability, it is crucial to properly assess the
tential advantages, including lighter weight, lower costs, and greater flexural strength of bubble deck slabs before using them in a building
spans between supports. Story floors, roof floors, and ground floor slabs project. Several studies have been conducted in the past to measure the
are all applications of bubble deck slab floor system. The bubble deck flexural strength of these slabs. These investigations found the two-way
slab floor is similar to a flat slab floor in that it lacks beams and column bubble deck slabs’ flexural capabilities to be equivalent to those of
heads. The fundamental feature of a bubble deck slab floor is that voided conventional slabs, but also found that their stiffness had somewhat
plastic spheres can be injected into the floor and secured in a factory- decreased [6,7] and [8]. The arrangement of the voids underneath the
made reinforcement framework. Consequently, as a result, this rein- level of the neutral axis of the slab in the zone of tension achieved a
forcement structure functions as the concrete floor’s upper and lower strength similar to a solid slab with 10 % to 20 % decay in flexural
reinforcement. The ratio of the diameter of HDPE spherical balls to the stiffness as a result of the lower area of cross-section provided by
thickness of the slab can save up to more than 30 % in material or spherical voids [9] and also similar stiffness reduction for void-filled
concrete use in contrast to a concrete floor slab of equal depth. Envi- slabs in comparison with solid slabs of the equal thickness was also
ronmental impact is an important factor to be considered in the various covered by the work done in [10]. Spherical voided slabs showed more
construction projects involving bubble deck slabs. The use of bubble strength than cuboidal voided slabs, according to [11], while [12]
deck slabs can help to decrease the total amount of concrete needed in a described how the placement of voids within slabs affected their
project, which can lower the carbon dioxide emissions produced during strength. From the finding of [13–15]. There was a drastic decrease in
the manufacturing process of the concrete. Bubble deck slabs can also the punching strength of voided slabs when they were put next to col-
aid in reducing a building’s overall weight, which lessens the require- umns, compared to their flexural strength, therefore they have to be
ment for heating and cooling and thus lowers energy usage. This is due placed away from columns in order to prevent an early fatal shear
to the fact that lighter structures use less energy to maintain a collapse.
comfortable temperature, which can result in significant long-term en- When Kim et al. [16] investigated various types of voids, and found
ergy savings. As less materials are required overall, using bubble deck that the void geometry portrayed a significant role in determining the
slabs can also reduce the amount of waste products generated in the type of failure, with donut shaped voids performing better than round
process of construction. This can help in reducing the impact of a con- box voids. These results were also supported by a different study by
struction project on the environment and promote more sustainable [17]. When [18] investigated spherical and cuboid voids, they discov-
practices in the building industry. Furthermore, in areas that are prone ered that the structural performances of slabs with these two geometries
to earthquakes and other seismic activities, the bubble deck slab’s usage did not differ much. Elliptical voids are usually chosen over sphere-
to reduce the dead weight of the structure is very beneficial as it makes shaped ones, and the use of simple bubble construction yields a better
the structure seismically safer [23]. ultimate strength than filigree bubble deck slabs of comparable thick-
ness. Using steel cages in filigree bubbled slabs also improves their load
1.1. Research significance bearing capacity in a manner comparable to that of solid slabs, ac-
cording to the findings of Ibrahim et al. [18]. Al-Gasham et al. [20]
In reviewing the existing research on bubble deck slab technology, a found that the use of balls with a B/D ratio of 0.5 did not significantly
notable gap has been identified regarding the integration of fly ash, a alter the structural behaviours of voided slabs that are supported in one-
prevalent byproduct from coal-fired power plants. This material can be way direction. However, the presence of balls inside slab with B/D ratio
synergistically used with cementitious components in bubble deck slab of 0.75 caused the mode of failure to change from flexure to shear, and
construction, offering a pathway toward more sustainable and envi- there was a significant decrease in strength and also in other mechanical
ronmentally friendly construction practices by reducing the usage of metrics, especially when this ratio exceeded 0.75. The results of previous
cement and associated CO2 emissions. Consequently, the aim of this studies [16] and [17] that examined the void materials demonstrated
study is to evaluate the sustainability and flexural performance of why using high-strength void materials—such as polypropylene glass
bubble deck slabs incorporating fly ash, compared to conventional RCC fiber or glass fiber plastic—improved the flexural strength of void slabs.
slabs, and to corroborate these findings against existing data on tradi- When the use of steel bars were made to hold the balls in their place
tional bubble deck slabs, thereby enriching the body of existing instead of spacers, the behavior of slab was shown to be substantially
knowledge. better [16]. When comparing the two methods to construct the voided
slabs, the filigree way proved not so much effective than the plain
1.2. Composition method. The filigree approach calls for many casting layers, whereas the
fundamental process just needs one layer of production [21].
A bubble deck slab comprises three primary materials: steel, plastic The voids present in a bubble deck slab can affect its flexural
spheres, and concrete. strength, as they reduce the effective depth of the slab. However, the
Ordinary Portland Cement is used to make concrete of higher grade high-strength concrete usage and appropriate reinforcement can
preferably, keeping the maximum coarse aggregate size 20 mm. The compensate for this reduction and maintain the flexural strength of the
steel reinforcement used is generally of grade Fe-415 or more and also slab. A spherically voided slab behaved flexurally in the same way as a
the recycled high-density polyethylene or HDPE is used to fabricate the solid slab, with the exception of less stiffness and dead weight [5], but
hollow spheres in the Bubble deck slab, the thickness of spheres used is the difference was not significant and could be compensated for by
preferred to be 2 mm. appropriate design and reinforcement. The size and spacing of the voids

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can also affect the slab’s flexural strength. The placement of voids in the 1.3.5. Stiffness
bottom portion of the slab can reduce the effective depth and result in The resistance offered by the slab from undergoing deformation is
lower flexural strength. However, the use of larger voids or voids placed termed as stiffness. The stiffness of a bubbled slab is usually lower than
strategically in the slab can improve flexural strength by weight the conventional slab. The following factors contributed to the reduction
reduction of the slab and increasing its bending capacity. in the flexural stiffness of void-filled slabs: the polystyrene voids directly
Therefore, the bubble deck slab’s flexural strength is affected by the decreased the moment of inertia of the void-filled slabs; the void pres-
presence and placement of voids, as well as the properties of the con- ence made crack growth and enlargement noticeably quick; and by void
crete mix and reinforcement used. Proper design and reinforcement can placement directly above the tensile re-bars, a portion of the concrete
compensate for the effects of the voids and maintain the flexural surrounding the re-bars was removed, which decreased the bond
strength of the slab. Nonetheless, careful attention should be given to the strength [20].
placement and size of the voids to optimize the flexural strength of the
slab. 1.3.6. Compressive strength
Compressive strength means the ability of concrete to resist loads. It
1.3.2. Shear strength is an important property that affects durability and load-bearing ca-
Schellenbach-Held et al. [22] found that the voided area’s shear pacity of Bubble deck slab. In this research, the bubble deck slab was
resistance is 55 % of that of a similar solid slab, however a shear test by modified by adding fly ash and sodium sulphate, which has modified its
Marias [5] at Pretoria University revealed that this percentage can be performance in resisting compression. [24] found out that with reduc-
raised to 85 % with appropriate detailing and reinforcement. According tion in weight of bubble deck slab, there is a reduction in compressive
to Chung et al.’s findings [17], the shear strength of voided slabs was strength of the concrete. Oukaili and Hussein in [33] made use of high
around 73–78 % that of conventional slabs. Al-Gasham et al. [20] also strength concrete to improve the performance of bubble deck slab and
indicated that close drops occurred; in this examination, balls of diam- found that when compressive strength of concrete was increased, failure
eter 70 mm were also implanted in slabs of depth 120 mm, identical to load also went up substantially.
what is being done in this study now, and the shear strength of the voids
was near 80 % of the slab specimen. The presence of voids in a bubble 1.3.7. Thermal conductivity
deck slab affects its shear strength. The usage of voids reduces the slab’s Thermal conductivity of a bubble deck slab is the rate at which the
effective depth, which can reduce shear strength. However, this loss can slab conducts heat. Thermal conductivity is very crucial in the con-
be offset by providing adequate shear reinforcement, such as stirrups or struction industry in the modern times as energy consumption is greatly
CFRP, to withstand shear stresses (Table 5). affected due to it. Choktaweekarn et al., 2009 in [34] found out in their
research that when the cement is replaced by fly ash, it results in lower
1.3.3. Durability thermal conductivity in the concrete.
Durability is an important consideration in the construction of any Al-Ansari et al., 2023 in [35] using ABAQUS found that if a bubble
concrete building, including bubble deck slabs. Several elements influ- deck slab and solid slab of same depth is taken, bubble deck slabs pro-
ence the durability of a bubble deck slab, including the quality of the duce 17 to 39 percent strong thermal resistance than their solid coun-
concrete mix, the adoption of appropriate curing procedures, and the terparts considering bubble deck slabs are not usually designed for
corrosion protection of the reinforcing. The voids in the slab must also providing thermal insulation as there are air bubbles present at the
be engineered and arranged so that water or other corrosive elements do centre of slab and also the duration of fire effected the loading resistance
not enter. of bubble deck slab.
The durability of a bubble deck slab is comparable to that of a
standard solid slab. A solid durability control in line with typical stan- 1.4. Test methods
dards for solid-slabs is provided by the concrete, which is sufficiently bar
cover determined in accordance with standard requirements and of In assessing the properties of Bubble Deck Slabs, various testing
structural grade. After the filigree slabs are created, the reinforcement methods have been employed. Flexural strength and stiffness were
module including balls are vibrated inside the concrete. This results in a evaluated using two-way flexural tests, which determine the material’s
surface concrete density that is somewhat durable and impermeable, if resistance to bending and its breaking point under load [6–8]. Shear
not more so, than that generally generated on site. Furthermore, the strength was gauged through transverse force capability tests, assessing
Bubble Deck slab breaking is on par with, if not better than, solid slabs the material’s ability to withstand sliding failure along the plane of
designed to operate under conditions of around the same stress. The applied force [17,22]. Common methods for assessing durability include
bubble deck slab has a continuous mesh covering it from top to bottom freeze–thaw cycles, sulphate attack tests, chloride penetration tests, and
which ensures that shrinkage restraint is well covered and that cracking, carbonation tests, essential for understanding the long-term resilience of
whether from intrinsic or extrinsic cracking, is kept to a minimal. This is concrete [5]. Deflection and stiffness were analyzed via load–deflection
a system that is tailored and created for each project, as opposed to a tests to observe the deformation behavior under stress [19,14,16].
generic offering. Because the design takes into account all of a project’s Compressive strength was determined through standardized tests where
unique characteristics, there is no chance that the product will be a controlled force is applied to concrete specimens until fracture,
applied to uses for which it was not designed. measuring the material’s capacity to resist compressive loads [24,33].
Additionally, thermal conductivity was measured to evaluate how
1.3.4. Deflection effectively the material conducts heat, which is crucial for energy effi-
The thickness of the slab, the size and spacing of the voids, and the ciency in construction applications [34,35]. These testing methods
characteristics of the plastic spheres are some of the variables that affect collectively provide a thorough examination of the Bubble Deck Slab’s
how much a bubble deck slab will deflect. Utilizing voids lightens the structural and functional performance, aiding in the validation of its
slab, which lessens deflection brought on by the slab’s own weight. For benefits and applications in the construction industry.
bubbled slabs, the deflection at yield load is somewhat greater than for
solid slabs [18]. Additionally, the use of plastic spheres with increased 2. Recent studies
spacing can increase the stiffness of the slab, reducing its deflection. The
load–deflection behavior observed is softer for bubble deck slabs as Samantha Konuri, T.V.S. Vara lakshmi (2022), [24] did an experi-
compared to conventional slab [20]. mental study on the compressive strength, weight and volume reduction
of cubes formed by conventional concrete, bubble deck concrete and fly

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ash bubble deck concrete with M20, M25 and M30 grades of concrete reinforcement reduces ultimate load deflection by nearly 35 %
and same water/cement ratio of 0.45. Different polypropylene (PP) balls compared to a slab without shear reinforcement. Before reaching failure
used in the experiment were of 30 mm, 60 mm and 90 mm diameters. load, all specimens with shear reinforcement showed lower deflection
The testing was performed over one year at different intervals. The while being at the same stress level than the control specimen with no
findings of this study included that the percentage weight reduction shear reinforcement.
increases as the compressive strength of the cubes decreased from 0 to Dr. Thaar Saud Salman Al-Gasham (2015), [29] delved into the in-
0.09 %, the weight reduction is about 7.49 % in M20 grade concrete fluence of fire exposure on the structural behavior of bubble slabs. The
cube with 90 mm PP ball as compared to conventional concrete cube, investigation revealed that the residual strength of the specimens
the weight reduction effect was more prominent with 90 mm balls rather dwindled from 71.8 % to 21.6 %. Concurrently, the central deflection
than 30 mm or 60 mm balls due as more amount of concrete was exhibited an upward trend with escalating fire flame temperatures
replaced. The results also indicated that the strength gained by fly ash ranging from 200 ◦ C to 800 ◦ C, as well as prolonged exposure times
bubble deck concrete cubes was at a slower rate than other cubes. spanning 1 to 2 h. A noteworthy observation emerged when comparing
Overall the cost and weight are reduced and the technique is more eco- sudden and gradual cooling methods. The residual flexural strength and
friendly. central deflection in specimens cooled abruptly were inferior to those
Ali Sabah Mahdi, Shatha Dehyaa Mohammed (2021), [25] studied the cooled gradually. Furthermore, augmenting the thickness of bubble
structural behavior of BubbleDeck slab under uniformly distributed load slabs by 56 % yielded a discernible enhancement in both residual
with testing of five two-way solid and bubble deck slabs of size 250 × strength, experiencing a 45 % improvement, and the overall stiffness of
250 × 20 cm. They used bubble diameters at 10 cm and 12 cm, gave the specimens. These findings collectively elucidate the intricate inter-
reductions of concrete volume by 15 % and 18 %. The remaining vari- play between fire exposure, cooling methods, and structural perfor-
ables, encompassing steel reinforcement specifications and concrete mance, offering valuable insights for optimizing the fire-resistant
compressive-strength, stayed consistent among the tested specimens. attributes of bubble slabs.
Specifically, the specimens were characterized by a concrete compres- Abishek, G. R. Iyappan (2021), [30] this research aimed to study the
sive strength of 24 MPa and steel reinforcement with a diameter of 10 flexural behavior of bubble deck slabs and make a comparison with
mm. The outcomes revealed that in cases where concrete volume was bubble deck slab strengthened with CFRP. The CFRP sheets are a fine
reduced by 18 % and 15 %, respectively, the ultimate load capacity of a inclusion in bubble deck slab which can give increased bending rigidity
BubbleDeck slab experienced a decrease of 15.93 % and 11.5 % when and improved punching shear strength. The slab specimen used had the
contrasted with a solid slab configuration. Additionally, notable ad- dimensions 700 mm x 300 mm x 125 mm, hollow balls used are of 75
vancements in structural behavior were observed, including final mm diameter, the ratio of diameter of ball to depth of slab is 0.6 and the
deflection, absorbed energy, and the ductility factor. Percentage-wise, grade of concrete is M30 with proper adherence to IS codal provisions.
these parameters exhibited increases of 39 %, 5.3 %, and 14.94 %, The result obtained from the 2-point load test on the slab specimen
respectively. indicated that the flexural strength of the conventional slab, bubble deck
Nazar Oukaili, H Yasseen (2016), [26] explores the behavior of pre- slab and CFRP-strengthened bubble deck slab was 8.66 MPa, 7.61 MPa
stressed concrete slabs featuring polymer sphere voids to mitigate self- and 12.5 MPa, respectively. The load-bearing capacity of a bubble deck
weight. Through testing six slabs, including polymer-filled “bubbled” slab strengthened with CFRP was found to be 18 % more than that of a
and solid slabs, the impact of prestressing force and partial prestressing conventional slab and 32 % more than that of the bubble deck slab, the
ratio (PPR) is investigated. Polymer voids reduce stiffness and increase deflection obtained was more in CFRP-strengthened bubble deck slab
deflection in bubbled slabs. Notably, the introduction of prestressing than the other two slabs and the weight of bubble deck slab came out to
steel significantly boosts failure load capacity (up to 97.7 %). Bubbled be less than that of conventional slab
slabs with varying PPR values exhibit load capacities around 82 % to 85 K. Subramanian, et al. (2017), [31] did an experimental study on the
% of solid slabs. These findings enhance our understanding of the Flexural Behaviour of Biaxial Slabs Voided with Spherical HDPP Void
structural performance of such innovative designs. Formers with the intention of reducing the amount of concrete from
Durai H. Al-Rashedi, Ali H. Ali Al-Ahmed (2020), [27] examined the mass constructions. Spherical shaped high-density polypropylene balls
behavior of two-way slabs reinforced with prestressing strands, with a were used as void formers and the dimension of the slab specimen used
unique configuration of one-third solid and two-thirds bubbled strands. in the experiment was 2900 mm x 2900 mm x 100 mm and the diameter
The slabs shared identical dimensions (1600 × 1600 × 140 mm). The of the void formers used was 74 mm and the thickness of the void for-
findings indicated notable trends: at D/H ratios of 0.64 and 0.80, the mers was 2 mm. The concrete used was of M20 grade with proper
ultimate load capacity of bubbled slabs diminished by 12.6 % and 14 %, adherence to relevant IS codes and 6 mm diameter bars of Fe415 steel as
respectively. Concurrently, the maximum deflection of bubbled slabs at steel reinforcement. In this experiment, the spacing of the void formers
D/H ratios 0.64 and 0.80 increased significantly, reaching 3–4 times that was kept at 20 mm, 30 mm and 50 mm which resulted in volume re-
of conventional solid slabs. These outcomes underscore the distinct ductions of 22.7 %, 18.4 % and 12.21 %, respectively. The findings of
impact of bubbled reinforcement on load-bearing capacity and deflec- this paper shed light on the comparison of load–deflection behavior and
tion behavior in two-way slabs. optimum spacing of the void formers. The results included that the
M. Habeeb, Adel A. Al-Azzawi and Faiq M.S. Al-Zwainy (2021), [28] saving was more in case of lesser value of spacing and the use of V50 (50
The punching shear behavior of a light-weight aggregate bubble deck mm) spacing resulted in a much stiffer slab. According to this study, a
slab with several types of shear reinforcement was studied. The model in void spacing of 20 to 30 mm will have a balanced behavior between load
this study is a flat slab system with dimensions of (110x110x10) cm that carrying capacity and deflection, making it the ideal distance to meet
is supported entirely by columns. The zero-moment axes of the selected strength and serviceability requirements.
prototype are approximately (0.22 L) apart from the column axis. The
investigation consists of 4 two-way flat slab specimens that are simply 3. Materials & methodology
supported at their edges and are intended to fail in punching shear. The
concrete in all samples was built with a lightweight aggregate structure 3.1. Material tests
LECA (<8 mm). Constant flexural reinforcement (more than normally
used) was designed and employed to realize punching failure while Consistency:
preventing bending in slab specimens. A steel bar with a diameter of 10 The consistency test of cement, as per IS 4031 (Part 4) − 1988, de-
mm and a distance of 65 mm in both directions was used. The results termines the water quantity required to achieve standard consistency
showed that using lightweight aggregate concrete slab shear using Vicat’s apparatus. Approximately 300 gm of cement is mixed with

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A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

a known quantity of water. The Vicat mould is then filled with this paste, distribution in fine aggregates, categorizing them into zones (Zone I to
and the Vicat plunger is lowered to touch the cement surface and Zone IV) based on the percentage passing through a set of sieves. The
released. The test is repeated until the plunger penetrates 33 to 35 mm grading helps in identifying the right aggregate size for achieving
from the top. The percentage of water content at which this occurs is optimal packing and workability in concrete mixtures. Proper grading
deemed the cement’s standard consistency. ensures a dense and cohesive concrete mix with minimal voids,
Specific gravity: contributing to the strength and durability of the concrete.
Following IS 2720 (Part 3/Sec 2) − 1980, the specific gravity of
cement is the ratio of the mass of a specific volume of cement to the mass
of the same volume of water, indicating the material’s density relative to 3.2. Material specifications
water. The Le Chatelier flask method is typically employed for this test.
The empty flask’s weight (W1) is recorded, followed by the weight after The results obtained from various tests done on materials like
adding 50 gm of cement (W2). After adding kerosene and mixing, the cement, aggregates, and other materials are given in the following tables
weight is recorded as W3. Finally, the flask is filled with kerosene to the below,
brim, and weight W4 is noted. The specific gravity is calculated using the Cement: 43 grade OPC cement was used and its properties are as
formula, follows (Table 1):
Aggregates
(W2 - W1) / ((W2 - W1) - (W3 - W4) x 0.79)

Fineness of cement: • Fine Aggregate:

To determine cement’s fineness, per IS 4031 (Part 1) − 1996, 100 gm
of cement is sieved through a 90 µm sieve for 15 min. The fineness is the Clean river sand which is available nearby is used. The physical
percentage of weight retained on the sieve relative to the total cement properties of available sand are found out and the test results are
weight, indicating the particle size distribution. tabulated in (Table 2):
Initial setting time:
According to IS 4031 (Part 5) − 1988, the initial setting time is the • Coarse Aggregate:
period from when water is added to the cement until it begins to lose its
plasticity. This is measured using Vicat’s apparatus with 400 gm of The stone-crushed aggregates of maximum size 20 mm and down
cement and water amounting to 0.85P (where P is the water for standard were obtained from a nearby stone crusher. Coarse aggregates of
consistency). The paste is placed in a mould with a 5 mm square needle maximum size 20 mm and retained on a 12.5 mm sieve have been used.
on the Vicat plunger. The initial setting time is noted when the needle The sieve analysis of coarse aggregate complies with the specifications
can no longer penetrate 5 mm from the bottom of the mould. of IS 383:1970 for graded aggregates and specific gravity.
Final setting time: Results of tests performed on coarse aggregate are shown below
The final setting time, as determined under IS 4031 (Part 5) − 1988, (Table 3):
is the duration from when water is mixed with cement until it achieves Water: Clean potable water is used for mixing and curing of concrete.
significant hardness. Using Vicat’s apparatus with an annular collar Reinforcement: Fe-415 steel bars conforming to IS 432: 1982 have
attached to the needle, 400 gm of cement mixed with water equal to been used. Having a diameter of 8 mm for all types of reinforcement
0.85P is tested. The final setting time is recorded when the annular collar with thin steel meshes to hold the balls in place during the pouring
cannot make an impression on the cement paste in the Vicat mould. process.
Fineness modulus (FM):
The Fineness Modulus (FM) of both fine and coarse aggregates is Table 1
assessed as per IS: 2386 (Part 1) − 1963. The test involves passing the Physical properties of cement.
aggregates through a series of standard sieves ranging from 80 mm to S. Material Properties Cement
150 µm. The aggregates are sieved, and the cumulative percentage No
Obtained Requirements as per IS
retained on each sieve is calculated. The FM is then obtained by sum- Values 8112:1989
ming these cumulative percentages and dividing by 100, providing a OPC Cement 43 Grade
numerical index that represents the mean particle size of the aggregate. 1 Fineness 2.6 % Not more than 10 %
A higher FM indicates coarser aggregate. 2 Initial Setting time 60 min Not less than 30 min
Specific gravity: 3 Final Setting time 390 min Not more than 600 min
4 Standard 31 %
Determined in accordance with IS: 2386 (Part 3) − 1963, the specific
−
Consistency
gravity test for fine and coarse aggregates involves the use of a pyc- 5 Specific Gravity 3.15 −
nometer or density basket. The test measures the weight of the oven-dry
aggregate in air, the weight of the saturated surface-dry aggregate in air,
and the weight of the aggregate submerged in water. Specific gravity Table 2
values are essential for concrete mix design calculations as they affect Physical properties of fine aggregate.
the volume occupied by the aggregate in the concrete mix.
Water absorption: S. No. Particulars of the test Results
This property is critical in understanding the porosity and perme- 1 Fineness Modulus 3.51
ability of the aggregate and is conducted as per IS: 2386 (Part 3) − 1963. 2 Specific Gravity 2.63
In this test, aggregates are first oven-dried and then submerged in water 3 Water absorption 1.1 %
4 Zone III
at a stipulated temperature for a specified period. The increase in weight
due to water absorption is measured to calculate the water absorption
percentage. This test is crucial for assessing the aggregate’s quality and Table 3
its effect on concrete’s durability, workability, and strength. Coarse aggregate properties.
Grading (zone): S. No. Particulars of the test Results
The aggregate grading or zone classification is executed following IS:
1 Fineness Modulus 6.13
383-1970. This sieve analysis test determines the particle size
2 Specific Gravity 2.75

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A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

HDPE Balls: High-Density Polyethylene Balls were procured from the the cementitious matrix. Therefore, in the specific research work [32] on
market for this setup and the material properties were observed. the activation of blended types of cement containing fly ash using so-
Fly Ash: Fly ash is a fine powder that is a byproduct obtained by dium sulphate, the role of calcium oxide is likely to facilitate the for-
burning pulverized coal obtained from thermal power plants. It consists mation of additional cementitious compounds and contribute to the
of small, spherical particles that are rich in silica, alumina, and iron overall performance of the cementitious material.
oxide. Fly ash is commonly used as a pozzolanic material in the con-
struction industry due to its ability to react with lime to form a
cementitious compound. Fly ash is used in the production of bubble deck 3.3. Methodology
slabs as a replacement for a portion of the cement content. This is
because fly ash reacts with calcium hydroxide to produce additional In order to achieve the objectives of our research, the following tasks
cementitious compounds, thereby improving the strength and durability were executed:
of the slab. Moreover, fly ash also reduces the amount of heat generated Reviewing of the existing research data available on the subject of
during the hydration process, which can help prevent cracking and bubble deck slab. Understanding the behavior of Bubble Deck Slab
improve the workability of the concrete. under different conditions and subjected to different testing methods.
Sodium Sulphate: The use of sodium sulfate in fly ash is often referred Selection of appropriate materials, and dimensions for the slabs, re-
to as an activator or accelerator for enhancing the reactivity and early inforcements, and HDPE balls using data derived from existing litera-
development of strength of blended cements containing fly ash. The ture. Conducting an experimental analysis via the casting of
study by Jueshi Qian, Caijun Shi, Zhi Wang, (2001) [32] explores this conventional and bubble deck slabs and curing of all the slabs. A
effect. In the study mentioned, the authors investigated the effect of comparative study of the conventional and fly ash-bubble deck slab and
sodium sulfate on the activation of fly ash in blended cements. Sodium studying the behavioral properties like deflection, cracking load, and
sulfate is known to react with the fly ash, promoting the formation of flexural strength of slabs (Fig. 1).
additional cementitious compounds, such as calcium sulfoaluminate The following sequence given in the above figure was followed for
hydrates. These compounds contribute to the early gain in strength of preparing 3 pairs of slabs, two conventional RCC slabs, two fly ash-based
the cementitious material. bubble deck slabs and two fly ash based bubble deck slabs with minute
Calcium Oxide: Calcium oxide is one of the main components of percentage of Sodium Suplhate (Na2SO4) added to it. The dimensions for
cementitious materials and is known for its reactivity with water, all the slabs were 600 mm x 300 mm x 100 mm, the code used for slab
leading to the formation of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂). Calcium hy- design and mix design was based on IS 456:2000 and IS 10262:2009 of
droxide is an essential component in the hydration process of cement, as Indian Standard Code respectively. Testing was done on 14th and 28th
it contributes to the development of strength and stability in the day after the casting of slabs (Figs. 2 and 3). The slabs were subjected to
resulting concrete. In the presence of fly ash, which is a pozzolanic 3 point load test under a UTM with 40 Ton Loading Capacity (Table 4).
material, the addition of calcium oxide can enhance the reactivity and The B/D ratio (Bubble diameter/ Depth of slab) is found to be opti-
performance of the blended cement system. Calcium oxide reacts with mum at a ratio of 0.6 and the spacing as 30 mm which is obtained from
the silica and alumina components present in fly ash and forms addi- the study done in [18,20] and for that reason the ball diameter chosen
tional cementitious compounds. This pozzolanic reaction, contributes to here is 60 mm, the balls are made of High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
the development of strength, improved workability, and durability of and can be easily recycled. The fly ash is mixed with lime to activate its
cementitious properties.

Fig. 1. Sequence of Steps.

Fig. 2. Casting of Slab Specimen.

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A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. (a.) Bubble Deck Slab Interior; (b.) Top View of Bubble Deck Slab.

2. Three pairs of slab samples were cast: one conventional reinforced

Table 4 concrete slab (CS), one bubble deck slab with fly ash (BS1), and
Dimensional features inside the bubble deck. another bubble deck slab with added fly ash, sodium sulphate
Description Dimension (mm) (Na2SO4), and calcium oxide (CaO) as activators (BS2). Each slab
was reinforced with Fe-415 grade steel bars of 8 mm diameter.
1 S: Spacing between balls, and Edge distance of the ball 30, 45
2 Ø: Diameter of ball 60 3. A three-point load test was performed on each slab specimen (CS1,
3 X: Centre to Centre spacing of balls 90 CS2, FBS1, FBS2, MFBS1, and MFBS2) using a Universal testing
4 D: Total slab depth 100 Machine (UTM) with a 400 KN capacity. Deflection was monitored
5 Effective Cover 20
with a dial gauge to measure the cracking load, overall deflection,
and to observe crack patterns. A sound test was also conducted to
assess the integrity of the slabs
4. Experimental setup & calculations 4. Material requirements for the slabs were meticulously calculated
using IS 10262:2009 and IS 456:2000 mix design guidelines. From
4.1. Setup & testing existing literature, the optimal ratio of HDPE ball diameter to slab
depth was identified as 0.6, leading to the selection of 60 mm
1. The experimental design commenced with the preparation of design diameter balls and a slab depth of 100 mm
calculations for both the conventional and bubble deck slabs, 5. The materials used included 43 grade Ordinary Portland Cement,
adhering to IS 456:2000 standards. The dimensions for all slab types coarse aggregates with a maximum size of 20 mm, natural river sand
were standardized at 600 mm x 300 mm x 100 mm. Material testing as fine aggregate conforming to IS 8112:1981 and fly ash for
for cement, fine aggregates, and coarse aggregates was conducted to approximately 30 % cement replacement in the bubble deck slabs.
ensure compliance with relevant standards and to establish the The specific gravities of cement, coarse aggregate (C.A), and fine
concrete mix design for M30 grade concrete. aggregate (F.A) were recorded as 3.05, 2.75, and 2.60, respectively

Fig. 4. UTM Loading

7 Setup.
A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 5 Table 6
Material quantities. Slump test.
S. No. Slab Specimen Water/Cement ratio Slump value (mm)
Slab Designation Materials Used(Kg) Per Slab Specimen
1 CS 0.4 103
2 BS1 0.4 105
3 BS2 0.4 108
Cement: 8.865
CS (Conventional RCC Slab)
4.4. Total materials required
Water: 3.55

Fine Aggregate: 10.85

Coarse Aggregate: 21.05

5. Results

Cement: 5.505 5.1. Tests on fresh and hardened properties

BS1 (Fly ash Bubble Deck Slab)
Water: 2.36
Comprehensive testing on the workability, compressive strength,
Fine Aggregate: 9.315
and flexural performance of M30 grade concrete was conducted for
conventional slabs (CS), bubble deck slabs with fly ash (BS1), and
Coarse Aggregate: 18.1 bubble deck slabs with activators (BS2). A comparative analysis of
weight and volume reductions was also performed, contrasting the
Fly Ash: 2.36
bubble deck slabs with the conventional ones (Table 6).
Workability was assessed via the slump cone test, with the findings
Cement: 5.505 indicating an increase in workability upon fly ash addition. The
enhanced workability can be attributed to the lubricating effect of fly
BS2 (Modified Fly ash Bubble Deck Slab) Water: 2.36 ash’s spherical particles, which fill gaps between cement particles and
Fine Aggregate: 9.315
improve flow. The table above presents the slump values observed for
each mix:
Coarse Aggregate: 18.1 The results indicate that the slump value or simply the workability of
the sample increase with the addition of fly ash for the same water/
Fly Ash: 1.89
cement ratio of 0.4. Fly ash consists of spherical particles that can fill in
Na2SO4: 0.15 the gaps between cement particles, resulting in a more compact matrix.
This characteristic reduces the water demand for concrete, allowing for
CaO: 1 a lower water-to-cement ratio. A lower water content enhances work-
ability by reducing the stickiness and improving the flow of the concrete
mixture. The fine particles in fly ash act as small ball bearings,
4.2. Three-point load test improving the lubrication between the cement grains and reducing in-
ternal friction within the concrete mix. This lubrication effect enhances
The three-point load test was a critical component of the experi- the workability of concrete, making it easier to place, compact, and
mental phase. This test involves placing the slab specimen on two sup- finish.
ports and applying a load at the midpoint between the supports,
simulating a uniformly distributed load condition common in slab ap-
plications. The setup was carefully calibrated to ensure accurate load 5.2. Compressive strength of CS, BS1, and BS2
application and measurement.
For the three-point load test, each slab sample was positioned on the Cube specimens (150 mm sides) were tested under a UTM with a 40-
UTM with supports spaced at a specified distance apart, typically at a ton capacity at 7 and 28 days post-casting. The inclusion of 60 mm
third of the slab’s length, to create the necessary bending moment. The diameter HDPE balls in bubble deck cubes was central to the design. The
load was applied gradually at the center of the slab using a hydraulic results detailed in Table 7 highlight a slight reduction in compressive
actuator, and the force was increased until the slab failed. The UTM strength for bubble deck slabs compared to conventional concrete.
displayed the load applied and the corresponding deflection at the The compressive strength of bubble deck concrete comes out to be
midpoint of the slab. less than the solid cube by a small margin of 1.50 % for Fly ash bubble
The 3-point loading setup used in the testing of all the slab specimens deck slab and 1.45 % for the Modified fly ash bubble deck slab. This
is shown in Fig. 4 below, the load is applied gradually and then the reduction can be attributed to the presence of void inside the bubble
cracking load and deflection is observed. deck concrete cube which may decrease the direct compressive strength
of the concrete cube.
4.3. Mix design proportion
5.3. Flexural capacity of slab specimen
1. For conventional slab (CS), mix proportion as per IS code is
calculated to be Flexural tests (Graph 1 - 2) at 14 and 28 days post-casting demon-
Proportions = Cement: Fine aggregate: Coarse aggregate = 1: 1.22: strated a decrease in the flexural strength of bubble deck slabs by
2.37. approximately 30 % relative to the conventional slab (Graph 4 - 5).
2. For fly ash bubble deck slab (BS1), mix proportion as per IS code is However, these results showed an improvement of 10–15 % at 28 days in
calculated to be comparison to previous studies [31] with same slab dimensions that can
Proportions = Cement: Fine aggregate: Coarse aggregate = 1: 1.18: be attributed to better design and optimum ball diameter selection
2.30. (Table 8).
3. For fly ash bubble deck slab with Na2SO4 (BS2), mix proportion = Flexural strength at 14th and 28th day for CS being the highest fol-
1:1.26:2.45 lowed by BS2(Sodium Sulphate included) and then by BS1(no sodium

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A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 7
Compressive strength of cubes.
Compressive Strength (N/mm2) (Curing period in days)
Mix proportion

Slab Designation Concrete

Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Water/Cement ratio 7 days 28 days
Grade

CS M30 1 1.22 2.37 0.4 17.59 38.12

BS1 M30 1 1.18 2.30 0.4 15.52 37.55
BS2 M30 1 1.26 2.45 0.4 15.35 37.50

5.4. Weight, volume and cost reduction

Table 8
Flexural strength of slabs. The incorporation of HDPE balls and fly ash resulted in notable re-
ductions in the weight and volume of bubble deck slabs. The Table 9
S. Slab Flexural Strength(MPa) Flexural Strength(MPa) captures the percentage decrease in volume, weight, and cost, illus-
No. Designation 14 Day 28 Day trating the economic advantages of the bubble deck slab technology.
1 CS 11.6 13.73 The cost of both BS1 and BS2 was 11.47 % and 11.89 % less than CS
2 BS1 8.26 9.6 respectively, this reduction is due to the void in concrete and cheaper fly
3 BS2 8.4 10
ash as compared to cement. The volume of both bubble deck slabs, BS1
and BS2 came out 11.11 % less than that of conventional slab CS and
sulphate) (Graph 3). The strength of conventional slab although the also the reduction in weight was 13.30 % for BS1 and 13.14 % in case of
highest does not imply that fly ash based bubble deck slab cannot BS2.
compete with the conventional slab but with suitable adjustments to
design like better reinforcement and grade of cement a similar strength 5.5. Graphs
can be achieved.

Table 9
Volume, weight and cost reduction.

Percentage Reduction in Percentage Reduction in Percentage Reduction in Cost

S. No. Slab Designation Volume (m3) Volume Weight (kg) Weight Cost (Rs.)

1 CS 0.018 0.00 44.315 0.00 783.6 −

2 BS1 0.016 11.11 38.425 13.30 693.7 11.47
3 BS2 0.016 11.11 38.498 13.14 690.4 11.89

Graph 1. 14 Day Load v/s Deflection.

Graph 2. 28 Day Load v/s Deflection.

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A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

6. Conclusion

In this study, we rigorously evaluated the performance of fly ash

bubble deck slab technology, finding that its flexural strength is com-
parable to that of standard bubble deck slabs, albeit slightly lower than
conventional RCC slabs. This disparity does not undermine the suit-
ability of fly ash bubble deck slabs for construction; rather, it highlights
the potential for optimization through enhanced cement quality and
reinforcement techniques.
Key conclusions from the study include:

1. Economic and Environmental Benefits: We observed an 11 % to

13 % reduction in volume and weight, alongside an 11.6 % cost
saving in slab construction. These reductions stem from decreased
cement usage, facilitated by the introduction of fly ash, leading to
lighter structural elements and expedited construction processes.
Notably, the 38 % reduction in cement use significantly curtails CO2
emissions, aligning with sustainable construction goals.
2. Sustainable Material Utilization: The integration of fly ash, a
Graph 3. Cracking Load-Deflection. byproduct from thermal power plants, and HDPE in bubble deck
technology not only recycles waste but also enhances the slab’s ef-
ficiency and sustainability profile. The amount of concrete replaced
by 1 Kg HDPE balls is more than 20 Kg and additionally, fly ash also
enables weight reduction owing to its lesser density than cement.
Therefore, the weight of the bubble deck slab is reduced by a raised
amount.
3. Structural and Performance Insights: The innovative use of so-
dium sulphate and calcium oxide as activators in fly ash bubble deck
slabs fosters the formation of additional cementitious compounds,
potentially increasing concrete strength through ettringite mineral
development.
4. Behavioral and Resistance Characteristics: Comparative analysis
with conventional slabs revealed that bubble deck slabs exhibit
distinct load–deflection behavior, with increased deflection due to
the presence of void formers. The inherent air voids in the slabs
contribute to enhanced thermal and seismic resistance, offering a
promising avenue for earthquake-prone regions.
Graph 4. Flexural Strength.
In conclusion, fly ash bubble deck slab technology presents a viable,

Graph 5. 14 & 28 Day Load(N) v/s Deflection Comparison(mm).

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A. Nisar et al. Materials Today: Proceedings xxx (xxxx) xxx

sustainable alternative to traditional construction methods, promising [6] J.-H. Chung, H.-S. Jung, B. Bae, C.-S. Choi, H.-K. Choi, Two-way flexural behavior
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