II

f FEEDING GUI »
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)HOARDS DAIRYMAN
 About the Author
Raised on a dairy farm near Green Bay, Wisconsin, Mike Hutjens
was active in both 4 -H and FFA. Named top graduating senior at
the University of Wisconsin, he earned bachelors, masters, and
doctoral degrees there, with the latter in dairy science and
nutritional science. His graduate paper was awarded first place
by the American Dairy Science Association.

From 1971 to 1979, Dr. Hutjens was extension dairy specialist at

the University of Minnesota. From that point forward, he held his
extension dairy specialist position at the University of Illinois until
retiring in 2010. He annually speaks at close to 40 meetings in
the Midwest, and has spoken at conferences worldwide. He has
authored hundreds of technical and popular articles, co-
authored a text on dairy science, authored several Hoard
Dairyman books, and is a regular columnist in Hoard’s Dairyman
magazine.

Dr. Hutjens has served as official judge for the Hoard’s Dairyman
Cow Judging Contest, at World Dairy Expo, and at 16 state fairs.
Award recognitions include:

• ADSA DeLaval Extension Worker Award

• ADSA Applied Nutrition Award (1992)
• Young Midwest Regional Young Extension Award
(sponsored by ASAS)

• Paul A. Funk Outstanding Faculty Award

(University of Illinois College of Agricultural, Consumer and
Environmental Sciences)
• Outstanding Extramural Instructor (University of Illinois award)
• Two citations from the Minnesota Board of Regents
• PDCA Dairy Person of the Year
(Illinois Milk Producers Association)
• Minnesota Holstein Association’s Person of the Year Award
• ADSA awarded him the Purina Mills Undergraduate Teacher
award (2007)
• World Dairy Expo’s Service Person of the Year (2008)
• Honorary State Farmer Award from Illinois FFA (2011)
• Honorary Member of the American Association of Bovine
Practitioner (AABP) (2011)
• “Eagle Award” for service excellency from the Illinois Farm
Bureau Association (2011)
• National DHI Service Award in Florida (2013)
• ADSA Award of Honor and ADSA Fellow (2013)
• ADSA Distinguished Service Award (2016)

He was elected to serve as vice-president, followed by the

presidency, of American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) in
2003-2005.

Dr. Hutjens resides in Savoy, Illinois, with his wife Carol, three
sons, two daughters, and seven grandchildren.

ii
Three factors determine the amount of milk a cow produces: sexing semen), improving the cow ' s environment (heat stress
1. Genetics reduction and vaccines), computer aids, and feeding
2. Management and environment conditions improvements (amino acid balancing and rumen
3. Feeding program manipulation) will continue to “raise the production bar ”.

The number of dairy cows needed to feed the world has This book will address the feeding factor of the production
declined along with the number of dairy farmers. This is equation and provide practical feeding guidelines and
largely due to the incredible success of dairy farmers’ and recommendations to increase the profitability of the dairy
researchers’ combined efforts to maximize dairy cow farm. Dairying can no longer be considered just a way of life;
production by improving the above three factors. it is a highly competitive business. There will always be a
dairy industry - the question is who will compete and survive.
In the U.S. from 1985 to 2017, the number of dairy cows
declined from 10.9 million to 9.39 million. Meanwhile, the
average milk yield increased over 74 percent, from 13,024

V XVVJL
^
pounds (5,908 kilograms) to 22,942 pounds (10,406
kilograms); and total milk production increased to 212 billion
pounds (466.4 billion kilograms). At the same time, the U.S.
farm prices were below $12.76 in 1985 while they sat below Mike Hutjens
$16 in 2016. After this book goes to press, prices very well June, 2018
could hit $18 - but there are no guarantees.

This story is not over, as the world record cow recently

produced over 78,000 pounds (35,380 kilograms) of milk in
one year. Herd averages exceeding 30,000 pounds (13,608
kilograms) of milk per cow is common, with elite herds
averaging over 35,000 pounds (15,876 kilograms) of milk per
cow. Genetic technology (cloning, embryo transfer, and
vi
Chapter 1

Feeding a
ruminant - dairy
cow physiology

Ruminants are blessed with the ability to digest complex Figure 1.1 The ruminant ’s stomach
carbohydrates in plants that are unavailable to simple-stomached (beginning olDuodenum)

animals. A major portion of a ruminant’s feed is digested through

(Esophagus)
fermentation. It is controlling and optimizing this process that
/
becomes our job in feeding the dairy cow. Rumen
Reticulum

Digestive tract anatomy Omasum

The cow’s digestive tract includes the mouth, esophagus, a four-

compartment stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The
unique four-compartment stomach (not four stomachs) allows the
Abomasum
dairy cow to convert low-quality feedstuffs into high- quality dairy
products. Each compartment of the ruminant stomach (Figure
Volatile fatty acids, ammonia, and water move through the rumen
1.1) is discussed below. wall directly to the bloodstream. Rumen papillae will shorten,

The rumen is located on the left side of the adult dairy cow and decreasing the rumen’s inner surface area, when a cow is fed a
low -energy diet (for example, during the dry period). Increasing
constitutes over 65 percent of the total stomach volume. It can
the rumen-available energy content of the diet (starch) will
hold over 30 gallons (114 liters) of material containing 10 to 20
stimulate papillae growth; this, in turn, improves rumen
percent dry matter. A common descriptive term for the rumen is
absorption of volatile fatty acids into the bloodstream.
the fermentation vat, as it serves as a reservoir of feed and
supports an active microbial fermentation. The reticulum is the second, pouch-like compartment of the

The bacteria in the rumen attach to feed particles, breaking them stomach. It is located forward of the rumen and toward the

down and producing volatile fatty acids (VFA) as an energy source

bottom of the body cavity. Because only a fold of tissue
separates the rumen and reticulum, this region is commonly
for the dairy cow.
referred to as rumino -reticulum area. Both regions support
The rumen’s interior wall is lined with papillae (small, finger-like microbial fermentation with a pH of 6 for optimal microbial
projections), which increase the rumen’s absorptive surface area. growth. The tissue in this section resembles a honeycomb .
8
The omasum is a globe-shaped structure containing layers or leads to lower fecal pH measurements (under 6). Water and
folds of tissue. The common name is the " many plies " because it volatile fatty acids can be absorbed in the large intestine, but this
appears like pages in a book. The omasum absorbs water and fermentation is not as effective, as no digestion or absorption of
some nutrients. As the feed moves between these plies of tissue, microbial protein occurs, and it is excreted.
the digesta becomes drier. Excessive intake of mineral or low -
quality fiber (such as sunflower hulls) can cause compaction of Rumen dynamics Cud Chewing
the omasum.
The rumen of healthy cows will contract
Cud chewing thumb
The abomasum is commonly called the “true stomach” because more than twice per minute. This mixes rule

it has a glandular lining that secretes digestive enzymes needed the rumen contents, brings bacteria and Whan cow srs resting (not

to break down complex feeds. This compartment has the feed into contact, moves material out of •atlng or ba* * mated) over
ig ,

SO psrcsnl of fha hard should

characteristic stomach shape found in non-ruminants and the rumen if it is dense and short, and Da rummafng;

A cow should chaw aach cud

humans. The pH of the digesta falls below 3 due to secretion of brings long particles to the top surface al least SO times Defora

for rumination to occur. The cow spends raswasowma Ties indicates

hydrochloric acid. Displaced abomasum (DA) or twisted stomach adequate long fear

occurs when this area of the stomach moves from the lower right from 8 to over 10 hours a day ruminating
side of the cow to the upper left side of the cow. (chewing its cud) .
The small intestine consists of three distinct sections: the The rumination cycle consists of four functions. Regurgitation
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. Most of the digestive enzymes occurs when the area around the esophagus is stimulated with

are secreted in this area. Complex feeds are broken down to coarse material (scratch effect). A handful of coarse material is
amino acids, simple sugars, and fatty acids. Nutrients are regurgitated to the mouth by a reverse peristalsis movement .
absorbed across the intestinal lining through villi (small finger-like Once the coarse feed is in the mouth, the second phase
projections that increase surface area) for transport in the blood (rechewing) occurs, grinding the feed to a smaller size which will

and lymphatic systems. Few digestive problems occur in this allow it to pass out of the rumen. The third phase is resalivation.
area. Saliva contains buffers, which when mixed with the regurgitated
material will stabilize the rumen pH. A cow produces as much as
The large intestine is the last section of the digestive tract. 20 gallons (76 liters) of saliva a day when proper rumination
Bacterial fermentation of undigested fiber and starch occurs and occurs. The fourth phase is when the cow reswallows the cud.
9

If the coarse material has been mechanically reduced through molasses or whey. Starch is the Table 1.1 Volatile fatty
chewing, the material should sink in the rumen and move to the storage form of energy found in acids (VFA) produced from
reticulum. Feed leaves the rumen when the particle size is dense cereal grains and roots. microbial digestion
(heavy) and short. Long particles will float in the rumen, forming
Structural carbohydrate
the forage or hay raft in the top of the rumen and stimulate
additional rumination time. If material is too coarse, such as
provides rigidity and strength to — • Cl. C.
the plant. Lignin is not a
straw, too much time is needed to rechew the feed, and this
carbohydrate, but is grouped with structural carbohydrate
reduces overall dry matter intake.
analytically. Various carbohydrate fractions are summarized in
When feed is fermenting in the rumen, large amounts of methane, Table 1.1.
carbon dioxide, and other gases are formed and must be
Nonstructural and structural carbohydrate are digested
expelled (from 30 to 50 quarts [28 to 47 liters] per hour). Under
(converted from complex structures to simple sugars) and
normal conditions, distension from gases will stimulate the cow to
have a rumen contraction, which will clear the esophagus region fermented to volatile fatty acids by rumen microbes (Table 1.2).

and allow the gas to be belched or eructated. If this area cannot

These volatile fatty acids provide 60 to 80 percent of the energy

be cleared or gas forms a froth, the cow may bloat. required by the cow. Fat, carbohydrates not degraded in the
rumen, and protein provide the remaining energy. Volatile fatty
acids are absorbed from the rumen into the bloodstream and
Rumen fermentation of carbohydrates
transported to the liver, mammary gland, fatty tissue deposits,
On the average, carbohydrates contribute 70 to 75 percent of the and other tissues. When production and ratios of individual
diet dry matter while protein, fat, and minerals make up the volatile fatty acids are altered, yield and components of milk
remaining portion. Carbohydrates are the primary energy source change. Ruminal degradation of carbohydrate varies depending
for rumen microbes. Two carbohydrate categories occur in feeds: on maturity of forages, source
nonstructural carbohydrate (sugar and starch) and structural of carbohydrate (nonstructural Table 1.2 Characteristics of
microbial groups
carbohydrate (cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin). Sugars are or structural), and processing
found in the cells of growing plants and in feeds such as such as grinding of grain or
chopping of forages.
Protein and nitrogen metabolism that predicts microbial protein yield based on protein sources,
rumen fermentable carbohydrate, rumen turnover, and rumen pH.
Protein is essential for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and
In this model, SP is referred to as the A fraction (Appendix Table
milk production. The protein requirement of a dairy cow is the
1).
sum of amino acids needed for each of these biological functions.
The amino acids are supplied by the intestinal digestion of Rumen degraded protein (RDP) is the fraction of feed protein
microbial protein and feed protein that escape microbial that can be degraded in the rumen (includes SP and more slowly
degradation in the rumen. Approximately 60 to 70 percent of degraded sources). About half of ration RDP should be in the
dietary protein is degraded by microbes to peptides, amino acids, form of SP. In the New York-New Hampshire model, the
or ammonia, which are used by the microbes as nitrogen sources intermediate rate of degraded protein or B1; the slower sources
(Table 1.2) . Rumen microbes incorporate ammonia into microbial of degraded feed protein or B2; and the A fraction are included in
protein. Unincorporated ammonia is absorbed across the rumen RDP (Appendix Table 1). Other terms used in the field to describe
wall into the bloodstream, converted to urea in the liver, and
recycled in saliva or excreted in urine and milk (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Protein and nonprotein nitrogen use in the
reticulo-rumen
Herds having milk urea nitrogen (MUN) concentrations over 16
milligrams per deciliter may indicate rumen protein inefficiency
due to two conditions: excess ammonia in the rumen and/or a NH
—- Urea

deficiency of rumen-available energy, which limits microbial (Li

** )
growth. Three categories of protein can be used to describe the
fate of dietary protein in the rumen and define protein Amino
Dietary Acid
requirements of the dairy cow (Appendix Tables 2 and Table 3). *
Nitrogen
McnMGrox ;
* Protein Amino
Soluble protein (SP) is the fraction of feed protein that is rapidly Acidt

degraded in the rumen. Urea or casein are examples of feeds that Acidt
Microbial
Protein
( Small Inlnlinf )

are quickly degraded to ammonia, peptides, or amino acids that

(J5\ a! Proton)
are available for use by rumen microbes. New York and New
Hampshire researchers have developed a rumen model system
11

RDP include rumen-available nitrogen or protein. The ration must

Evaluating MUN levels
contain sufficient RDP to provide 3 to 5 milligrams per deciliter of
ammonia in rumen fluid for optimal synthesis of microbial protein. Evaluating MUN levels
Rumen undegraded protein (RUP) is the portion of feed protein
Levels of milk urea nitrogen (MUN) are available from milk plants
that is not degraded in the rumen and remains intact as it passes and Dairy Herd Information Association (DHIA), either from bulk milk
to the lower tract. RUP includes the portion available for lower gut or individual milk samples. MUN is the fraction of milk protein
digestion and absorption (also called escape protein or bypass derived from blood urea nitrogen (BUN). If MUN levels are outside
optimal normal range, you will want to look at ration balancing, milk
protein) and the portion that is not digested and is excreted in
components, and nutrient balance. However, it is key to make
feces (also called bound protein, heat damaged protein, acid changes within your herd or within a group of cows, since MUN
detergent fiber insoluble nitrogen, or ADF-N). In the New York and varies from herd to herd.
New Hampshire models, available RUP is referred to as the B3 In Illinois, the optimal MUN value can range from 8 to 12. You
fraction and unavailable RUP portion is the C fraction. See Figure should determine the normal value for your farm and then monitor
1.3. As computer models continue to refine prediction of changes in MUN by 3 points up or down.

microbial and cow protein requirements, and laboratory Low MUN levels signify potential reductions in amino acid and
techniques evolve that can distinguish various fractions, energy levels available to the cow because rumen bacteria growth
and yield are down. Reduced microbial growth can negatively
additional protein fractions may be defined.
impact milk production.

The nutritionist’s goal is to maximize rumen synthesis of the High MUN values may mean that the herd is wasting feed protein.
microbial amino acids (50 to 70 percent of total protein required) An example of a 1,500-pound Holstein with a MUN of 15 compared
to that cow with a MUN of 10 represents a loss of 1 pound of
and complement the microbially produced amino acids with a
dietary protein, or 2.2 pounds of soybean meal equivalent plus the
balanced source of RUP containing the amino acids needed to added environmental risks of disposing excess nitrogen in the urine.
meet the cow ’s amino acid requirement. Appendix Table 2 and
Note that milk plant and DHIA values can vary for the same farm.
Table 3 list the ration protein guidelines for meeting the And the minimal group size for MUN testing is 8 to 10 cows. You
requirements of high-producing cows. should also be careful in evaluating abnormal MUN values that may
occur for high SCC cows, fresh cows, and cows with abnormal milk
components.

12
Fat metabolism length. Fatty acids (such as those in soybeans or fish meal) can
interfere negatively with rumen fermentation and lower fiber
Fat is present at modest levels (2 to 3 percent) in diets commonly
digestibility. Unsaturated fatty acid can be toxic to fiber digesting
fed to dairy cattle. When cows are in negative energy balance
bacteria and coat fiber particles, thereby reducing bacterial
during times of peak milk production, supplemental fat can
attachment and fiber digestion .
increase energy content of the diet. This can be done by
increasing total fat levels up to 6 percent of the diet dry matter, as To minimize negative effects, one of the following amounts of fat -
long as dry matter intake is not reduced. Fatty acid composition containing feeds can be fed (not additively):
and inertness of fats and oils in the rumen are important
Added fat from oilseeds should be limited to 1 to 1.25 pounds
characteristics that can impact the rumen environment and dry
(454 to 567 grams) per cow per day. Feed oilseeds whole (cotton
matter intake.
and sunflower seed) or coarsely processed (soybean and canola
Dietary fat and oil are consumed either as triglycerides (three fatty seeds) to minimize exposing rumen microbes to high levels of
acids attached to a unsaturated fatty acids .
glycerol molecule) or as
Figure 1.3 Categories of protein • Limit fish oil to 0.1 to 0.2 pound (45 to 91 grams) per cow per
free fatty acids. Rumen
day.
microbes hydrolyze |
triglycerides to fatty acids • Restrict extracted or free oil (such as corn or soy oil) to 0.5
and glycerol (used by pound (227 grams) per cow per day.
rumen microbes as a
• Blend fat with other feeds and avoid slug feeding (large
minor source of energy).
The fatty acids in feeds amounts eaten per meal) of fat sources .
can be classified as • Animal fat (tallow and grease) is higher in saturated fatty
saturated or unsaturated. acids, making these fat sources more desirable for use in
Rumen microbes partially (NY - NHModtO dairy cow rations. Limit animal fat to 1 to 1.5 pounds (454 to
hydrogenate unsaturated 680 grams) per cow per day.
fatty acids, forming more saturated fatty acids with similar carbon

13

• Rumen inert fats do not affect rumen fermentation because produced from the digestion of structural carbohydrates and is
the fatty acids are partially hydrogenated prior to feeding used by the mammary gland to synthesize fatty acids for milkfat.
(harder fat), made into calcium salts, or encapsulated or Acetic acid is an energy source for tissue. (Table 1.1)
protected through special processing. Rumen inert fats are
Propionate or propionic acid is a three -carbon volatile fatty acid
more expensive compared to animal and oilseed sources and
produced from starch, sugar, and pectin-digesting bacteria. The
are acceptable sources of fat for use in dairy cow rations.
level of propionate varies from 15 to 30 percent of the total
Limit to 1 pound (454 grams) per cow per day.
volatile fatty acid production. Lactic acid is also produced in the
rumen, which is undesirable as it can lower rumen pH. The liver
Minerals and vitamins
uses propionate to synthesize glucose, thus sparing amino acids.
Minerals are needed by rumen microbes for growth and should Synthesizing glucose from the carbon skeletons of amino acids is
be mixed and fed with forages and concentrates. Water-soluble B metabolically “expensive” because the nitrogen must be captured
vitamins can be synthesized by rumen microbes to meet the in the form of urea and excreted, which requires energy. Glucose
requirements of the dairy cow. Cobalt is needed for rumen is used to synthesize milk lactose.
microbial synthesis of B12. Sulfur is needed by rumen microbes
to synthesize sulfur-containing amino acids with a desired ratio of The third major volatile fatty acid is butyrate or butyric acid, a
nitrogen to sulfur in the diet of 10 to 12:1 . four-carbon volatile fatty acid produced from the breakdown of
structural carbohydrate and sugars that makes up 5 to 15 percent
of the volatile fatty acids produced. Butyrate is used as an energy
Optimizing rumen digestion
source by tissue and for milkfat synthesis. Other volatile fatty
Microbial fermentation in the rumen produces volatile fatty acids, acids are produced in the rumen (valerate, iso -valerate, and iso-
a main source of energy for the dairy cow. There are three main butyrate), but the amounts are small compared to the three major
types of volatile fatty acids produced by a cow in the volatile fatty acids.
fermentation process.
The ratio of acetate to propionate (A:P) in rumen fluid (for
The primary volatile fatty acid is acetate, a two-carbon volatile example, 60 percent acetate: 20 percent propionate or 3:1) can
fatty acid representing 55 to 70 percent of the total production of indicate characteristics of the overall rumen fermentation. Under
volatile fatty acids. Acetate or acetic acid (the acid in vinegar) is optimal conditions, the A:P ratio should be greater than 2.2:1 .
14
Production of propionic acid is energetically efficient and provides resulting in favorable yields and proportions of individual volatile
needed glucose precursors for high-producing cows. High levels fatty acids. Factors which impact rumen pH are discussed below.
of acetate relative to propionate point to rations high in fiber and
Forage to concentrate ratio. High forage rations favor pH above
low in starch. High levels of propionate relative to acetate may
6 and stimulate higher rates of saliva secretion. Saliva contains
indicate reduced fiber digestion and acidosis, low rumen pH.
bicarbonate, which buffers the rumen and increases acetate
Analysis of volatile fatty acids in the field is not routinely available
production. The main carbohydrates in forage (cellulose and
but would be a useful tool to evaluate rumen fermentation and
hemicellulose) are not fermented as rapidly by the rumen
digestion.
microbes as carbohydrates in concentrates (starch and sugar).
High rumen pH favors acetate production, a high A:P ratio (over
Rumen pH effects
3), and higher milkfat percentage. Feeding excessive amounts of
The pH of fluids in the body is critical to normal chemical and concentrate increases propionate production, decreases pH
health conditions of the cow. In the rumen, the pH can vary from (below 6), reduces feed intake, reduces microbial nutrient
5.5 to 6.8 with an optimal level of 6.1 to 6.3 (neutral is 7). See production, and leads to milkfat depression (although milk protein
Figure 1.4. Growth of fiber-digesting bacteria is favored by a pH percentage increases while milkfat percentage decreases).
from 6.0 to 6.8 while growth of starch-digesting bacteria is
favored by a pH from 5.5 to 6. Thus, the rumen must maintain a Physical form of feeds. Grinding, pelleting, chopping or over-

pH near 6.0 for optimal growth of both bacteria populations mixing in mixer wagons change the size of the feed particle. If
forage particle size is too short (cows consuming less than 5
pounds [2.3 kilograms] of particles over 1 inch [2.5 centimeters] in
length) , a forage mat in the
Figure 1.4 Range in pH based on acidity and alkalinity Rumenocentesis
rumen is not maintained, fiber
pH
digestion is decreased, and
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
'O i i
'
2 13 14
rumen pH is lowered. Saliva
production also is reduced due
to less cud chewing time. Cows

<
*
Neutral typically spend over 9 hours of
Increasingly Acidic Increasingly Alkaline
1 5

chewing time per day, or 10 to 15 minutes of chew time per Also, if the moisture of the total ration exceeds 60 percent, dry
pound (0.45 kilograms) of dry matter. When resting, 60 percent of matter intake can be reduced.
the cows should be chewing their cuds.
Feeding unsaturated fats and oils. Unsaturated fatty acids,
such as fatty acids in vegetable and fish oils, can reduce fiber
If concentrates are finely ground, starch is exposed to greater
digestibility, be toxic to fiber digesting bacteria, and reduce fiber
microbial fermentation. Rumen pH drops and production of
digestion. Processing of oilseeds (such as grinding or extruding)
propionate and lactate rise, which lowers milkfat percentage,
can rupture the cell wall of the seed and release the oil into the
increases milk protein percentage, and lowers milk yield. Steam
rumen, allowing similar negative effects to occur in the rumen.
flaking, pelleting, high-moisture grain storage, or grinding of
cereal grains will disrupt starch granules and raise their rumen Method of feeding. Feeding total mixed rations (TMR) or
availability and potential to support growth of rumen microbes, complete rations has real advantages: it stabilizes rumen pH,
but also may increase the risk of rumen acidosis. provides RDP and fermentable carbohydrate at the same time,
increases dry matter intake, and controls feed selection. If
Feed intake. As feed intake increases, especially when rations
concentrates are fed separately, limit the amount to 5 pound (2.3
contain large amounts of fermentable carbohydrate, rumen pH
kilograms) of dry matter per meal, avoid large amounts that
can drop because more substrate is available for microbial uses.
contain high starch levels, and minimize feeding of finely
With higher intake of dry matter, there is more substrate available
for bacteria to ferment or live on. Fermentation is extended,
processed grains .
increasing volatile fatty acid production. The amount of saliva These factors illustrate the dynamic state of the rumen
produced also goes up, but at a relatively slower rate compared environment. Changing one feed can lead to several rumen
to the higher intake of feed, so the buffering effect of the saliva is alterations. For example, feeding more corn silage may decrease
cancelled out, allowing an overall drop in pH, and increase in forage particle size, increase fermentable carbohydrate, lower
.
acidity feed pH, and raise ration moisture.

Moisture content of the ration. Wet feeds can reduce rumen pH

because less saliva is needed to wet the feed for swallowing.

16
Movie 1.1 Washing Manure

Washing Manure
• Use a #8, #16 screen
2.36 NO. 8 .0937
1

¥48H.
TYLER FQlllVAl ENT 8 MESH k
SCIENTIFIC COM«NT /
or Cargill Manure Separator
• Evaluate a cup of manure
• Use pressurized water
^
• Cows to evaluate
- fresh cows
- high cows
- high producing 1st lactation cows
X ILLINOIS

17
In this chapter, we will plants and in feeds such as molasses and whey. Sugars are
Figure 2.1 A plant cell showing
look at the role played by cell wall structure rapidly fermented in the rumen by bacteria. The level of
feed nutrients in sugar in dairy cattle rations varies from 2 to 6 percent of the
sustaining growth and ration dry matter.
milk production.
PtMnMyWjJI 2. Starch is also found inside plant cells and is highly
S < ond«rW«ll
Plant cell contents include * digestible (75 to 95 percent). It is the major energy reserve in
starch , sugars, soluble the seed portion of the plant. It ferments rapidly in the
ash, protein, and oils rumen if processed (ground finely or steam flaked). Barley
(Figure 2.1). The cell wall and wheat starch also tend to ferment rapidly, while corn,
includes pectin, milo, and coarsely processed grains ferment more slowly.
hemicellulose, cellulose Starch can make up 24 to 30 percent of the ration dry
and lignin. matter.

3. Pectin is found in the cell wall of the plant. It is the most

Carbohydrates
rapidly fermented portion of the cell wall. It is found in high
Carbohydrates are the major source of energy in the diet for dairy levels in beet pulp, citrus pulp, and legumes. Pectin
cattle. Carbohydrates make up nearly 70 percent of the diet and produces more acetic acid when fermented in the rumen
consist of six different types, depending on the feed. Figure 2.2 compared to the cell contents.
illustrates a flow chart of plant carbohydrates based on their
classification. When balancing 4. Hemicellulose is also found in the cell wall with a
rations, these six types of Figure 2.2 Plant digestibility of 70 percent. Bacteria convert these complex
carbohydrates determine intake Carbohydrates glucose bonds to volatile fatty acids. Hemicellulose can

potential of a feed and its energy make up 10 to 15 percent of the ration dry matter.
content.
5. Cellulose is a major structural carbohydrate and gives
1 . Sugars are found inside the rigidity to the plant wall. Simple stomach animals (such as a
cells of immature growing pig) can not digest cellulose, while rumen bacteria can

19

break down these complex carbohydrates. Digestibility of Another way to express Suggested level for
cellulose is lower at 30 to 40 percent. Mature forages are carbohydrates available in the carbohydrate fractions on a
higher in cellulose. Cellulose can make up 15 to 20 percent rumen is rumen fermentable dry matter basis for high-
producing cows
of the ration dry matter. carbohydrates (RFC) These. Carbohydrate Level Nutrient group
carbohydrates can be used by fraction
6. Lignin is not a true carbohydrate but is part of the cell wall. Organic acids 0 to 4 NSC fraction
rumen microbes as energy
When plants become mature and produce seed, lignin Sugar 5 to 7 NSC/RFC fraction
sources including sugar, starch, Starch 24 to 30 NSC/RFC fraction
content increases. Digestibility of lignin is zero, and lignin
and soluble fiber which are Soluble fiber 8 to 11 NFC/RFC fraction
can bind with other nutrients, lowering digestibility of the
reported by most feed testing Hemicellulose 10 to 12 NDF
entire cell. Lignin levels can be low (2 to 4 percent of the ( ADf •hemicdlubse )
labs. RFC is similar to NFC Cellulose 17 to 19 ADF fraction
ration dry matter).
without silage fermentation Lignin 2 to 4 ADF fraction

Non- fiber carbohydrates (NFC) consist of organic fermentation acids, which do not provide a
acids, pectin, starch , and sugars that ferment in the rumen and carbon source for rumen microbes. The suggested level for high
are highly digestible (over 80 percent). To calculate NFC, use the producing cows is over 39 percent and allows for shifting sources

following formula (all nutrients must be expressed on a 100 depending on feed prices.
percent dry matter basis):
Fiber
NFC = 100 - (% crude protein + % NDF + % fat + % mineral)
Two main classifications of fibers are used to describe the fiber
For example, corn gluten feed would have a value of 24 percent content of feeds.
(%) NFC . Penn State particle box
* Acid detergent fiber (ADF)
100 - (20% protein + 50% NDF + 1 % oil + 5 % mineral) = consists of cellulose, lignin,
100 - 76 = 24%. and lignified nitrogen
components (also called
Recommended levels of various types of carbohydrates at
heat damaged protein, or
different stages of lactation and gestation are in Appendix Table
ADF-nitrogen). ADF can be
2 and Table 3.
20
 chemically analyzed by Rumination monitoring Table 2.1 illustrates various corn Table 2.1 Examples of
mixing feed with an devices silage fiber results for corn various fiber analyses on
acidified detergent silage. Forage testing labs dry matter basis for corn
silage
solution and heating . report three uNDF values:
uNDF-30 hours, uNDF-120 AOf 74 66 1706 w
*
* Neutral detergent fiber »NO» %DM 4100 » 08 SU2

hours, and uNDF-240 hours •NDfom

NDfDX)
40 10
53.87
» 71
43 57 64 17
1
(NDF) consists of ADF NOfDITO %NDf 71 54 67 67 0U
* 70
after rumen fermentation time.
(cellulose and lignin) and
Figure 2.3 illustrates the
-
NOfomW
uNOfomlTO
uNOfom740
XDM
73 90
18 70
1145
10 SO -
65 70
11»
6 00
«
7 » tO
1578
14 90
hemicellulose. Another
variation in uNDF-240 hours
term for NDF is cell wall
values of various forage sources.
.
content. NDF represents the total fiber content of a feed
One guideline for the maximum level of uNDF is to calculate 0.35
NDF is used to predict feed intake and is related to rumination
to 0.40 percent of body weight. For example, a 1000-pound
time. When referring to NDF, two definitions can be used.
(454-kilogram) Jersey cow could be limited to 4 pounds (1.8
Chemical NDF refers to the amount of NDF determined by mixing
kilograms) of forage uNDF. If the level is too low, rumen acidosis
feed with a neutral detergent and heating in a lab.
could be problem with higher rates of feed passage. Some dairy
A second NDF term is effective NDF (also referred to as eNDF), farmers add one pound (0.45 kilograms) of straw to slow down
which measures the physical form or length of the feed. Values for feed passage and improve rumen fermentation.

eNDF are determined by sieving feeds or using screens to

Another fiber term and analysis is crude fiber. Crude fiber (CF)
separate forage particle size (Penn State Forage Separator). Feed
was the standard fiber test and is still required on feed tags.
particles over 0.75 inches (2 centimeters) contribute to the forage
Crude fiber testing is not an
mat in the rumen, cause the cow to chew her cud, and maintain
accurate estimate of total fiber Figure 2.3 Variation in
normal rumen movements. Cows need to chew a minimum of 450 uNDF240 in forages
because boiling feed with dilute
minutes a day to maintain normal rumen pH (5.9 to 6.5). sox

\J ~
acid and alkali results in some
A new term that can assist in determining the level of NDF to lignin and hemicellulose being 20%

predict forage intake is uNDF (undigested neutral detergent fiber). dissolved and measured as

21

Movie 2.1 Evaluating ration physical form

22
sugar and starch. dustiness and fines in feeds. Too much fat can depress dry matter
Fiber values of Polyunsaturated fatty acids intake, reduce fiber digestibility, and increase feed costs.
feeds are listed in (PUFA) and reproduction Strategies for using fat sources in lactating dairy cattle rations are
Appendix Table 5 , outlined below.
Table 6 and Table PUFA are long chain polyunsaturated
1 . Add the first pound (454 grams) of fat from oil seed
7. fatty acids (such as linoleic, linolenic
sources (such as cottonseed, soybeans, or canola seeds)
and 20 -carbon fatty acids) found in
because these fat sources are less costly per pound of oil -
Fat and oil .
some vegetable and fish oils Feeding
10 to 20 cents per pound when other nutrients in the seed
PUFA to cows before and after calving
While fat and oil are are considered such as protein and minerals.
can improve reproductive performance
used
by increasing serum l e v e l s o f • Fuzzy cottonseed can be fed as whole seed because the
interchangeably,
progesterone and inhibiting fiber (linters) causes the seed to float, get caught in the
fats are solid at
prostaglandin release. Field studies rumen forage mat, and be rechewed by the cow. Limit the
room temperature
reported improved fertility and amount to 5 to 7 pounds (2.3 to 3.2 kilograms) per cow
and are usually
conception per day.
from animal
sources. Examples • Soybeans can be fed whole or processed. The finer the
are tallow and grease. Oils are liquid at room temperature and are seed is processed, the more degradable the protein.
usually from plant sources such as soybeans, corn, and Heating the soybean increases protein undegradability.
cottonseed. In this book, fat will refer to both fat and oil energy Extruded soybeans should be fed at lower levels because
sources. The energy content of fat is 2.25 greater than the fat is removed from inside the plant cell and is “free
carbohydrate and protein because of the higher ratio of carbon to oil” that can reduce rumen pH and fiber digestion.
oxygen in fats. Calves will consume diets containing 16 to 30 Suggested feeding levels of soybeans are listed here.
percent fat as they need more concentrated sources of energy
depending on environmental factors. Fats are added to dairy cow Raw soybeans: Maximum of 4 pounds (1.8 kilograms) per
rations as a source of energy, for improved palatability, to cow per day (due to reduced protein digestion related to
maintain body condition score, to help fertility, and/or for reduced plant enzymes such as trypsin inhibitor);

23

Extruded soybeans: Maximum of 4 pounds (1.8 kilograms) encapsulation. These fat sources are twice as expensive
per cow per day (due to free oil in the rumen); compared to animal sources. These products are added at
the rate of Vz to 1 pound (227 to 454 grams) per day and are
Roasted soybeans: Maximum of 7 pounds (3.2 kilograms
more convenient to handle as they are dry products. Check
per cow per day (due to total amount of unsaturated fats); fat sources as some of these commercial products have

• Canola seed must be processed (limit to 2 to 3 pounds sixteen carbon saturated fatty acids (primarily for raising

[0.9-1.4 kilograms]); milkfat test) while other products have a blend of sixteen
and eighteen carbon saturated fatty acids.
• Sunflower seeds can be fed whole (limit to 2 to 3 pounds
[0.9 - 1.4 kilograms]). Protein (amino acids)
2. The second increment of fat can be animal fat such as Protein is needed for growth, fetal development, replacement of
tallow or grease (not recycled restaurant fat blends). These cells and enzymes (maintenance) , and milk production. Amino
fats are more saturated (fewer double bonds in its chemical acids are the basic building blocks needed to meet protein needs.
structure). Animal fats can be fed at the rate of 1/2 pound .
Review Chapter 1 for the fate of protein in the rumen Figure 2.4
(227 grams) plus 1 pound (454 grams) of vegetable oil from illustrates how nitrogen is utilized by dairy cows. The values are
oil seeds, or 1 to 1 Vz pounds (454 to 680 grams) as the only expressed as nitrogen. To convert to crude protein, multiply the
added fat source. Animal fats are typically twice as grams of nitrogen by 6.25. Amino acids are provided to the dairy
expensive as vegetable oils. Animal fats are difficult to cow from microbial protein
handle on the farm, requiring heating to melt the fat for sources and feed proteins not Figure 2.4 Schematic use of
uniform mixing. In some countries, it is not legal or allowed degraded in the rumen (by - 494 grams of nitrogen
consumed by a dairy cow
to feed animal fat to dairy cattle. pass or rumen undegraded
protein, RUP).
3. Inert fats are the third type of fats that are commercially
produced. These products are inactive in the rumen (not The protein requirements and
affecting rumen pH or fiber digestion). Commercial composition of feeds are listed
processes include hydrogenation (making the fatty acids in the appendix . Computer-
more saturated), forming a calcium soap, and
24
based models calculate the • Generally, selecting feeds high in RUP with the desired amino
Table 2.2 Lysine and
amino acids provided by methionine requirements acids is the first source of needed amino acids. Commercially -
microbial and feed sources. for Holstein cows protected amino acids are more expensive than feed-based
Generally, lysine, methionine, sources (1 to 3 cents per gram of protected amino acid)
*0 (27)
and/or histidine are considered 100 (M)
1«0 (M)
5.1

• When evaluating amino acid changes in rations, make sure to

the first limiting amino acids
monitor milk yield and milk protein changes
(Table 2.2 and Table 2.3) .
Milk urea nitrogen (MUN) testing is commercially available
The following guidelines can be considered when balancing
through DHI labs and is reported by milk processing labs. If
rations for amino acids:
excess ammonia is produced in the rumen and is not captured by
• Microbialprotein contains the highest quality, is balanced to rumen microbes, or if excess protein is fed, the ammonia from the
meet the dairy cow needs, and is the most economical source rumen or animal cells builds up in the blood. The liver converts
of amino acids. Maximizing microbial protein yield is a primary the blood ammonia to urea, releasing it back in the blood as BUN
goal .
(blood urea nitrogen) The kidneys remove excess BUN and
excrete it in the urine as
• Predicting microbial protein yield is Limiting factors
Table 2.3 Lysine and a waste product.
difficult, as this value is impacted methionine as a Another route of -
Limiting factors barrel example
by feed intake, the rumen percent of essential
amino acids (EAA) excretion of BUN is to The barrel approach feeding dairy cows illustrates which
environment and pH, feed form and nutrient or ammo acid is limiting m
* production or milk
recycle it through the components . The dairy farmer's or
processing, and feed sources.
rumen and in milk.
nutritionist's goaf is to keep
Animal Product
Milk
* 1&0 5.5
all barrel staves at the same
lean Tissue 51 level to optimize
• Legume-based rations will be Rumen Microbe
Bacteria
* 158 5.2
Because milk is production and lower
feed costs . In this j
20 6 42
generally low in methionine. feed
*
produced from nutrients example , adding I
Sorghum 56 4J methionine could Ii
.
Com Orttilltrc 62 5.2
in the blood, high levels performance up I
.
Com Shelled 7.0 5.0
increase
to the lysme Imitation. '
• Corn silage and grass-based Com Silage
Sunflower Meal
7.5
86
48
5.4 of BUN results in The nutritionist could
Conomeed Meal 96 38 increase both amino
rations can be low in methionine Bariev
Oats
96
100
45
4.3 elevated levels of MUN. acids at this point to ^
11 1 38 match other amino acid
and lysine Soybean Meal 137 31 levels.
Blood Meal 15.7 2.1
fi h Meal 170 63
^

25

Minerals Table 2.4 Microminerals in selenium, and zinc. These minerals are added as milligrams per
dairy rations day and expressed as parts per million in the ration dry matter.
Minerals are needed for
Table 2.5 lists function, deficiency symptoms, and common
regulatory and structural
supplemental sources of micro minerals.
functions in animals. Two
categories of minerals must be
Common mineral rations to avoid imbalances
fed:

Macrominerals include calcium, Common mineral rations

chlorine, magnesium, to avoid imbalances
phosphorous, potassium,
sodium, and sulfur. Macrominerals are supplemented as grams
per cow per day and expressed as a percent of the ration dry Zinc : Copper 4:1
matter. Table 2.4 lists the function, deficiency signs, and common
supplemental sources of macrominerals. Iron : Copper 40:1

Sodium, potassium, chlorine, and sulfur are strong ions and

Potassium : Magnesium 4.5 : 1
impact the acid-base balance in
cows. Chapter 12 describes
Table 2.5 Macrominerals in
managing this acid-base dairy rations Copper : Molybdenum 6: 1
balance (the dietary cation-
anion difference, or DCAD) in Potassium : Sodium 3: 1
the rations of close-up dry b
cows. Nitrogen : Sulfur 10 : 1
Trace or microminerals include
cobalt, chromium, copper,
iodine, iron, manganese,
-
« •
—
26
A third group of minerals are required by dairy cattle, but not Vitamins
supplemented at this time. Fluorine and molybdenum are
Vitamins are organic compounds needed in small amounts. They
examples of these minerals. Additional research will be needed
do not provide significant sources of energy, but function in
before routinely supplementing these minerals.
chemical reactions. Two classifications of vitamins are used:
Appendix Table 4, Table 5 , and Table 6 list macromineral levels
1. Fat soluble vitamins:
found in feeds. Appendix Table 2 and Table 3 list the mineral
Vitamin A, D, E (these are usually supplemented), and K.
requirements for dairy cattle. Requirements for calcium and
phosphorous are listed in Appendix Table 7. 2. Water soluble vitamins:
Vitamin B complex (niacin, biotin, and thiamine may be
Minerals can be supplemented as inorganic (such as sodium
supplemented) and Vitamin C.
chloride) or organic mineral as complexed with an amino acid;
associated with protein, volatile fatty acid, or carbohydrate; and/ When feeds have been stored or fermented, fat soluble vitamins
or hydroxyl ligand. Inorganic minerals are the most common form may need to be supplemented. Fat soluble vitamins are added as
because they are less expensive and more concentrated than international units (IU). One III is equal to one USP unit (United
organic minerals. Organic minerals are added as a complex (zinc States Pharmacological). Fresh-cut forages and pasture are high
methionine would be an example) or chelate (copper proteinate in fat soluble vitamins.
would be an example). Organic trace minerals typically cost more
per milligram than added inorganic trace mineral. Organic
minerals may be fed with the following conditions:
Table 2.6 Fat soluble vitamins for dairy cattle
• Close-up dry cows Function Deficiency Source

Night blindness, skin problems,

• Cows that are open (first 120 day after calving) Vitamin A
Normal vision, maintain epithelial
.
mestftis week c elves,
Beta carotene, synthetic
linings , immune system
reproductive problems
.
vitamin A vitamin premixes
• Donor and recipient cows used in embryo transfer Normalbone growth and Synthetic viunun D2 (plant )
Rickets, osteomalacia, milk fever,
Vitamin D development, cakium & and D3 (arvmal sources),
• Cows stressed by disease, environment, heat, or other causes phosphorus metabolism
hypocalcemia
vitamin premixes

Antioxidant, associated White muscle disease, mastitis, Synthetic vitamin E.

Vitamin E
with selenium oxidized mdk flavor vitamin premixes

Vitamm K Blood clotting

Hemorrhaging, associated with Synthetic vitanun K .
sweet clover disease vitamin premixes

27

Niacin (vitamin B-3) is supplemented at 6 grams before and after Table 2.7 Water intake for dairy cattle - gallons (liters)/day
calving to minimize ketosis and limit fat mobilization in heavy
cows. Half of the added niacin can be rumen-protected to get
higher levels to the blood, and half as rumen-unprotected to be
Htile . t

2001b (91 kg)

Milk

Non
40 F

20 g«l (88 L)
and below

i non
BO

I
'
i

in 51 !
* *
used by rumen microbes. ,
4001b 11B11 ,. None ,
3 7 £ 1116 )i 4 G £«1 ( 2031). 61 g l (26 9l)
*
, .
Thiamine is added if rumen synthesis is interrupted. Biotin (20
BOO lb (363 lg)
, 200 lb,(544 kg >’
Dry cow " ,
None
Non . 6 3 g il (27 8 L)

6 7 gel (38 21)

7 9 g«l (34 8 L )
10 8 gel ( 47 61 '
106 g«l (46 71)
, .
14 ! £ 1 (63 111 )

mg) is added for foot health and higher milk yield. Table 2.6 lists 1.400 lb,(635 kg)

fat soluble vitamin functions and deficiency symptoms.

.
1,600 lb ( 726lg)
*
None
Non . 97 gel (4271)
10 4 gel (45 81)
1? 0 g«l (6291)
1 . ' 8 gal (66 41 .
16 ? pi ( 71 4 L)

17 1£ 1 ( 76 21
Lect ting (owi"
,
201b (Wgl
.
120 g«l (62.00 ..
145 g l 163 9 0 .
17 0 g l (78 9 L)

Water ,
1.400 lb (6351g) (
,
80 lb (27 l g)
,
80 lb (36 kg )
,
100 lb (45 kg)
22 lg

.. -
.16
270 g l ( 11690
320 g«M1410 O
26 1 £ 1 ( 11500

.
31 !lgel ( 140.51)
37 7 £ 1 ( 166 10
..
30 7 gel ( 13520
38 7 g l ( 1705 O
45.7 g l (201 30
Water is a nutrient required in the largest amount by the animal. "Marrernarx v *nd prtpMntf |*’M*«itf runt r and iwlli ptodutluxi
The amount (expressed as gallons/liters per day) depends on the
size of the animal, milk production, temperature, feed intake, and dairy cows at different stages of
Table 2.8 Water quality lactation, gestation, and
mineral intake. Table 2.7 lists the amount of water needed by
guidelines for dairy cattle
temperature.
Estimating Water Intake
Water quality is critical to
Estimating Water Intake encourage adequate intake.
Cows need a water source for
University of Illinois researchers developed the following
equation to estimate the galons of water a dary cow /herd every 20 cows, or one foot (0.3
could consume based on dry matter intake (DMI), milk
meters) of tank space per 20
.
yield, sodium content in grams per day and minimum daily
temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (*F). cows. A large supply of water
should be available as soon as cows leave the milking parlor and
.
Gallons of water per day

= 4.22 (constant) (pounds of DMI x 0.189) when cows consume large amounts of dry matter. Water should
+ (pounds of milk x 0.108)
+ (grams of sodium x 0.0132) not contain bacteria, and levels of nitrate, sulfates and salt should
(minimum temperature *F above 50 x 0.176)
be monitored. See Table 2.8.

28
Dry matter intake is the first limiting Calculating DMI The following relationships can Predicting forage DMI
factor in most dairy rations and the “key assist managers in evaluating
Predicting forage DMI
factor” to increasing energy. Dairy Daily Dry Mattar Intake (DMI) dry matter intake in their herd. If tha foraga program avaragaa 16 parcam uNDF Via .
managers can try to 1) Increase dry - Pounds K» ( s) following foraga manmum iniafca could ba pradtciad

matter intake, or 2) Increase energy

Or, . • Dry matter intake is based Foraga otaka of 1.000 pound (464 kilogram) Jaraay cow
0.004 (0.4K ) uNDF of body wwgM aquala 4 pound ( V 6
*
*
Wograma) of i/fOf divWa by 0 IS (1SH) aquala 26.6
on body weight of the pounds (12 kg) of loraga DM.
concentration per unit of dry matter
n.aooi animal and the level of milk
consumed. The limitation with • 0471 - 04 4;

production. Table 3.1 lists

•aiw

increasing energy content in a ration is

estimates for dry matter intake. Milk production is more
that cows require a minimum level of .* S «« KlliU3a
important than body weight in determining dry matter intake.
;

forage (physical fiber), and a minimum

level of fiber (chemical fiber) to maintain • Dry matter intake is lower in early lactation with first lactation
rumen health and rumen microbial fermentation. And to avoid cows significantly lower than mature cows (Table 3.2). The
acidosis, there is a maximum amount of grain that can be fed. If time to reach peak dry matter intake can take 5 to 10 weeks
excessive levels of fat and oil are fed, rumen function is longer than the time to reach peak milk yield. The time of this
compromised. dry matter intake lag depends on transition diets (shifting dry
cows to high production cow ration) and metabolic disorders
Table 3.1 Estimated DMI - pounds (kilograms) such as milk fever or ketosis. Increasing the level of
Milk yield Body Weight - lbs ( kg ) to DM/cow/day - lbs (kg) fermentable carbohydrate
lbs (kg) 880 1,100 1,320 1,540 three weeks before calving
Table 3.2 Estimated DMI
( 4% FCM) (400) (500) (600) (700) after calving for 1,200-
can stimulate the rumen pound (546- kilogram)
44 (20) 32 (14.6) 35 (15.9 ) 38 (17.3) 40 (18.2)
papilla surface area heifers and 1,400-pound
66 (30) 39 (17.7) 43 (19.6) 46 ( 20.9) 49 ( 22.3) (636 -kilogram) mature cows
(improves volatile fatty acid
88 (40) 48 ( 21.8) 51 (23.2) 53 ( 24.1) 55 ( 25.0) Pound ( KMografni) DWcow /day
*
absorption from the rumen), W Flr l coif h H r M tur cow
* * ** * * *
110 (50) NA 59 ( 26.8 ) 62 ( 28.2) 63 ( 28.6) increases rumen physical 31 ( 14.1) 3« |1« 4|
331163) 42 ( 19 1)
132 (60) NA NA 71 (32.3) 74 (33.6) capacity, and minimizes 36 ( 17 3) 46 130 B)

ketosis at calving. Wisconsin 40 (16 3) 49 122 3)

41 (166) 52 123 6)

30
 workers reported that cows with the highest dry matter intake • Dairy cows typically consume 0.9 percent of their body weight
one week before calving had higher dry matter intake three as forage neutral detergent fiber (NDF). So lower forage
weeks after calving. quality means reduced dry matter intake.

• For each additional pound (0.45 kilogram) of ration marginal • After injecting recombinant bovine somatotropin (BST), the
dry matter consumed, 2 pounds [0.9 kilogram] (Jersey cows) cow ’s increased dry matter intake lags behind increases in
to 2 -1/2 pounds [1.1 kilograms] (Holstein cows) more marginal milk yield by 3 weeks (first lactation cows) to 5 weeks (older
milk can be supported if nutrients are used for milk cows). This intake lag is similar to dry matter intake lags in
production. If the milk response is less than 2 to 2-1/2 pounds early lactation. If rations are balanced and feed bunk
(0.9 to 1.1 kilograms), cows may be gaining body weight or management is excellent, BST-injected cows will increase dry
growing, as with young cows. matter intake to meet nutrient needs and increase body
condition score.
• Feeding high levels of fat (over 5 percent) immediately after
calving may reduce dry matter intake. To meet energy needs, • When total ration moisture from fermented feeds exceeds 60
just-fresh cows mobilize body fat. This is hormonally percent, dry matter intake can decline 3 to 5 percent. This
controlled, and enters the blood as non-esterified fatty acids includes silage, high moisture corn, and fermented by -product
(NEFA) to be transported to body cells. feeds (not pasture).

• If cows are restricted or removed from feed for more than four
If the cow also is fed high levels of dietary fat, this may elevate
hours a day, dry matter intake may be limited - the cows just
blood fat levels over what is required. The cow ’s response in
can’t consume enough in the remaining time that feed is avail-
early lactation is to reduce her blood fat levels by eating less
able. Examples are cows kept in a holding area for 2 hours
rather than to stop mobilizing body fat. The result is reduced
each milking, feed bunks empty for extended periods, or
dry matter intake. Feeding fat later in lactation won’t depress
cows seeking shade during hot weather rather than standing
intake, as the cow does not mobilize body fat as she does
at a feed bunk with no shade.
after calving.
Wisconsin researchers indicate that cows stop eating when one
or more of the following factors impact the cow:

31

• Physical fill limits the cow from eating more dry matter • Non- fiber carbohydrate Feed efficiency
because the digestive tract is full. Diets high in fiber, low should range from 36 to 42
quality forages, or slow rates of feed passage would be percent of total dry
examples of fill factor limitations. Guidelines for maximum matter. i «*'»
forage intake related to fill factor is 0.35 to 0.4 percent of the
• Prevent cows from separating
cow ’s body weight.

• A chemical signal, such as high levels of blood metabolites,

and selecting out preferred •
-r

• Total ration dry matter should

“tells” the cow to stop eating. This satiety center is located in • Cort »f« i

range from 40 to 60 percent.

.
the brain High levels of blood fat, change in blood pH, high
levels of volatile fatty acids, or blood ammonia could be • Limit fat and oil to 4.5 percent
examples of chemical messengers. in the ration for fresh cows.

• Non-nutritional factors also limit dry matter intake. Examples • Limit fat and oil to 6 percent in the ration for high producing
include sore feet restricting cow movement, heat stress, cows.
empty feed bunk and moldy feeds.
• Dry cows should not have body condition scores above 3.5.
Use the following points to optimize dry matter intake:
• Keep feed in front of cows for 20 or more hours a day.
• Forage quality should exceed 0.60 meal of NE-l/pound of
D.M. (1.32 meal NE-l/kilogram). • Feed a transition ration 21 days before calving and a fresh
cow ration 7 to 21 days after calving.
• Ration ADF should range from 19 to 21 percent.
• Increase feeding frequency if feeding more often results in dry
• Ration NDF should range from 28 to 33 percent. matter intake increasing by two or more pounds (>0.9
kilogram) per cow per day.
• Adjust forage NDF intake to 0.9 percent of the cow’s body
weight with a maximum of 0.35 to 0.40 percent uNDF of the
cow’s body weight.

32
Thirteen pound rule Calculating FCM

The thirteen pound rule Calculating 4% Fat Corrected Milk (FCM)

For large breed cows, the 13 pounds (5.9 kilograms) rule Pounds 4% FCM = (pounds of milk x 0.4) + (pounds of fat x 15)
represents the pounds of dry matter needed daily to meet Kilograms 4 % FCM = (kilograms of milk x 0.4) + (kilograms fat x 15)
nutrient needs for maintenance. For example, a herd
An example is illustrated for a cow producing 100 pounds of milk with
consumes 53 pounds (24.0 kilograms) of dry matter a day
a 3% milkfat test.
minus 13 pounds (5.9 kilograms) for maintenance equals 40
pounds (18.1 kilograms) of ration dry matter remaining for . .
4% FCM = (100 x 0.4) + (100 lbs milk x 0.03 = 3 lbs fat) x (15)

productive functions (such as milk yield, growth, weight = (40) + (3 pounds fat) x (15)
gain, and/or reproduction) . If the herd converts the = (40) + (45)
remaining 40 pounds (18.1 kilograms) of dry matter to milk = 85 pounds of 4% FCM

(2 pounds [0.9 kilograms] of milk per pound [0.45 kilograms]

of dry matter) , the herd could support 80 pounds (36.3
Calculating 3.5% Fat Corrected Milk (FCM)
kilograms) of 4% fat corrected milk. Most herds can not
Pounds 3.5 % FCM =
achieve this target value as young and late lactation cows
(pounds milk x 0.4324) + (pounds fat x 16.216 )
will reduce nutrients available for milk yield (target 5 to 7
pounds [2.3 to 3.2 kilograms] less milk below the calculated Calculating Energy Correct Milk (ECM)
value).
Pounds of ECM (energy correct milk)
For Guernsey and Jersey herds, use the 10 pounds (4.45
= (pounds of milk x 0.323)
kilograms) rule instead of 13 pounds (5.9 kilograms).
+ (pounds of milkfat x 12.82)
+ (pounds of true protein x 7.13)

33
Figure 4.1 Lactation and gestation cycle phases for mature In terms of nutrient
Milk yield potential
Holstein cows producing 23,000 pounds of milk annually requirements, stage of
Endof
Pfc«»c 3 Phase 4 Phase 5 Phase 6 Uuuwn Ph* «I Wv w 2
* * gestation and lactation will
l?0 Milk yield potential
impact the feeding program.
Figure 4.1 illustrates four To estimate total lactation
Milk (lb.)
key factors that change as yield potential, multiply peak
the cow moves through the milk by 200 (called the 200
six phases of the gestation- rule).
lactation cycle. These four
factors are discussed below. For example, if a Brown
J « Swiss cow peaks at 95
Percentages 54
<*) s> Factor 1. The milk pounds (43 kilograms) of
s production curve. Milk milk, multiplying this value by
18
>6
7
.
MH .
i

true Milk P o(rm

production drives nutrient 200 results in an estimated
*
II
needs for dairy cows, and milk production of 19,000
peak milk level determine pounds (8,618 kilograms) .
60
the lactation curve for cows.
55 '
S
49
50 45 45
Dry Miller Intake
^ Table 4.1 lists production guidelines for Jersey and Holstein cows
(b /day)
40
55
at various times and phases in the lactation curve based on
50
1° December, 2016, herds processed by Dairy Processing Center,
'5 Raleigh, NC. Peak milk yield should occur 40 to 70 days after
calving. First -lactation cows reach peak milk levels later than
Body Condition Jj mature cows (70 to 100 days after calving) with 75 percent or
greater than that of the peak milk of older cows in the herd. For
example, if first -lactation cows average 70 pounds (31.7
Days of Lactation kilograms) of peak milk while older cows average 85 pounds (38.6

35

Table 4.1 Milk production profiles for Holsteins and Jerseys

Phase
HOLSTEIN Peak milk
Milk yield Lactation 3 4 5 6
pounds
pounds (No. ) <40 51-100 101-199 201-305
(kilograms)
( kilograms)
Milk pounds (kilograms) per day

1 98 ( 45) 70 (32) 87 ( 40) 91 (45) 85 (38)

30,000
2 124 (56) 99 ( 45) 113 (51) 106 ( 48) 87 (40)
(13,636)
3+ 133 (60) 102 (47) 120 (55) 110 (50) 89 (40)

1 90 ( 41) 67 (31) 81 (37) 81 (37) 76 (34)

26,000
2 114 (52) 94 (43) 104 (47) 95 ( 43) 78 (33)
(11,818)
3+ 123 (56) 97 ( 44) 111 (50) 100 (45) 80 (35)

1 79 (36) 63 ( 29) 72 (33) 70 (32) 64 (29)

23,000
2 99 ( 45) 84 (38) 91 ( 41) 81 (37) 66 (30)
(10,455)
3+ 107 ( 49) 88 (40) 97 (44) 85 (39) 67 (31)

1 68 (31) 56 (25) 62 (28) 59 (27) 53 (24)

19.000
2 84 (38) 72 (33) 76 (34) 67 (30) 53 (24)
(8,626)
3+ 90 ( 41) 75 (34) 81 (36) 71 (32) 57 (26)

36
 Table 4.1 continued Milk production profiles for Holsteins and Jerseys

Phase
JERSEY Lactation
Peak milk
3 4 5 6
Milk yield pounds pounds
(kilograms)
(No.)
(kilograms) <40 -
51 100 -
101 199 -
201 305
Milk pounds (kilograms) per day

1 72 (33) 56 (26) 63 ( 29) 65 (29) 58 (27)

21,000
2 85 (39) 71 (32) 76 ( 35) 71 (32) 59 (27)
(9,545)
3+ 92 ( 42) 73 (33) 81 ( 37) 75 (34) 62 (28)

1 65 (29 ) 53 (24) 60 ( 27) 57 (26) 52 (24)

19,000
2 79 (36) 68 (31) 72 ( 33) 65 (29) 55 (25)
(8,636)
3+ 85 (39 ) 71 (32) 78 ( 35) 69 (31) 57 (26)

1 59 (27) 47 (21) 54 ( 25) 51 (23) 46 (21)

17,000
2 73 (33) 63 (29) 65 ( 30) 59 (27) 49 (22)
(7,727)
3+ 79 (36) 65 (29) 71 ( 32) 62 (28) 51 (23)

1 54 (24) 45 (21) 49 ( 22) 46 (21) 42 (19)

15,000
2 65 (30) 57 (26) 59 ( 27) 52 (24) 43 (20)
(6,818)
3+ 71 (32) 60 (27) 64 ( 29) 56 (25) 45 (20)

37

kilograms) of peak milk, the ratio is 82 percent (70 pounds/85 • There is an amino acid shortage and/or imbalance of amino
pounds times 100). If the ratio is less than 75 percent, first - acids.
lactation cows are not peaking relatively high enough compared
• The use of fats and oils as energy sources - fat is not a source
to older cows. If first-lactation cows peak over 75 percent of older
of rumen fermentable energy.
cows, heifers are peaking higher relative to older cow peak milk
(good news) due to genetics, health, and/or heifer rearing Factor 3. The dry matter intake curve. Increasing the cow ’s dry
programs, or older cows are not peaking high enough (bad news). matter intake after calving can avoid metabolic disorders,
minimize weight loss, and improve reproductive performance.
Factor 2. The milkfat and protein curve. Milkfat and protein
Chapter 3 contains guidelines for managing dry matter intake.
levels will vary by breed (Table 4.2). If milkfat tests below milk
protein by 0.2 points or greater (for example, 2.7 percent milkfat Factor 4. The body weight loss and gain curve. Monitoring
and 3.0 percent true milk protein), rumen acidosis could be weight changes in dairy cows provides valuable information on
occurring. energy status. High-producing cows will lose weight to help
Table 4.2 Milkfat and provide the high energy needs of early lactation. Body condition
If milk protein tests below breed protein levels and ratios for
various dairy breeds scoring is a field method to monitor weight changes. The
average, or if it shifts during
Proltin following guidelines can be used to determine weight status:
various phases, consider the Fat % Protein %
Dtv d«3 by Fat
*
Ayrshire 387 3.11 80%
following reasons for low milk 4 03 331 82% • One body condition score (using the 1 to 5 system) is equal to
protein production: Guernsey 45«
384
334

303
73%

78%
120 pounds (54.4 kilograms) of body weight .
366 76%
• Low levels of fermentable 484
• Cows should not lose more than 0.5 body condition score
carbohydrate lower Source: Hoard’s Dairyman 2017
points (60 pounds [27.2 kilograms] of weight).
official DHI averages
microbial protein synthesis
• The maximum weight loss is 2 pounds (0.9 kilogram) per day
and amino acid availability for
milk protein synthesis. to avoid negative effects on reproduction and metabolic
disorders.
• Low levels of dry matter intake reduce the supply of organic
matter available for the rumen microbes and cow.

38
Cows should be at the optimum body condition score prior to kilogram) per day or one-half of a body condition score increase
drying off (3.0 to 3.25). If dry cows are too thin (under 2.75 BCS), (from 2.5 to 3.0 for example).
limit weight gain to one-half body condition score - for example,
Dry matter intake will vary from 1.8 to 2.5 percent of the cow’s
shifting dry cows from 2.5 to 3.0, which is 60 pounds (27.2
body weight. The amount of grain will vary from 2 to 7 pounds
kilograms) in 60 dry days, or 1.0 pound (0.45 kilogram) per day.
(0.9 to 3.2 kilograms) per day. At the 2 -pound (0.9- kilogram) level,
By evaluating these four factors during the lactation and gestation the grain serves as a carrier of minerals and vitamins. Do not
cycles in dairy cows, six different feeding phases or rations can depend on free- choice consumption to meet the mineral and
be developed. On some farms, topdressing different grain vitamin needs for the dry cow and developing calf. Higher levels
mixtures can achieve the six -phase approach. On other farms, of grain are needed if cows are thin, if cows are young and still
grouping cows by similar phase may be needed to best meet growing, if there is environmental stress (cold weather), and/or if
their different nutrient requirements. low quality forage is fed. Feeding 15 to 25 pounds (6.8 to 11.3
kilograms) of corn silage (as-fed basis), or 5 to 8 pounds (2.3 to
Phase 1 3.6 kilograms) dry matter basis, can provide additional energy
from forage, lowers calcium and potassium levels, and improves
Phase 1 begins at dry -off and goes to 21 days before calving.
ration palatability. Appendix Table 2 and Table 3 provide nutrient
This period is also referred to as the far-off dry cow period. These
guidelines for Phase One dry cows. Suggested strategies for the
cows must be in a separate group (not with the lactating herd). A
far-off dry cow (Phase One) ration are listed below:
balanced dry cow feeding program can increase milk production
by 500 to 1,500 pounds (227 to 680 kilograms) more milk in the • 1 ,300 grams of metabolizable protein
.
subsequent lactation Thus, Phase One, or the dry period,
actually marks the beginning of the next lactation.
• 70 to 90 grams of calcium (15 percent lower for Jersey cows)

During this phase, the cow’s mammary gland involutes (dries up • 35 to 40 grams of phosphorous (15 percent lower for Jersey

and appears as a collapsed structure), the calf is increasing in cows)

size and developing, and body weight gain can be occurring. To • Limit salt to 1 ounce (28 grams)
avoid metabolic disorders, limit weight gain to 1.0 pound (0.45
• Force feed trace minerals and vitamins

39

• Provide one-third of the ration dry matter as straw (high straw/ rumen undegraded protein (RUP) especially for pregnant
low energy ratio) heifers or 1,300 grams of metabilizable protein.

• Provide one-third of the ration dry matter as corn silage • Limit added fat to 1 /3 to 1 /2 pound (151 to 227 grams) per
day.
Phase 2 • Feed 6 pounds (2.7 kilograms) of hay or 2 pounds (0.9
Phase 2 refers to the close-up dry cow period, 21 days prior to kilogram) of wheat straw daily if a high straw /low energy ration
calving. Adjusting the rumen environment is critical in this phase is not being fed .
to prepare for lactation and to prevent metabolic disorders.
• Consider feeding 7 to 10 pounds (3.2 to 4.5 kilograms) dry
Increasing the level of grain shifts the rumen microbial population
matter basis from the high group TMR (has RUP, fat , grain,
to the type that can ferment high-energy diets and stimulates
rumen papillae development. During this period, dry matter intake and higher quality forages).

begins to drop. At calving, dry matter intake may be 15 to 20 • Remove supplemental salt. Ketone testing
percent below Phase One dry matter intake levels (a low energy/
high straw ration minimizes this risk). The unborn calf is rapidly • Remove any buffers.
Ketone testing
growing, requiring more nutrients. Body weight loss can occur
• Add anionic product to
and ketosis risk increases due to fat mobilization. Development of Conducting a ketone test
prevent low blood calcium
fatty liver development and higher levels of non-esterified fatty can head off ketosis as
(hypocalcemia).
acid (NEFA) can also result. Appendix Table 2 and Table 3 well as help diagnose a
provide nutrient guidelines for Phase Two cows. Suggested • Add yeast culture (10 to 120 left displaced abomasum
strategies during the close-up dry period (Phase Two) are listed grams per day, depending as studies show cows
below: on the product selected). with subclinical ketosis
are at major risk. Milk
• Increase grain to 2 to 5 pounds (0.9 to 2.3 kilograms) of dry • Add niacin (3 grams rumen
ketone tests may be in
matter. protected and 3 grams of
the form of a powder or a
unprotected per day).
• Increase crude protein to 15 to 16 percent using sources of test strip.

40
 Movie 4.1 Manure scoring

Phase 3 The fresh cow ration

Drenching fresh cows
should be
Phase 3 is the fresh cow phase from calving until two to three
intermediate between Drenching fresh cows
weeks after calving. The key management factor is the ability to
the close-up ration
monitor and observe these cows to ensure they are healthy when
and the high Two types of drench approaches
they are moved to the high production group or are challenged
production group’s are available:
with more nutrient -rich diets. Individual cow management occurs
diet. Wisconsin
in this phase, requiring lockups or stalls. The following 1. Small volume treatments with a
workers suggest a
evaluations should be made each day to assess the cow’s status: caulking gun-type unit
ration shift should not
administering 50 grams to 500
• Measure daily milk yield, if possible change by more than
milliliters (calcium chloride gel
10 percent (for
• Monitor
or p r o p y l e n e g l y c o l a r e
feed intake - watch how aggressively the cow example, changing
examples)
consumes or “attacks” fresh feed. Record the amount or from 0.70 Meal of net
develop a scoring system (1 = little to 5 = all consumed). energy per pound of 2. Large volumes with a power
dry matter of lactation drench unit administering 5 to
• Take daily body temperatures until temperatures drop under
(1.54 Mcal/kg) by 10 15 gallons (19 to 57 liters) of
102.5°F (39.2°C).
percent would be water containing nutrients and
• Listen for rumen movements with a stethoscope (cows should 0.07 unit shift per fluids.
have one to two rumen movements per minute). pounds of dry matter
in the next ration or a
• Observe uterine discharges for abnormal odors or
0.77 megacalorie NEI). Maintain a “healthy” level of fiber and
characteristics . avoid high starch levels leading to off- feed risks. Appendix Table
• Conduct a ketone test on the cow’s urine or milk to assess 2 and Table 3 provide nutrient guidelines for Phase Three. The
energy status. suggested strategies for fresh cows are listed below:

• Monitor manure scores

42
 • Feed 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms) of long hay or 2 pounds (0.9 •1 pound (454 grams) of calcium propionate or 300 milliliters of
kilogram) or processed straw to maintain rumen fill and propylene glycol
function.
• 0.25 pound (113 grams) of yeast culture or yeast
• Consider a fresh cow topdress mixture containing RUP and
• 0.25 pound (113 grams) of potassium chloride
digestible fiber (such as soy hulls or citrus pulp) as an energy
source. • 0.25 pound (113 grams) of magnesium sulfate

• Increase the ration nutrient concentration to allow for the • 0.10 pound (45.4 grams) of salt
lower feed intake.
Dairy managers may add rumen fluid (if the cow is off - feed),
• Limit added fat. probiotics, and/or alfalfa leaf meal. A second drench in a smaller
volume of liquid is recommended if cows have not responded to
• Supplement yeast culture to stimulate fiber digesting bacteria.
the initial drench or treatment. Other managers will offer two 5-
• Adding a buffer pack can stabilize rumen pH. gallon pails of warm water immediately after calving to rehydrate
the cow.
• Provide 6 grams of niacin (3 grams rumen protected and 3
grams unprotected) to minimize ketosis.
Phase 4
• Drench propylene glycol (1/2 pound [227 grams]) or feed
Early -lactation rations are provided to cows from 14 to 100 days
calcium propionate (1/3 pound [151 grams]) to raise blood after calving. During this time, cows are achieving peak milk
glucose. production, weight loss is occurring (providing an additional
Commercial products can be purchased varying in price from $2 source of energy), and dry matter intake is lagging. Protein type

to $8 per treatment. An example drench mixture is illustrated and level are critical to reach peak milk production. Limit the

below that can be drenched immediately after calving in a volume amount of supplemental fat to avoid lower total ration dry matter

of 5 to 15 gallons (19 to 57 liters) of warm water. intake. Appendix Table 2 and Table 3 provide nutrient guidelines
for Phase 4. Feeding strategies for early -lactation cows are:

43

• Feed high-quality forage to improve dry matter intake. Phase 6

• Provide sources of RUP with balanced amounts of lysine and Some herds will not reach Phase Six, or tail-end lactating cows.
methionine. These cows are pregnant, gaining weight, and milk production is
declining. This phase may begin at 200 to 250 days after calving
• Increase grain energy gradually (maximum of one pound [0.45
and ends when the cow dries off. Cow should be gaining body
kilograms] per day).
weight (1 pound [0.45 kilogram] per day) and young cows should
• Allow for adequate feed bunk space. be growing if they have not yet reached their mature size .
Appendix Table 2 and Table 3 provide guidelines for Phase Six.
• Avoid overcrowding
Feeding strategies for tail- end lactating cows are:

Phase 5 • Increase the proportion of forages and by -product feeds in the

ration.
Cows will have achieved peak milk production by Phase 5. Peak
dry matter intake has also occurred along with weight gain. If milk • Supplemental sources of rumen undegraded protein can be
production and/or components are declining too quickly, nutrient reduced.
needs are not being met. The time period can range from 70 days
• Remove supplemental fat sources.
after calving to 200 days or until the cow dries off. If BST is used,
it will be initiated in this period (stimulating milk production and • Eliminate feed additives.
increasing nutrient needs and dry matter intake). The key to
success in this phase is optimizing dry matter intake. Appendix • Replace lost body condition.

Table 2 and Table 3 provide nutrient guidelines for Phase 5. • Target body condition scores of 3.0 to 3.25 at dry-off time.
Feeding strategies for midlactation milk cows are:
• Reduce feed costs per cow per day.
• Optimize dry matter intake.
In summary, if the dairy manager understands the four factors
• Begin replacing lost body condition.
that impact nutrient needs (milk yield, milk components, dry
matter intake, and weight loss), several feeding phases can be
• Review the need for feed additives.
44
developed. All dairy
Figure 4.2 Suggested body condition score range at various stages of lactation
farms may not need six
phases, but they must 3.50
manage for these
changes and do it 0)
economically - milk o
o 3.25
yield must be weighed </>
against feed cost. Body c
condition guidelines at o
various phases are u 3.00
listed in Figure 4.2). c
o
Remember, Phase One
o
starts with dry cows, -a 2.75
not lactating cows. If a O
CD
dairy manager can
“control” transition
2.50 T T T T T T T T
feeding programs (dry
cow phase through - 100 - 50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
fresh cow phase) , few Dry Cows Calving Days In Milk
metabolic problems will
occur and milk
production can be optimal.

45

Body condition scoring page 1

Body condition scoring page 2

-
THE 5 POINT BODY CONDITION SCORING SYSTEM
Body ctndncr aoonnp -SCSI rotors to the rauiMo areas of subcutaneous body ttt a energy roaorvo m the dary cow BCS a
*
an mervQvrarr tact to nartrlOnQ IT inOdU* and reprodudMi tftorej atot
* the lokvu <f KaUbA and
* 3.25: neit« wd u
oa r pmaarlim <
*
Moot body conddion scoring systems use a 5 - point scoring method wdh qu
.
-
point inen
The system anxrffjtH es accuracy toward the mdrange scores (2 50 to 4 001 'MKT routes nwt ccws The mo range e the
,
B BCS a 3» Otawve Da uoa ami latwed
"
Hnnw.nniiajiaaiMgno .
meet crccal to netting management deceson Scorn ouado this range ndcaoe agnfcat prettoma (100 denotes a vary thm cow .
» *
pir
wtesiOOndcetosanocewMfy tocow Exact scomg < 0CS extremes e DK crocal BCS e no
Ybu should mortto charge n body ocndMon CNS ITS. * * an rdcsoon d energy balance
Begin by vmwg ir» cow’t palvc UN kom th wM
*
•.
OB IB BB Ijmsd Km tooka lo « Hu) UllsitBkMtxn
* * «
« • »< (U kBpod Dian
>vM IV alBped o UI
meal onto pan IB Barg process <Boea r « »« cow Brew tlxi 3 COoi 3-?S «CCTe
* < 3.00: FlullarBd V
8aaaanan .>See
4.00: Bkaight Ma
tana

P f"
55 '

^
3.76

pah
w3 m m
>
ak 3.25: Ftanenad U > 4.00: Siaignt me
'
.
3.00 2.75
Turn th pegs oar to mera ntomator

2.50
*
2.25
*

WM
Sacral end tediMd Sacral fegsrnare vaOM Sacral tgaman
*

**
bgamants both viaibto baraty visit
Talheed tgament *
ba
^y Tathaad koemar
not wstoa *

»m
> 4.00: Straight in#
.
IVekneenoar»ysfre?it theBCS > 400 Use the

% Mowng rajealnrs to dsternew i » cuartar coni vatu

*

Hooks rounded Hooks angular

More prommerr paddng
Pns and hooks angular
fat pad Skgwy oatoaCM
'<4 S
No fat pad on pns
Visible corrugations halfway
400 rwthuH
Sacral ami t »wed ligaments not watte
*
4 25 To of short Mbs Daraty veto#
4.50 Hal thurl
on pins on point of pns Burwdpms
and spme of dxrt nbs 4 75 Hooks barely vmUm

from up to apme
-
2 00 Corruptions wette evee tourlhs of the way < 200 Thurl prominent 5 00 A bony protrusiona wel nxndad
*
Saw toothed apn#

O 200SBet»i

46
Feeds are generally classified as Alfalfa with less Forages
forages, concentrates, or supplements. lignin
The vegetative part of the growing plant, forages are more fibrous
Alfalfa with less lignin
Let ’s look at these classifications. and bulky. These feeds are lower in energy and stimulate rumen
Two toc nokXMO an commtrc*«iy an»«£> •
'
to dairy farmers to prtxJuc alfalfa w« « s
*
lignin; oonvtnaona gonetc DrMdng oaaaa
*
digestion and fermentation. Forages can be harvested, stored,
1 . Forages (also called roughage): alfalfa and garat >ca ly - nod iwd alfalfa .
'

Dapanong on tha Typa and varaty. »gnn and fed in different forms.
contart 4 raojcad by 7 to 15 parcani Tfat
Feeds over 20 percent ADF (18 •flows for rughar ogaatitxa afaifa if cut at
satwiar timet compared to comantonai
percent crude fiber) and less than alfalfa H hannat it oelayed by five to t n
** Hay is forage that has been allowed to dry down to be stored as
dayt on lower lignin varwtat. tonnage
0.7 Meal NE-I per pound of dry improve while quality it maintained
* a dry feed. Conventional baled hay should be less than 22
loogng ara y#oa an aaruat to vaotxrm
matter (1.54 Meal NE-I per * «*» rren QutMy Or mo
alfalfa » - • on too ttrottgy percent moisture to avoid molding and heating. Large round bales
u»Od florgosr
* *
kilogram) The seed co
* by wwght wt bo htfw need to be less than 20 percent moisture. Their smaller surface
area and greater forage weight per bale mean they are more
2. Grains: Feeds under 20 percent
prone to heat and mold during the curing process. If hay is too
ADF and over 0.7 Meal NE-I per pound (1.54 Meal per
wet, adding propionic acid or salts of propionic acids can
kilogram) of dry matter
minimize molding. Table 5.1 lists losses associated with forage
3. Protein supplements: Feeds over 25 percent crude protein harvest and feeding.

4. Mineral supplements: Feeds over 75 percent ash or Hay silage is forage that is wilted, or dried down, to a higher

mineral moisture level than dry hay and allowed to ferment in storage.
Fermentation produces organic acids (primarily lactic acid), which
5. Fat supplements: Feeds over 20 percent fat/oil drops the pH below 4.5 and “pickles” or preserves the forage.
The level of dry matter in silage depends on the type of silage and
Using these guidelines, some feeds can fit in several groups. By-
storage method:
product feeds are feedstuffs from which some nutrients are
removed (such as sugar, starch or oil) for human use and which • Conventional upright silos, oxygen limiting: 50 to 60 percent
have nutrients remaining for dairy cattle. Additives include dry matter (DM)
feedstuffs added to a ration for a non-nutritive reason, such as
rumen buffer, ketosis control, or rumen digestion improvement.
• Conventional upright silo, concrete: 40 to 50 percent DM

48
 • Bags, bunkers, and piles: 35 to 45 percent DM paddock is pastured for 12 hours to two days, with milking
cows consuming the new forage and dry cows and/or heifers
Com silage is typically ensiled at 30 to 38 percent DM while
following to finish harvesting the paddock. In spring, several
legume grass forages are drier (35 to 50 percent dry matter).
paddocks are harvested to develop a staggered growth
Typical losses are listed in Table 5.1.

Green chop is directly harvested as standing forage and fed Table 5.1 Dry Matter Losses in Forage Harvest and Storage
fresh to animals. No wilting occurs, which avoids harvest and
Dry Matter Losses
weather damage losses. However, forage quality is changing Method
Harvest Storage Total
daily, and weather can limit when harvesting can occur. Direct -cut
Hay
forages can contain over 80 percent moisture.
Rained on 33 4 37
Conventional
Pasture allows animals to harvest forage directly, eliminating Bale, Average 25 4 29
harvesting time, expenses, and manure handling. Trampling can Field Cured
No Rain 17 4 21
be a problem, resulting in losses of 30 to 60 percent of the Field Cured 25 14 39
Large
available dry matter. Forage quality changes daily and must be Packages Acid Treatment 15 11 26
managed as well. Several pasture systems can be used: Conventional
Heat Dried 13 2 15
Bale
• Rotational grazing: Two to four paddocks are rotated every
Hay-crop Silage
week to 10 days. Forage quality, plant selection, and
70 or more 2 21 23
trampling are difficult to control while labor is minimal.
Moisture % 60-69 5 10 15
* Strip grazing: An electric wire is moved every day or 12 Under 60 12 8 20

hours, allowing the desired amount of pasture to be Corn Silage

consumed. Feed control is excellent, but this method requires 70 or more 4 13 7
more labor and management. Moisture % 60-70 5 6 11
Under 60 16 6 23
• Intensified grazing: Numerous paddocks (10 to 30) are
rotated to maintain pasture quality and avoid trampling. A Source: Pennsylvania Extension Special Circular 223

49

pattern and provide stored winter feed. Pastures are initially matter yield (6 to 10 tons per acre [0.4 hectare]). Crude protein,
grazed at 8 to 10 inches (20.3 to 25.4 centimeters) of length calcium, and other minerals are low compared to legumes.
down to 4 inches (10.2 centimeters). The remaining 4 inches Brown midrib (BMR) corn silage is lower in lignin content (reduced
(10.2 centimeters) of pasture allows plants to regrow while 30 to 50 percent), higher in digestible NFD, leading to higher milk
maintaining forage quality. The following forages can be fed to .
yield Yield of corn silage per acre may be reduced 10 percent.
dairy cattle. Their nutrient compositions are listed in Appendix
Sorghum can be used for silage in areas where dry weather can
Table 5.
limit corn silage yield. Sorghum silage is lower in quality and dry
Legumes such as alfalfa, clover, soybeans, and birdsfoot trefoil matter intake potential compared to corn silage. BMR sorghum
are excellent sources of crude protein, calcium, and minerals. (lower in lignin) is also available and recommended for lactating
Because of a tap root system, legumes can tolerate dry dairy cows for improving fiber digestibility and increasing milk
conditions. Winterkill can be a problem if freezing and thawing yield .
occurs in northern regions.
Small grain forages (such as oats, barley, wheat, rye, and
Grasses, such as rye, fescue, timothy, brome, orchard, and triticale) are annual crops that can provide an early source of
warm-season grasses such as bermuda, are low in calcium, forage. Winter small grain forages allow double cropping, a
protein, energy, and lignin. The root system is shallow and may source of pasture, and soil cover during the winter. Spring small
become dormant during hot, dry grain forages can be used as a cover or nurse crop to establish
weather. Winterkill is less of a Kernel and shredlage legume-grass forage.
processing
problem than with legumes, and
For dairy cows, small grain forage should be harvested in the
grasses can survive grazing
boot stage for higher protein and energy content. If harvested in
conditions more effectively
the milk to dough stage, dry matter yield can double, but protein
compared to legumes.
and energy levels drop dramatically. Peas and bean seed can be
Com silage contains 40 to 55 planted with small grains to increase protein content and quality.
percent grain on a dry matter Small grain forages are difficult to make into hay because of high-
basis. The forage is high in moisture content when harvested in the boot stage. Small grain

energy, palatability, and dry

50
forages can be planted in fall after corn silage removal to get a The following grains can be fed to dairy cattle depending on soil
late fall crop as silage if moisture and temperatures are favorable. type, climate and growing conditions. Feed values are listed in
Appendix Table 6 .
Straw (oats, barley, wheat, and corn stover) is low in protein and
energy content. Mineral levels are also low, requiring higher Barley is a good source of energy and protein. It can make up to
mineral supplementation. The amount of straw should be limited 100 percent of the grain mixture, but it must not be ground too
because of its low quality and slow rate of passage. Straw can finely. Barley starch is rapidly degraded in the rumen due to its
provide functional fiber, however, and cows may crave it in the starch structure. Adding 25 to 50 percent to the grain mixture is
case of rumen acidosis. recommended if it is economical.
Grain processing
Ear corn, or corn and cob meal consists of the cob (20 percent)
Grains Grain processing

and grain portions (80 percent). It is relatively high in energy,

The seed portion of a plant is palatability, and contains fiber, helping to reduce acidosis. The
fry
*** '
considered grain. Grains cob should be processed to pea size to avoid sorting by the cow.
contribute energy to the ration A common ratio is 50 percent ear corn and 50 percent shelled
.
along with variable amounts of %«
*
MI i

corn in the Midwest. Adjusting combines to save half of the cob

oil, protein, and minerals. Grain " N IXMl
Willi 0
allows more rapid harvest compared to corn pickers.
should be processed to break
the seed coat. If grain particle Shelled corn is the most common
Snaplage
size is too coarse, digestion is grain in the North American continent
reduced and undigested grain because of its high yield, and energy
appears in the manure. If feed is processed too finely, rumen content, as well as its use as an - *ccoar% cm Dm
* K e

BUM O
*
jmmO

acidosis and laminitis can occur. The optimal particle size of grain economical source of energy. It must
Th# rv*
will depend on whether a total mixed ration is fed, forage particle be processed to avoid whole seed
cffnowii

size, and the level of grain fed. passage through the digestive tract.
Corn (shelled or ear) harvested as
carter . ;

tfMa M .
high-moisture corn (25 to 35 percent 2 » S| ol +t

moisture) has several advantages:

51

Movie 5.1 Grain particle screening

Grain Particle Screening

X ILLINOIS

52
 • Two to three weeks earlier harvest fermented. Wheat must be processed prior to feeding to avoid

• Less field loss whole seed passage.

• Fits automated feeding systems Rye is another small grain crop that is similar to oats. It is less
• No drying costs palatable and should be limited to 25 percent of the grain mixture.

• Increased palatability
By-product feeds
• Higher energy content on a dry matter basis
By -product or co-product feeds are produced when a portion of
If wet corn is stored in conventional silos, bags or bunkers, the the feed is removed for human consumption or use (such as
corn should be processed as its put into storage to improve
.
ethanol production) By -product feeds may be higher in protein,
.
fermentation and lower air entrapment Propionic acid can be fat, and/or mineral compared to the original grain. Nutrient
used to “pickle” wet corn to prevent molding and maintain quality . composition of by -product feeds is listed in Appendix Table 6.
Oats are 15 percent lower in energy compared to shelled corn.
Almond hulls are the outer covering on the almond shell with the
Their popularity has declined due to lower yield (compared to
almond seed inside. The hulls contain 4.2 percent crude protein
corn or barley) and higher cost per pound. Oats add bulk and
and 32 percent NDF with 0.70 Meal of NE-I per pound of dry
fiber to the grain mix. Limit the amount to 25 to 33 percent of the
.
matter (1.52 Meal NE-I per kilogram) Almond hulls are not
grain mix.
palatable and should be limited to 5 to 6 pounds (2.3 to 2.7

Sorghum grain or milo can be used to replace corn. The energy kilograms) per head per day.

content is 90 percent of corn and the grain must be processed . Beet pulp is produced when sugar is removed from sugar beets .
The small round seed will pass through the cow ’s digestive tract if
Beet pulp can be fed as wet or dry forms, and with or without
the seed coat is not broken.
added beet molasses. The dry form can be fed in pellet or
Wheat is not commonly used in dairy rations because the cost is shredded forms. Beet pulp is high in pectin, which is rapidly

higher than corn, barley or oats. If used, limit the amount to less fermented in the rumen. Limit the amount to 33 percent of the

than 50 percent in the grain mixture as wheat is rapidly grain mixture.

53

Cottonseed is usually fed whole with fuzz or linters attached. The Screenings are produced when seeds are screened to remove
fuzzy seed contributes to the fiber mat in the rumen and is high in broken kernels, fines, and weed seeds. These products can be
oil, protein, and fiber. Delinted cottonseed (no linters) is fed economical but variable in nutrient content. Mycotoxins can be
because of improved handling and flow characteristics. Limit the concentrated in this fraction if seed damage has occurred. Whole
amount to 5 to 7 pounds (2.3 to 3.2 kilograms) per cow. Acid weed seeds may pass through the animal’s digestive tract,
delinted seeds should not be fed. causing weeds to emerge in clean fields.

Corn gluten feed is popular in the Midwest, a by -product of corn Soybean hulls or soybean flakes are an excellent source of
starch and corn syrup used for human food and fuel. The feed is digestible fiber and energy. Limit the amount to 33 percent of the
produced from wet milling of corn. It is low in oil, high in grain mixture.
digestible fiber, and moderate in protein. It can make up 50
Wheat mill run feed can contain wheat bran, midds, germ, and/
percent of the grain mixture.
or shorts, which are bulky and moderately high in digestible fiber.
Hominy feed comes from the manufacture of pearl hominy, Limit the amount to 20 percent of the grain mixture .
hominy grits, or table meal from corn. Similar in appearance to
Whey (dried or liquid) can be fed to dairy cattle. Dried whey can
ground corn, it has slightly more energy and protein, and similar
be added to the grain mix up to 10 percent if economical. Adding
feeding characteristics.
20 to 50 pounds (9.1 to 22.7 kilograms) of dry whey to a ton of
Hominy should be analyzed for its fat content, which can vary wet silage can stimulate bacterial growth and acid production.
considerably due to the type of manufacturing process. As fat Liquid whey can contain 94 percent moisture, depending on the
content drops, so does TDN. Hominy is palatable and can be process and concentrating method. Fresh whey should be
included in the grain mixture at high levels. discarded after 24 hours because it will become acidic and affect
teeth. Offer both whey and water at all times. Introduce liquid
Molasses (cane and beet) supplies energy while improving
whey gradually to dairy cattle to avoid overconsumption, bloat,
palatability. The wet form is more effective in reducing dustiness
and rumen acidosis. Flies are also attracted to liquid whey.
and minimizing grain fines. Limit the amount to 5 to 7 percent of
Another whey by -product available in some areas is condensed
the grain mixture. Higher levels of liquid molasses can affect feed
whey solubles, which contains 25 to 35 percent dry matter (limit
flow (sticky) and lower rumen digestion of fiber and pH.

54
the amount to 3 pounds (1.4 kilograms) of dry matter per cow per Corn gluten meal, like corn gluten feed, is produced from milling
day. corn for starch and corn syrup. It can contain 40 or 60 percent
protein, is high in RUP, and a source of methionine. The golden
Protein supplements feed should be limited to half of the protein mixture or 4 pounds
(1.8 kilograms) per day.
Bloodmeal is dried blood from slaughtered animals. Spray-dried
bloodmeal is superior to ring-dried because less heat damage Cottonseed meal is fed in southern areas of the U.S. and is
occurs. It is high in RUP and lysine. Limit the amount to 1/2 to 1 produced when oil is extracted from cottonseed. The cottonseed
pound (0.2 to 0.45 kilogram) per day to avoid reducing dry matter contains gossypol, which is concentrated when the oil is
intake. removed. Gossypol is toxic, with effects that include
gastroenteritis and embryo death in cows, and weight loss and
Brewers grains are produced from brewing beer. Wet brewers
weakness in calves. In high enough concentrations, it can cause
grain can vary from 70 to 80 percent moisture and should be
death. Limit the amount of total cottonseed products to 8 to 10
evaluated on a dry matter basis. If the wet form is fed in summer,
pounds (3.6 to 4.5 kilograms) per cow per day (cottonseed meal
it should be bagged or fed in four to seven days to avoid molding,
and whole fuzzy cottonseed).
deterioration, and lower feed intake. Dry brewers grains are a
good source of RUP but dusty to handle. Brewers grains can be Distillers grains (DG) can be Distillers grains fraction
incorporated up to 25 percent of the total ration dry matter. Avoid fed as dry or wet forms with or
Distillers grains fraction
rations containing more than 55 to 60 percent moisture. without solubles added back.
Solubles increase palatability As ethanol plant managers improve
Canola meal is more widely used in the northern regions of the biofuel yields and recover value-
and nutrient value. Corn, added products (such as corn oil),
U.S. and Canada. It is produced from the crushing of canola
barley, and milo DG are fed in new corn by-product feeds may be
seeds for oil. New varieties of canola seed are low in anti- .
available A potential list and nutrient

nutritional factors (old varieties were called rapeseed meal).

.
the U S. and Canada. It is a profiles are outlined below. Request
good source of RUP, but low in nutrient test results before
Canola meal can be the only protein source, but some purchasing and feeding any of these.
lysine. If the color is dark
nutritionists recommend half canola and half soybean meal. You need to determine nutrient levels
brown to black, it may be heat to avoid milk losses due to nutrient
changes.
damaged, lowering

55

digestibility. Oil levels can vary, depending on type and Meat and bone meal or meat meal must be produced from
processing of DG. swine or poultry sources for dairy cattle.

Feather meal is hydrolyzed poultry feathers. It is high in protein It is illegal to feed ruminant sources of meat and bone
and RUP, but does not have a balanced amino acid profile. Half meal or meat meal to dairy cattle.
blood meal and half feather meal overcome amino acid
limitations. Feather meal is unpalatable, should be gradually Swine meat and bone meal is an economical source of protein,

introduced in the ration, and should be limited to 1 /2 to 1 pound RUP, fat and phosphorus. Limit the amount to 1 to 2 pounds (0.45
(0.2 to 0.45 kilogram) per day. to 0.9 kilogram) per day or half of the protein mix.

Fishmeal is an excellent source of protein, especially methionine, Soybeans are an excellent protein source with a balanced amino

with high RUP value. Limit the amount of fish- meal to 1 pound acid profile. Raw soybeans should be limited to 2 to 3 pounds
(0.45 kilogram) per cow per day. Fish oil is unsaturated and the (0.9 to 1.4 kilograms) per day due to anti-protein factors in raw
level varies related to type of fish processed. Fish oil should be soybeans such as trypsin inhibitor.
limited to 50 to 60 grams (1/10 pound) to avoid negative rumen
Heating soybeans (roasting or extruding) destroys these
effects. Introduce gradually in the ration, as fishmeal has a strong
negative protein factors and can increase RUP levels from 20 to
and disagreeable odor.
60 percent RUP. The roasted
soybean must reach an internal Proper heating of
Linseed meal is produced from flax when the oil is removed. It is soybeans
palatable and can replace other protein sources if economical. temperature of 290°F (143°C) and
Proper heating of soybeans
be steeped for 45 minutes to get
Optimal heating of soybeans is critical if dary
Malt sprouts consist of dried sprouts and rootlets produced proper heating. Time and .
PUP Commercial
managers want high levels of
labs can teat heated soybeans usrtg a test
when barley is sprouted in making beer. It is similar to brewers temperature relation- ships are developed at the University of Wisconsin

Protein mdex (PDi| measixes the

d spa'st> iity
grains in protein, RUP, and energy content. Malt sprouts are bitter important. Overheating can destroy .
sofubAty of the heated soy protom A POI value
.
of 9 to 11 « optmal values over 14 mdcate
and should be limited to 3 to 5 pounds (1.4 to 2.3 kilograms) or protein quality and amino acids. ^complete heatmg. A urease enzyme actrwty
test is also conducted and the mm m pH shou'd
25 percent of the protein mixture. Roasted soybeans should be be less than 0.02 units (more rrportant for

• .
wine, poiitry and call rations).

cracked before feeding into 1/4 to Excessrve neat also must be avoided because it
can lower cftgestibifty m the small intestine.

1/8 pieces and limit to 4 to 5

56
pounds (1.8 to 2.3 kilograms) per cow per day. Extruded to the diet. Adding a source of CLA impact on milkfat
soybeans should be limited to 2 to 3 pounds (0.9 to 1.4 fermentable energy will allow bacteria test
kilograms) due to rupturing the oil out of the seed coat negatively to incorporate urea into microbial Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) impact on

impacting rumen fermentation as polyunsaturated fatty acids protein.

(PUFAs).
Feed additives COM +0 30 ID 50 grwro
* OA I
Soybean meal is the primary and economical protein source in t r
*g» nJ parxmt tom
* **
peuwarjtegnw Two . yMd « •
Tm *norf of

the world. The amino acid profile is excellent. Several types of Feeds additives are feed ingredients
soybean meal can be purchased including dehulled soybean meal added to a ration in a non-nutritive 500 «
/CM VM fifty

(48 percent protein), hull-containing soybean meal (44 percent role that result in a desired animal •'
T
-
PM OT» cveon OC 4W bone Wty

corpora

protein), heat and chemically treated soybean meal (44 percent) response. *

and expeller soybean meal (44 percent protein with 5 percent oil).
Additives are used for the following
Sunflower meal ranges in protein from 28 to 34 percent, responses.
depending on if the seed is dehulled and the processing method . • Increase milk yield (peak milk or persistency)
Check fiber levels before purchasing. Payability can be a
• Improve milkfat or protein content
limitation. Sunflower meal can make up half of the protein mix.
• Encourage dry matter intake
Urea is synthetic feed containing 46 percent nitrogen. Because it
• Maintain desired rumen pH
is nonprotein nitrogen (NPN), it must be converted to microbial
protein by rumen microbes. It has a crude protein equivalent of • Stimulate rumen microbial synthesis of protein and/or VFA
287 percent (46 percent nitrogen times 6.25). Add urea when the • Change the rate of feed passage
SP levels are low (such as high corn silage, all hay, or low -quality
• Improve nutrient digestion in the rumen
legume-grass forage-based rations).
• Stabilize the rumen environment
Limit urea to 0.2 to 0.4 pound (91 to 181 grams) per cow or 10
• Aid growth
pounds (4.5 kilograms) of urea per ton (0.9 metric ton) of wet corn
silage. Urea is not palatable and should be gradually introduced • Minimize weight loss

57

• Reduce heat stress Feed additive costs are based on Illinois prices in 2017. Benefit -
• Boost health (such as less ketosis or acidosis) to-cost ratio is the value of the additional daily milk or growth
compared to the daily additive cost. Feed strategies are situations
Profitability is a key factor when deciding if and when an additive
when the additive may provide a profitable response .
should be considered. As a guideline, a return of $2 or more for
each $1 invested in an additive is recommended. Milk price, Status is classified in the following ways:
percent of cows responding, stage of lactation or gestation, and
Recommended: Included as needed
nonproductive responses should be considered. The following
section lists dairy feed additives. Each additive is outlined with its Experimental: Additional research is needed but looks
function, level of use, cost, benefit -to -cost ratio, feeding strategy, favorable
and recommendations.
Evaluative: Caution, research results vary
How and when feed additives may or may Not recommended: Lacks economic responses
not pay
As milk production in our herds climbs higher and higher, interest Anhydrous ammonia
in feed additives will continue to grow. Herd owners and
managers and their consultants will have to sort through new Function: Source of nonprotein nitrogen (nutrient role), extends
research results, company promotion, and expected returns to corn silage fermentation increasing lactic acid levels, reduces mold
growth, improves corn silage stability on the face of the bunker silos
evaluate additives for their situation. and in TMRs, and improves fiber digestibility in low -quality forage
Additives are a group of ingredients that can cause a desired Level: 10 pounds (3.6 kilograms) per ton of corn silage (as-fed
response such as shift rumen acidity, enhance growth, or modify basis), 1 percent to baled hay (mold inhibition), or 2 to 3 percent as
metabolism. Most are not nutrients, although some also contain gas under plastic (straw & low -quality grass hay to improve fiber
nutrients such as the sodium in sodium bicarbonate. digestion)

Cost: Varies by location and source

Function describes how the additive may impact your cattle .
Level is the recommended amount that should be fed to obtain. Benefit to Cost Ratio: Favorable

58
Strategy: Apply to corn silage prior to ensiling (avoid wet silage due
to seepage losses and dry silage due to nitrogen losses and poor
Aspergillus oryzae
fermentation) in bunker silos if soluble protein is needed. DO NOT
Function: Stimulate fiber-digesting bacteria, stabilize rumen pH,
apply to alfalfa- grass silage. Use as a mold inhibitor in wet hay if
and reduce heat stress
practical and safe. Consider treating low -quality straw and hay if
safe and feasible. It is very DANGEROUS to handle and empty. Level: 3 grams per day
Status: Recommended if needed to improve silage stability, boost Cost: 3 cents per cow per day
nitrogen intake, or treat high-fiber forage
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 6:1

Anionic salts/products Strategy: Use with high-grain diets, acidic rumen conditions, and
under heat stress (cows) and calves receiving a liquid diet
Function: Cause the blood to be more acidic, raising blood calcium
levels by stimulating bone mobilization of calcium and calcium
Status: Evaluative
absorption from the small intestine
Beta- carotene
Level: Reduce DCAD to between -5 and -10 meq per 100 grams dry
matter using chloride sources (calcium chloride, ammonium Function: Improves reproductive performance, immune response,
chloride), BIOCHLOR , SoyChlor , and Animate and mastitis control
Cost: 60 to 80 cents per dry cow per day, depending on product Level: 200 to 300 milligrams per day
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 10:1 Cost: 30 cents per cow per day
Strategy: Feed to dry cows two to three weeks before calving . Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available
Adjust dietary calcium levels to 150 g per day (50 g inorganic). Raise
dietary magnesium level to 0.4% Strategy: In early lactation and during mastitis-prone time periods

Status: Recommended to prevent low -blood calcium or milk fever Status: Not recommended
problems

59

Biotin Choline (protected)

Function: Improves hooves by reducing heel warts, claw lesions, Function: A methyl donor used to minimize fatty liver formation and
white line separations, sand cracks, sole ulcers, and increase milk to improve fat mobilization, and increase milk production
production
Level: 15 grams per day
Level: 15 to 20 milligrams per cow per day for six months to one
Cost: 30 cents per day
year
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 3:1
Cost: 6 to 8 cents per cow per day
Strategy: Feed dry cows two weeks before calving and to cows
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 4:1
experiencing ketosis and weight loss
Strategy: Herd with chronic foot problems may require
Status: Rumen protected choline is recommended
supplementation for six months before evaluation Company .
recommends beginning supplementation at 15 months of age
Chromium (organic)
Status: Recommended
Function: Improve dry matter intake, favorable energy balance
Calcium propionate through insulin, improve fertility, and lower heat stress

Level: 0.5 parts per million (dictated by the FDA)

Function: Increase blood glucose and calcium levels
Cost: 4 to 6 cents per cow per day
Level: 120 to 225 grams
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 6:1
Cost: $1.25 per pound
Strategy: Transition cows and early lactation (first 120 days)
Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available
Status: Recommended
Strategy: Feed seven days prepartum to seven days postpartum or
until appetite

Status: Recommended for transition cow problems

60
 Decoquinate (Deccox brand name) Essential Oil compounds
(cinnamon oil, clove oil, garlic oil, etc.)
Function: Prevent coccidiosis in calves and heifers
Function: Improve rumen fermentation by reducing protein de-
Level: 22.7 milligrams per 100 pounds (45.4 kilograms) of body
animation, increase propionate production, increase feed efficiency,
weight
and/or improve hydrogen status
Cost: 2 cents per head per day.
Level: 0.5 to 1.5 grams per cow per day (higher levels may have a
Benefit to Cost Ratio: Favorable negative impact)

Strategy: Add to milk or milk replacer and/or calf starter Cost: Varies from 5 to 8 cents per cow per day

Status: Recommended to prevent coccidiosis Benefit to Cost Ratio: 7:1

Strategy: Improve rumen propionate production (important course

Enzymes (fibrolytic)
of blood glucose for transition cows), and improve feed efficiency
(all stages of lactation). Function may be similar to an ionophore;
Function: Improve fiber digestibility (cellulase and xylanase
being used in countries where ionophores/antibiotics not fed or
enzymes) and dry matter intake
organic dairy farms
Level: Enzymatic units per unit of feed dry matter are not clearly
Status: Experimental
defined

Cost: 15 to 25 cents per cow per day Immune stimulation

Benefit to Cost Ratio: 3:1
(OmniGen AF — brand name)

Strategy: Apply to forage or TMR before feeding to improve fiber Function: Impact immune function as measured by changes in
digestibility, spray-on product more effective when applied to dry neutrophil activity including migration via L-selectin, phagocytosis,
diets, in silage inoculants, and may be diet specific oxidative burst reactions leading to lower SCC and high milk yield
related to immunity improvement. Reduce HBS or bloody gut
Status: Experimental
losses.
Level: 56 grams per day

61

Cost: 13 cents per day Cost: 21 cents per pound (0.45 kilogram)

Benefit to Cost Ratio: Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available

Strategy: 7:1 early lactation; 3:1 for entire lactation Strategy: With sodium-based buffers (ration of 2 to 3 parts bicarb
to 1 part magnesium oxide)
Time period: Dry off to 60 days postpartum
Status: Recommended to stabilize rumen pH (with bicarb)
Status: Experimental

Methionine (Rumen protected)

Lasolocid (Bovatec brand name)
Function: Minimize fatty liver formation, improve immune function,
Function: An ionophore for calves and heifers which shifts rumen
increase insulin sensitivity, and improve milk yield plus a source of
volatile fatty acid patterns, lowers methane production, improves
amino acids
feed efficiency, and controls coccidiosis in calves
Level: 5 to15 grams
Level: 60 to 200 milligrams per head per day (based on body
weight) Cost: 2 cents per gram

Cost: 1 to 2 cents per head per day Benefit to Cost Ratio: Favorable

Benefit to Cost Ratio: 8:1 Strategy: Feed to close up and early lactation cows

Strategy: Feed to calves (to prevent coccidiosis) and all growing Status: Experimental
heifers (to improve growth and feed efficiency). Not allowed for
lactating cows Monensin (Rumensin brand name)
Status: Recommended to improve growth and coccidiosis control
Function: An ionophore for calves, heifer, dry and lactating cows, it
shifts rumen volatile fatty acid patterns, lowers methane production,
Magnesium oxide
improves feed efficiency, and controls coccidiosis in calves

Function: Alkalinizer (raises rumen pH) and increases uptake of Level: 50 to 200 milligram per heifer per day (based on body weight)
blood metabolites by the mammary gland, raising fat test and 160 to 660 milligrams for lactating cows (depending on ration
composition and feeding system); 300 milligrams for dry cows
Level: 45 to 90 grams per day

62
Cost: Varies from 2 to 5 cents per head per day (depending on
amount added)
Probiotics (bacterial direct- fed microbes)

Benefit to Cost Ratio: 6 to 10:1 Function: Produce metabolic compounds that destroy undesirable
organisms, provide enzymes improving nutrient availability, or
Strategy: Control coccidiosis in calves, improve growth in heifers,
detoxify harmful metabolites
control ketosis and DA in transition cows, improve feed efficiency in
lactating cows; component -fed cows require lower level Level: Not clearly defined

Status: Recommended to improve growth and feed efficiency Cost: 10 to 15 cents per cow per day

Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available

Niacin (B3, nicotinic acid, and nicotinamide)
Strategy: To milk - fed calves, cows at calving, and during stress
Function: Is coenzyme in biological reactions, improves energy conditions
balance in early -lactation cows, controls ketosis, and stimulates
Status: Experimental for cows; recommended for liquid-fed calves
rumen protozoa

Level: 3 grams of rumen protected and 3 grams unprotected to dry Propionic acid (salts of propionic acid)
cows for close-up and early lactation cows with body condition
scores over 3.5 Function: Mold inhibitor and preservative for high- moisture corn,
wet hay, and hay silage
Cost: 15 cents per cow per day (depending on level and form)
Level: 0.5 to 1.5 percent (as-fed basis)
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 6:1 (6 g level)
Cost: $1.20 per pound (0.45 kilogram)
Strategy: High-producing cows in negative energy balance, heavy
dry cows, and ketotic -prone cows fed two weeks prepartum to peak Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available, but favorable
feed intake (also 10 to 12 weeks postpartum)
Strategy: Apply to wet forages and high-moisture corn to improve
Status: Evaluative for transition cow problems .
preservation and minimize mold formation and heating Can be
sprayed on bunker faces and mixed with TMRs to control secondary
fermentation and molds

Status: Recommended if needed to preserve high-moisture grain or

.
silage To stabilize feed bunks in summer
63

conditions (first and last cut legume/grass silage, weather damage,

Propylene glycol (also glycerol) frost, or drought)

Function: Source of blood glucose stimulating an insulin response, Status: Recommended to ensure favorable fermentation
reducing fat mobilization
Sodium bentonite
Level: 8 to 16 ounces (227 to 424 grams) per cow per day

Cost: $1.50 per pound (0.45 kilogram) Function: A clay mineral used as a binder, shifts VFA patterns,
slows rate of passage, and exchanges mineral ions (may tie up
Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available
mycotoxin)
Strategy: Drench cow starting at one week prepartum (preventative
Level: 450 to 700 grams per day (rumen effect), 100 grams for
role) or after calving when signs of ketosis are observed (treatment
mycotoxin effect.
.
role) Feeding does not lower NEFA levels
Cost: 14 cents per pound (0.45 kilogram)
Status: Recommended for transition cow problems with ketosis
Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available
Silage bacterial inoculant Strategy: With high-grain diets, loose manure, presence of mold,

Function: To stimulate silage fermentation, reduce dry matter loss,

. .
low fat test, and dirt eating A flow agent that can tie up mycotoxins

lower ensiling temperature, increase feed digestibility, improve Status: Experimental

forage surface stability, and raise VFA (lactate) production
Sodium bicarbonate/sodium sesquicarbonate
Level: 90 billion colony forming units (CFU) per ton of wet silage .
Recommended bacteria include Lactobacillus planetarium ,
(buffer)
Lactobacillus buchneri , Lactobacillus acidilacti, Pediococcus
cereviseai, Peiococcus pentacoccus, and/or Streptococcus faecium Function: Improves dry matter intake and stabilizes rumen pH

Cost: 60 cents to $3 per treated ton of silage Level: 0.75 percent of dry matter intake

Benefit to Cost Ratio: 6:1 Cost: 8 cents per cow per day (bicarbonate at 22 cents per pound
[0.45 kilogram]; sesquicarbonate at 20 cents per pound [0.45
Strategy: Apply to corn and hay silage (over 60 percent moisture), kilogram]
high-moisture corn, and silage harvested under unfavorable ensiling
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 4:1
64
Strategy: Feed 120 days postpartum with diets that are high in corn Strategy: To cows with high BUN and MUN levels
silage (over 50 percent of total DMI), wet rations (over 50 percent
Status: Not recommended
moisture), lower fiber rations (less than 19 percent ADF), little hay
(less than 5 pounds [2.3 kilograms]), finely chopped forage, pelleted
grain, slug feeding of grain, and heat stress conditions Zinc methionine (organic zinc)

Status: Recommended to stabilize rumen pH Function: Improves immune response, hardens hooves, and lowers
somatic cell counts
Yeast culture/yeast
Level: 300 milligrams of organic zinc
Function: Stimulates fiber- digesting bacteria, stabilized rumen Cost: 3 to 4 cents per cow per day
environment, and utilizes lactic acid
Benefit to Cost Ratio: 14:1
Level: 10 to 120 grams depending on yeast culture concentration
Strategy: To cows experiencing hoof disorders, lower somatic cell
Cost: 6 to 8 cents per cow per day count, and improve milk yield

Benefit to Cost Ratio: 4:1 Status: Recommended to prevent hoof and high cell count
problems
Strategy: Two weeks prepartum to 10 weeks postpartum and
during off -feed conditions and stress

Status: Recommended to ensure good rumen health

Yucca extract

Function: Decrease urea nitrogen in plasma and milk by binding

ammonia to the glycofraction extract of Yucca shidigera plant
improving nitrogen efficiency in ruminant animals

Level: 800 milligrams to 9 grams per day (depending on source)

Cost: 2 to 4 cents per cow per day

Benefit to Cost Ratio: Not available

65
An optimal feeding system must meet the following goals: Haylage minimizes field and Bunk covers
harvest losses because one to two
• Deliver the needed nutrients
fewer days are needed to dry the
• Provide these nutrients to each cow forage down. Dry matter levels
vary, depending on the type of
• Support the optimal amount of milk and milk components
storage unit:

• Provide needed nutrients at the correct time of the lactation

* Bunker silo, piles, baleage,
and gestation cycle
and bags: 60 to 70 percent
• Deliver the ration economically moisture

No one system is correct for all farms. Herd size, milk production, • Conventional upright silos: 50

existing facilities, milk price, forage alternatives, and available to 60 percent moisture
feeds will dictate which system is the best fit.
• Oxygen- limiting structures: 40 to 50 percent moisture

Forage systems Comparisons of storage costs

are listed in Table 6.1. Silage
Hay systems have been the traditional approach to feeding Table 6.1 Costs for storing
inoculants are recommended for 770 tons of silage dry
forages on most farms. But hay is declining in popularity because
silage, especially if the matter
of field losses and weather-related harvest difficulties. Typical dry
matter losses for dry forage systems are listed in Chapter 5 in
harvesting conditions are not
optimal (for example, rain
Typool
DM >M (N)
* (Hon DM
V«or ) -
Annual coal

Table 5.1. The use of acid preservatives can allow wetter hay to
damage, cool temperature, wet
be baled (22 to 28 percent moisture). Drying agents (salts) are Caai-Mwpuco
silage, and poor ensiling CM . 143 600

applied at cutting, which speed up drying time by dissolving waxy 105 600 10 36

techniques). Bunkof
stem coats and acting as a desiccant (removes water). Field use
76000 13 37

Packed pto 31.100 32

has been limited by the cost of the salts, need for large amounts Compaction in silage is critical «700 10 32

29«0
of water for application, and cost of specialized equipment. to exclude oxygen, speed silage
13 32

Source: University of Wisconsin

67

fermentation, and avoid secondary losses during feeding-out Varieties of grass and legumes Baleage
periods. In conventional silos, vertical pressure from additional must be selected to maintain the
silage achieves density guidelines. Feed companies and stand and to survive grazing 10 oroduc
round O' t»g sQjaro MM T> mm «or» 7su toraoe n
*
consultants can use a 2-inch drill to take samples at various pressure. Lactating cows are put *
ro6ed up co*it»nng «0 10 56 omxmrt ary man rapped fel
K to ognt «yvt d pMOc or 9tcmo n a pmoc Moevo arid
*•,

.
*
levels (top, middle, and bottom) to check for optimal densities. in paddocks when the forage is 8 aftowwd 10 lormer T>» 1
*
te>tago to M rmnmma and sxrmc mtr\ no tma chopper,

Guidelines suggest over 15 pounds of dry matter per cubic foot. to 10 inches (20 to 25 ~*
wagons, or co o o» tycr -
Bags tend to be lower at 12 to 14 pounds per cubic foot while
bunkers and piles can vary from 12 to 20 pounds per cubic foot.
centimeters) tall and allowed to
graze the forage down to 2 to 3
.
-
tartly IIMM arm too mm mm can coioct at Tm bottom of
me Mte and rcfttng car ooaa r boas arm too dry. molding

~
procatsed n TVfl uars tabs
- unng or dumg monng) or

Safety should be considered with bunks and piles that are high .
inches (5 to 7 centimeters) If the 1
can M mmtf y

leading to silage collapsing on the operator and people near the forage is too long, selective
face of the tall bunkers or piles. grazing and waste will occur. If
the forage is grazed too short , forage recovery is slow due to
Silage moisture, length of chop, pressure (number and weight of
reduced leaf surface area for photosynthesis.
tractors on bunkers or pile), and type of crop (com silage
compared to legume-grass silages) will impact compaction.
Grain systems
Green chop is direct cutting and feeding of legume or grass, with Individually fed grain systems usually require the cow to be
no storage involved. Advantages include no harvest loss or
housed in a stanchion or tie stall barn. Table 6.2 compares the
trampling of the forage. However, forage quality changes daily
relative advantages and disadvantages of each system. The main
and must be managed by strategic cutting to maintain a
benefit of these systems is the ability to feed each cow exactly
consistent supply of quality forage. Labor inputs are high, as
.
the amount and type of nutrients needed The major
forage must be harvested once or twice a day, especially if the
disadvantage is the high labor demand, as each cow is fed
direct -cut forage heats and deteriorates.
separately (two to four feedings per day with one to five different
Pasture systems allow the cow to directly harvest the forage supplements, such as an energy source, protein source, fat
based on its needs, appetite, and forage availability. Intensive
source, mineral and vitamins, and/or additive pack). Mechanized

grazing is the ideal approach. A daily allocation is provided by feeding carts or feed drops can reduce the drudgery and time

moving electric wires or changing paddocks (small pasture areas). required.

68
Table 6.2 Comparison of Various Feeding Systems 0.8 pound (181 to 363 grams) per minute, and the amount of time
in the parlor doesn’t allow many animals to eat the desired
Systems Advantages Disadvantages
amount as milking times vary. Finally, feeding over 5 pounds (2.3
kilograms) of grain dry matter per meal is slug feeding. This can
Low cost to use,
Labor intensive, slug
Individual/topdress individually feed each
feeding possible
have undesired effects on the rumen, as discussed in Chapter 1 .
cow based on need
Some parlor systems allow the milker to deliver a predetermined
Easy to mechanize, Slug feeding occurs, amount of grain based on the cow ’s milk yield and other needs.
encourages cows to limit on time to eat,
Grain in the parlor But this is more labor intensive and may divert attention away
enter the parlor, low more manure in parlor,
labor inputs cost of equipment from proper milking procedures .
Electronic grain feeders replaced magnetic feeders in the late
Custom feed each Expensive system,
Electronic grain cow, monitor grain daily adjustment of 1970s and provide more individual control over feeding grain to
feeder and robotic consumed, use of grain, feed must be cows. Each cow carries an identification tag and a predetermined
milking systems automated feed charts palatable, high level of
amount of grain is fed. Initially, only one grain supplement could
to adjusted management
be fed. But as technology has improved, two to four different
mixtures can be fed to individual cows including grain, protein
Expensive equipment,
More control of ration, supplement, micronutrient pack, and/or a fat source. Electronic
need to group and
Total mixed ration
higher milk yield, move cows during
higher milk feeders can be used in robotic milking systems, conventional
(TMR) lactation, feed costs
components, measure barns, carried on a rail around the barn, or in loose housing in a
are higher, overfeed
dry matter intake
tail-end cows feeding stall. Advantages of electronic feeders are:

•A daily record of when and how much grain was dispensed

Parlor grain feeding systems allow cows to consume grain in can be monitored and used for management decisions.
the milking parlor while the cow is being milked. One advantage
• The system can identify cows not consuming their grain, and
is that grain encourages the cows to enter the parlor, but there
are disadvantages as well. The same amount of grain is fed to pinpointing sick and off -feed cows. New technology also

each cow, regardless of individual need. Cows consume 0.4 to allows combining grain intake information with milk

69

production, milk conductivity, body temperature, rumination, can reduce grain costs by 10 to 20 percent (strategic grain
and pedometer data (amount of walking) to detect estrous feeding and grain savings) while increasing milk yields by 2 to 5
and health problems. pounds (0.9 to 2.3 kilograms) per cow per day.

• The amount and frequency of grain supplements can be Total mixed rations (TMR) or complete rations are gaining in
varied over a 24-hour time period (two to eight feedings per popularity as herd sizes increase and milk production climbs. In
day with a carry -over feature for grain not consumed the this feeding system, all forages and concentrates are blended
previous day, if desired). together, formulated to a specific nutrient concentration, and
offered free -choice. The advantages of TMR are:
• A warning signal alerts you when a blockage or malfunction
has occurred in the equipment. * Cows consume the predetermined ratio of forages and
concentrates, and are unable to pick out feeds based on
Cows should consume 90 percent or more of the programmed
payability.
amount of grain supplemented. If this target is not achieved,
review the number of cows, cow traffic, stall design, and feed • The risk of digestive upsets is reduced, as there is no slug
characteristics. Feeding stalls must be designed to avoid feeding of grain or over-consumption of one feed ingredient.
problems. A slope helps them remain dry to avoid slipping, but it
• Dry matter intake can be maximized because cows are not
should be gradual. Animals should have protection from boss
restricted on intake. They don’t have to consume their grain
cows.
before they leave the milk parlor.
Check grain dispensing rates monthly or when the grain mixture
• Feed digestibility improves as the rumen microbes receive the
changes in composition to ensure proper dispensing rates.
optimal balance of fermentable nutrients: rumen pH is
Pelleted feeds can be consumed at the rate of % to 1 pound (340
stabilized.
to 454 grams) per minute. Average to finely ground grain will drop
to V2 pound (227 grams) per minute. • Unpalatable feeds can be included, as silage dilutes
undesirable taste and dusty characteristics.
The initial cost to purchase an electronic grain feeder can vary
from $15,000 to $25,000 per farm, depending on herd size and
feeder use (all-grain or topdress strategy). Electronic grain feeders
70
 • TMRs are made with specialized mixers, which can reduce * High-producing group: 50 to 60 percent of the milk cows
drudgery and feeding time.
• First -lactation group: 30 to 40 percent of the milk cows
• Milk production can increase 3 to 5 pounds (1.4 to 2.3
• Late-lactation group: 10 to 20 percent of the milk cows
kilograms) per cow per day, and milk components can
increase 0.1 or more percentage point.
• Far-off dry cow group: 75 percent of the dry cows

* By knowing dry matter intake per cow, rations can be

* Close-up dry cow group: 25 percent of the dry cows
adjusted to deliver the desired amount of each feed
ingredient. Guide Two. Balance the group’s TMR with a lead factor: this is
based on the current group’s milk yield average. The following
One disadvantage of TMR is the expensive mixing and weighing
lead factors can be used based on the number of production
equipment (varies from $10,000 to $60,000), depending on TMR
groups:
mixer size and features. Smaller mixing carts can be used to mix
and deliver TMR in conventional barns. Cows must be grouped • TMR for one group: 30 percent above the group milk yield
according to production, and rations must be carefully monitored average.
and adjusted when dry matter intake, milk production, or feed
changes occur. • TMR for two groups: 20 percent above the group average.

Feeding long hay can be difficult as some mixers may not handle • TMR for three groups: 10 percent above the group average.
and mix it properly (especially if the hay is average quality and
For example (using a two- group TMR approach), if the high group
contains grass). Overmixing can also occur.
averaged 80 pounds. (36.3 kilograms), balance for 96 pounds
Consider the following guidelines for feeding TMR. (43.5 kilograms) of milk (80 pounds times 1.20). If the low group
averaged 50 pounds (22.7 kilograms) of milk, balance for 60
Guide One. Group the herd into a minimum of four milk pounds (27.2 kilograms) of milk (50 pounds times 1.20).
production groups plus two dry cow groups.
First -lactation cows could receive the high-group TMR, or
* Fresh cow group: 0 to 14 days after calving calculate using a lead factor of 30 percent. First -lactation cows

71

are put in a separate group because these cows will eat more dry week until cows have Minimizing sorting with TMR
matter and meals per day as if they do not compete with larger adjusted
and more aggressive older cows. Lead factors can be adjusted Minimizing sorting with TMR

• Move cows before peak COM

* C*nw ton TMR by Mtecttery COtounwp W pMUtM WO«

down if feed costs increase, milk prices decline, or if most cows •Muling
«nfcr
rabon v« n nol baurcad and odw cow towng to
* tead netted con to u ad to mnmn
*
dry matter has occurred * if* temaeng
* *
are increasing in days in milk (late-lactation cows). 1 Atti ft to 1 ft post
* 7 to 1 Mar* ofor water
( at tto tin erf r v«r g
* * *
(prior to 60 days after WvMuate ton1 teifMrm and eoteaa
* dacraaaa tto tevd ol addtd
Cows should not be moved to a lower production group until calving) -*
3 Rad ca to amou

3 MCIMM tto ojany

*.«rf toy m Mia TMR

body condition scores are over 3 and fat/protein corrected milk 4

'aad tto TMH mote todjanty aach out aah amator amount
*
Guide Three. Rations should
yield is below the lower group balanced milk yield. When cows S Add 3 to 3 pound
* O•to 1 4 Mograma o* moteaaM o»
)

be reformulated when dry

are moved between groups, milk production can drop even 0
** vah TMH mote
** * o« ntty and w
* «
T PteCM totegM hort r tuch a « im compact TMH e t oopa and
aortad TMR

matter intake per cow * * * **

•
—
add wato teaudng > 35 to 40 pwcom d itotiar
though the ration is balanced above their current level of milk ^
tote Imruoona by addng atxx or po ng i
increases or decreases by
-
but acrlrg can toad to teton . dgt«v« t» or»«rv and towwod mte
*** *
yield because dry matter intake drops due to social interactions «« W nt and mtk yoK3
**
more than 2 pounds (0.9
(fighting and time away from the feed bunk).
.
kilogram) per day If dry matter
Several management options can minimize these drops: intake drops, the ration should be increased in nutrient
concentration. If dry matter intake increases, milk yield should
• Move groups of cows
Know dry matter levels increase or cheaper feeds can be incorporated in the TMR,
(not one cow)
Know dry matter levels
reducing feed costs.
• Move cows at active Motoonng moatute Wteto w> wot toad are TMR
* *•
oteea to mnog and daMteryp
conaslant toera Snaga and TMH tooutt to enacted on tto 1am ovary oaah to mate
• .
coc act ©n to Tto raton < mooru*a tetet tova ctorgad aapactoy bunter and pte
If a wet feed ingredient changes by 5 percent dry matter or more
feeding times * * * ate * * *
•tor* praoprfation can IOMM * Four ayalam* can to uaad
(for example, hay silage increasing from 40 to 45 percent dry
* * * •*
i A m<»ow te ©ten and an acetate poataga o» teod ca a e occxraia
tebdte n 101» IImrutea Dry matte
* .it * moat accutoa of* l* matted aa tto
iao ate te

• Move cows on a cat •» , o dyingIM wat to otoaoad

matter), reformulate the TMR as the amount of water (which adds
* ** ©

regular schedule 3 Heater oommaraaat tea

** 1300 acaw U*M •oread diy an to totote maotute
(

IN waved fate war to tebout 30 maetea . out 4 Oom net teQuM aom
weight) changes nutrient concentration. Dry matter levels in wet
•totetonng aa tto * «* not bum Haorft* ate 1*I* 3 pottea Ntghar n mootoa than
* * * *
tamp
*
(every month) nc« atoo lor cotoWt »y«ng
i
* ingredients (silages, high-moisture grains, and wet by-product
3 Wacttotec itoRtoa taato (WOO to 1300 uaaa tonary astete and raaratanca to

•tw catorabon ctort Tho waved « tto teateal but teQute

* * feeds) should be checked weekly with a microwave oven or
• Increase the grain by * oara n *ng tto ^ *
irer ua a pne BacauM tto tolar
•
mote dapartont on oparatar

•M. teautt* can to teta acetate Koster tester.

» 1M a an raiparana but aewar
-
4 A tood daftydiator matted lo erfee Oy
3 to 5 pounds (1.4 to *
-
matter content A wot aar pta a pacad« tto uni and atowad to dy tor 34 to M hour
and roiv
* copewr
tent Tto approach i%
*
aaay to run.
and doe no tonrg (no fra or n
2.3 kilograms) for a * * i
*oi

72
Guide Four. Cows should have access to TMR for 20 hours a day Mineral systems
(including milking time). Weigh backs (feed refusal) should be
Minerals should be force-fed by blending with forage, grain mix,
monitored daily and weighed. If the weigh back is less than 2
topdressed, or TMR. Offering mineral free-choice depends on the
percent of the total offered (for example, cows are fed 4,000
cow’s ability to select the correct amount and type of mineral.
pounds [1,814 kilograms] of wet TMR a day and weigh back is
Cows have a “true appetite” for salt. Cafeteria mineral feeding
less than 80 pounds [36.3 kilograms]), dry matter intake can be
systems offer five to 15 different minerals free-choice and depend
limiting. Visually evaluate the weigh back to see if it appears to
on the cow to consume which minerals it needs. Minnesota
look like the original TMR (fuzzy cottonseed, whole soybeans, and
workers reported cows would over consume mineral by 50 to 60
pelleted feeds are good markers to look for). If the weigh back is
percent of required mineral.
long forage and/or sorted feed, feeding more TMR may be
warranted. Rations should deliver the needed mineral for the cow (Appendix

Testing weigh back is another approach to evaluate if more TMR Table 2 and Table 3). If additional mineral is offered free-choice,

is needed. The weigh back should be within 1 percent protein, 2

monitor the intake and consumption patterns. Free-choice
mineral should not contain carrier feeds that increase payability
percentage points of ADF, and 3 percent of dry matter of the
original TMR (referred to as the 1-2 -3 rule). For example, the (such as molasses or grain by-products). The following minerals

original TMR was 17 percent protein, 20 percent ADF, and 60 can be offered free choice in addition to balanced minerals that
percent dry matter. The weigh back should test 16 to 18 percent are force-fed:

protein, 18 to 22 percent ADF, and 57 to 63 percent dry matter • White salt (heat stress and electrolyte balance)
using wet chemistry analysis. Comparing the original TMR and
• Bentonite (for cattle craving soil)
weigh back using the Penn State Box can also document if
sorting occurred. This can be determined if any box varies by • Sodium bicarbonate (fresh and off -feed cows)
over 5 percent (original TMR versus weigh back results).
Minerals can also be delivered in water when a grain carrier feed
cannot be used. Injectable trace minerals are also commercially
available.

73
The goal of ration formulation is to provide needed nutrients by Step 1. Calculate the nutrient requirements using Appendix
balancing feed ingredients as economically as possible. As dairy Table 7. Target levels of body weight, milk yield, and milk
managers build their rations, they should follow a logical series of components are needed (taping several cows, reviewing
decisions to arrive at a balanced and economical solution: culled cow weights, milk test results, DHI records and bulk
milk shipments can be used). Review the discussion on lead
• Determine which feed ingredients will be used based on
factors.
inventory, crops raised on the farm, good buys, and
experience . Step 2. Estimate the amount of forage fed per cow based

• Decide the target level of nutrients based on milk production, on weighed forage intakes, inventory disappearance,
age, stage of gestation, growth, body weight gain, and counting the number of bales or scoops, or other

environmental conditions. approaches. Cows will consume 2 percent of their body

weight as forage dry matter. A 1,300-pound (590-kilogram)
• Select a method to conduct the calculations. cow would eat 26 pounds (12 kilograms) of dry matter a day
(1,300 pounds multiplied by 0.02 equals 26 pounds).
Several methods are discussed below. The user should be
Maximizing forage intake will result in lower feed costs in
knowledgeable and skilled in the basic
most cases. Use forage test results to accurately assess
methods before moving up to a more Figure 7.1 farm forage nutrient content .
technical method . Balanced Ration
Worksheet Step 3. Subtract the nutrients provided by forage from
Hand- calculated rations calculated requirements (see hand-balanced worksheet,

An individual should be able to balance a Figure 7.1). Solve for the amount of grain needed to meet

ration by hand before using computer- £ energy shortages. In the example, energy required (36.7
megacalories) minus energy from forages (18.0
assisted aids. The following steps can be
=» “
: = r
1
megacalories) results in a shortage of 18.7 megacalories.
followed using the format in Figure 7.1.
Feed amounts and nutrient levels are Shelled corn contains 0.92 megacalories per pound (2.02
megacaolories per kilogram) of dry matter which results in
expressed on a 100 percent dry matter
basis.
S

—
: :: r
“
r r
20 pounds (9 kilograms) of grain dry matter needed to

75

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balance energy needs (18.7 Megacalories short / 0.92 Additional steps can be added to soi
Megacalories per pound of shelled corn dry matter). calcium, and other nutrients using similar approaches.

Step 4. Subtract the protein provided by forages plus Ration balancing by hand becomes a laborious effort, as
shelled corn from the required amount of protein. If protein changing one feed ingredient shifts the balance and amount of
is deficient, you will need to build a grain mixture using 44 other nutrients and requires care to avoid mathematical mistakes.
soybean meal (50 percent protein on a dry matter basis) and But until the user can see where the numbers come from and
shelled corn (10 percent crude protein on a dry matter knows how to balance properly, no computer should be used.
basis). In this example, crude protein requirement is 7.93
pounds (3.60 kilograms) minus the 4.05 pounds (1.84 The Pearson square
kilograms) protein provided by forage = 3.85 pounds (1.75
The Pearson square or box method can be used to solve for a
kilograms) from corn and soybean meal.
desired level of a nutrient using two feed ingredients that bracket
To determine the level of protein in the mix, divide the (one higher and one lower) the target level of nutrient. In our
shortage of protein, which is 3.85 pounds by 20 pounds example, we are solving for 19 percent crude protein using
(1.75 kilograms by 9 kilograms) of grain dry matter shelled corn and 44 percent
determined in Step 3. Use the box or Pearson square soybean meal (SBM). Follow Pearson square
method to solve for the correct proportions of shelled corn the steps below and refer to Feed #i %CP Feed #i Part
and soybean meal. Metabolizable protein (MP) cannot be .
the box Remember, all A D
used in this example as MP values vary based on feed nutrients must be entered on
ingredients included in the ration, dry matter intake, and a 100 percent dry matter
Desired %CP
(DM) basis: that’s why 44
requires a rumen modeling program to quantify. c
percent soybean meal is
Step 5. Once we have solved for the proportion of shelled entered as 50 percent, as 44
corn and soybean meal, enter the amounts in the divided by 90 percent dry
worksheet. If the cow consumes the amount of feed offered, matter = 50. B E
we have balanced the ration of these two nutrients. Feed # 2 %CP Feed # 2 Part

76
Step 1. Step 3.
Write the desired protein percentage of the grain mix in the Subtract diagonally and write differences in right corners .
middle of the box. Determine this percentage by dividing the These numbers are parts or proportions.
amount of protein needed by the estimated amount of grain Example: 1 9 - 1 0 = 9 and 50 - 19=31
DM. Example: 19 percent
Corn %CP Corn Part
A D
io% CP
m
19% CP \ /
19% CP

B E

Step 2.
50% CP
Write the protein percentage (100% DM basis) of the grain
and protein supplement in the left corners of the square. SBM %CP SBM Part
Example: 10 percent and 50 percent
Step 4.
Corn %CP
To convert to a percentage for each ingredient, add the
110% CP | D parts and divide the total into each individual part or
proportion. Example: 31+ 9 = 40
Percent Soybean Meal (SBM) is 9 + 40 x 100 = 23 percent
Percent corn is 31 + 40 x 100 = 77 percent
19% CP Step 5.
Multiply the size of the batch mix (2,000 pounds [909
kilograms] DM in this example) times the percentage of each
ingredient to get the pounds of DM necessary. The pounds
50% CP E of DM must be divided by the percent DM of the ingredient
SBM %CP to convert to an as-fed basis.

77

Example: or ratios), and allows one grain energy source, one protein
2000 x 23 percent / 100 = 460 pounds of SBM DM (209 supplement, and one mineral vitamin mixture to be used by the
kilograms) computer. The computer can solve for six to 30 nutrients
460 x 100 / 90 percent DM = 500 pounds as fed (232 simultaneously.
kilograms).
Least cost balancer computer formulation
Ration analyzer computer formulation This type of software program is the most common. The major
The next step in ration formulation technology is a computer- driving factor is to build the ration as economically as possible
based program that quickly and accurately performs all while still meeting nutrient requirements. The computer does not
mathematical calculations. A ration analyzer does not have consider if a feed is palatable, if it could limit feed intake, or if it
balancing functions and does not have “dairy nutrient makes logical, nutritional sense. Feed costs must be carefully and
knowledge.” The user has to make decisions on which feeds to accurately reported.
add or change to achieve a desirable ration. No nutrient or dry
A break-even price is calculated for feeds not used and indicates
matter edits are involved, which can result in unbelievable and
when that feed will enter the ration based on price. An
incorrect rations. But until users can drive the computer and
opportunity price indicates a price range in which a feed
understand the answers, they should work with a simple analyzer
ingredient remains in the ration solution.
program.

Profit maximizer balancer computer

Ration balancer computer formulation
formulation
A ration balancer software program combines feeds to meet the
These programs formulate rations that result in the maximum
nutrient requirement of the target animal or group. Someone has
profit for the user based on milk price, feed prices, and least cost
programmed the computer to select feeds based on cost, feed
balancing. The difference with this approach is that it may not
availability, nutrient composition, or other factors which the user
result in maximum milk production. Least cost balancing only
does not control. The user can lock in certain levels of feed
ingredients based on inventory or personal bias. The user
considers feed prices .
typically locks in forages (actual amounts, minimum, maximums,
78
Rumen computer formulation models Figure 7.3 Spartan III Dairy Ration Evaluator with a rumen
model from Michigan State University
Interactive models predict rumen microbial synthesis of nutrients Summary Rupod Hew diet

(energy and protein) and digested nutrients in the lower digestive

tract. These powerful models consider various fractions of protein
and carbohydrates, effect of rumen pH, particle size of feedstuffs,
~ Hi srr
and effective fiber. i i s-:—r

2 slluis i; HI 1
In the future, these models will allow the user to balance nutrient
ssr. xcTsxaxx
i
: a
5
1818 8 i 11
needs at the tissue level, providing for milk production and
growth (amino acids, glucose, and fatty acids, for example). The
.. ne

Cornell Net Carbohydrate Net Protein and Michigan State

—= . ^::
£
:: :: : :s :: :s
axxxx z z = -
Spartan III models are examples of this technology. Several
companies and cooperatives also have similar models available.
-r :: :: :
::: :: :: :: z : §
I-=r I: r!s =“
*

The following two figures show examples of the Dairy NRC 2001
Model (Figure 7.2), and the Spartan III Dairy Ration Evaluator with
a rumen model from Michigan State University (Figure 7.3). Page 2 of Report

Figure 7.2 Dairy NRC 2001

Model
7 = — 37

S a
ClJjjjj :: s :: s *

trnii — srs’s 1:
*

== g.= r Mi s«iirs
£ r?
==:=
m- :
W T5
STS

;;" =
= ar

79
A dairy manager must decide the value of all feeds raised or
Table 8.1 NDFD guidelines for forages
purchased on the farm. Even if the feed is raised, it is not free and
Target Value Range Value
should be valued. Several methods are listed for comparing Forage
(% NDFD) (% NDFD)
feeds.
Com Silage >55 44 to 72

Pricing forages Legume / Grass Hay >50 38 to 75

Using Relative Feed Value (RFV). Relative feed value of legumes Legume / Grass Silage >50 32 to 79
and grasses is based on dry matter intake and digestible dry
matter (DM) content of the forage. Hay auctions can determine incubated for a time period measuring the percent of NFD that is
the value of a relative feed value point. For example, if all lots of digested. For each 1 percentage point increase in NDFD, milk
high alfalfa hay sold for an yield can increase 0.5 pound (227 grams) and dry matter intake
average of $128 a ton with an Using RFQ increases 0.33 pounds (150 grams). Guidelines are listed in Table
average RFV of 160, an RFV Using relative forage quality (RFQ) 8.1 for 48 -hour in vitro tests. Another factor to consider is the
Uruvewty c Wtoconvn worker a new
point was worth 80 cents ($128 * * developed
method to predict forage Quality based on forage length of time the in vitro test was conducted. Three time periods
. .
spaces NOf w vitro Qgeet«biity summatrve equations,
divided by 160). Thus, hay with and an updated dry matter intake equation. Relative can be reported: 24 hours, 30 hours, and 48 hours. The 24-hour
. .
Forage (Xiafity or RFQ can replace Relative Feed Value,
an RFV of 120 could be valued .
or RFV The advantage of thrs approach is to NOF test can be used on corn silage as starch degradation is more
dgestoity resting coned value for grass based -
at $96 a ton (120 multiplied by forages. RFQ values will be similar to RFV values 80 to < rapid and forage particle size is shorter. The 30-hour test period
.
200) txA they requre the users to accurately report
80 cents). Protein content is not forage type as afferent equations will be used to predict reflects the normal forage retention time in the digestive tract. The
RFQ by forage testing labs.

used when calculating RFV. 48-hour test period reflects the maximum fiber digestibility and is
most repeatable. The difference in NDFD values between 30 and
Using Forage (NDFD). Higher forage digestibility increases feed
48 hours can be 5 to 8 percentage points. The use of NIR -based
efficiency, milk yield, and dry matter intake (DMI) as cows convert
NDFD tests is cheaper, quicker, and more useful for field
more fiber to meet animal requirements. The current forage
applications.
measurement is NDFD (neutral detergent fiber digestibility), which
reflects cell wall digestion as a source of rumen fermentable Using Feed Constants. In the 1960s, F.B. Morrison developed
carbohydrate. In the lab, rumen fluid is mixed with forage and equations to value feeds based on shelled corn as an energy

81

base and soybean meal (44 percent) as a protein base. Iowa basis (ton, hundredweight, metric weight unit, or pound),
State specialists have updated these constants. Take for and do not mix price per bushel with price per ton. In the
example, the energy value of oat hay calculated using the example, a ton of oat hay would be worth:
following four steps (can use either U.S. short or metric long ton): $22.10 + (-$56.10) + $72.96 = $38.96

Step 1. Multiply the current price of corn ($/ton) by the energy

constant for the feed listed.
Pricing corn silage
Example for energy value of oat hay: One approach is to consider standing corn to be harvested as

+0.221 (energy constant) X $100 (value 1 ton shelled silage or grain. The formula is listed to calculate a ton of corn
corn) = $22.10 silage on an as-fed or wet basis (35 percent DM):

.
Step 2 Multiply the current price for soybean meal 44 (6 x $/bushel of shelled corn) + ensiling costs/ton

percent ($/ton) by the protein constant for feed listed.

The number 6 is based on the relationship that 1 acre of standing

Example for protein value of oat hay: corn will yield 100 bushels of corn or 16 tons of corn silage (on an
-0.187 (protein constant) X $300 ( value 1 ton soybean as- fed or wet basis). Adjust the constant based on your corn

meal) = -$56.10
silage and grain yields. An example is listed below using $3/
bushel corn and harvesting costs of $7 per ton (custom harvest
.
Step 3 If the feed is a forage, multiply the current price for .
rate) (6 x $3/bushel) + $7 = $25 per ton for wet com silage.
average quality hay ($/ton) by the fiber constant for the feed .
Another approach is to multiply the price of shelled corn on a
Example for fiber value of oat hay: bushel basis by 9 or 10. For example, if shelled corn is priced at
0.912 (fiber constant) X $80 (value for 1 ton of average $3/bushel, corn silage would be priced at $30 a ton ($3/bu x 10).
forage) = $ 72.96 If shelled corn prices range from $2 to $3 a bushel, both methods
result in similar answers.
Step 4. Add the values from Steps 1, 2, and 3 together (if a
value is negative, subtract it from the positive numbers) .
Note that in the above example, we’ve used price per ton for
all four steps. Be sure all prices are on the same weight
82
Pricing by-product feeds Charging for service meal would be 34 cents per pound ($15 per hundredweight / 44
pounds of protein per hundredweight). Once a base protein value
Computer programs are available to
has been calculated, other protein sources can be compared.
price by -product feeds. Two popular
Similar approaches can be done for mineral and fat nutrient
spreadsheet programs called FeedVal
comparisons. Several factors should be considered when pricing
v 6.0 was developed by the University of
nutrients, especially with commercial supplements:
Wisconsin and Sesame developed by iMl

The Ohio State University. Each • Commercial supplements contain other nutrients besides the
program provides custom options: calculated nutrient (protein, for example). Added minerals and
vitamins also improve economic and nutrient value. By -
• Select which nutrients to consider
product feeds such as fuzzy cottonseed have multiple
when pricing feed ingredients (such
sources of nutrients (protein, fat, phosphorus and effective
as energy, protein or RUP, starch, effective NDF, and other
fiber).
choices).
• Commercial products have other factors that add value
• Regional prices can be entered (Midwest compared to
besides nutrients (such as bagging, delivery, processing,
Western regions).
ration balancing, and feed testing) .
• Both programs require entry of available feeds in your area
• All nutrients are not equal in value. Protein has more value,
and current prices. All feed ingredients are considered to
depending on its amino acid profile, bypass characteristics,
determine break-even feed prices and which feed ingredients
and palatability. Most dairy farmers purchase some feed
are good buys based on nutrient content.
supplements. Feed tags list guaranteed level of nutrients,
which are expressed on an air-dry or 90 percent DM basis.
Pricing concentrate feeds Convert the feed tag values to a 100 percent DM basis by
One method is to divide the price of a feed by the amount of dividing by 0.90. For example, a 36 percent protein tag feed
nutrient in the feed. For example, soybean meal at $15 per 100 would be entered as 40 percent on a 100 percent DM basis
pounds, a protein source, would contain 44 pounds of crude (36 percent protein feed tag value divided by 0.9 equals 40
protein. The value of 1 pound of crude protein using soybean percent protein on a 100% DM basis) .
83

If urea or other sources of nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) was added *Because urea contains 46 percent nitrogen , multiplying the
to the commercial feed, it will be listed on the feed tag under percent nitrogen by 6.25 converts urea to the crude protein
crude protein with this type of statement (Figure 8.1): equivalent (287). Divide the equivalent by 100 to get the
decimal. The value of 6.25 is a constant based on 100
“ABC Feed: This includes not more than 11.5 percent pounds or kilograms of pure feed protein contains 16
equivalent crude protein from nonprotein nitrogen.”
percent of nitrogen (100 pounds of protein divided by 16
This example feed does not contain 11.5 percent urea. To convert —
pounds nitrogen = 6.25 the constant).
to urea, divide the percent equivalent crude protein from NPN
Feed tags must list feed ingredients used in manufacturing the
(11.5) by the urea crude protein equivalent decimal (2.87*). This
feed. Some companies will list all individual feeds used while
number comes from the nitrogen content of urea. So for this
other companies will list collective groups outlined below:
example, ABC Feed contains 4 percent urea: 11.5% / 2.87 = 4%
Animal protein products (such as blood meal)
If your cow consumes 4 pounds (1.8 kilograms) of supplement
ABC Feed, it’s consuming 0.16 pound (72.6 grams) of urea a day Forage products (such as alfalfa meal)
(4 x 0.04). Limit the level of supplemental urea for dairy cows to
Grain products (such as barley)
less than 0.4 pound (181 grams) per cow per day.
Plant protein products (such as soybean meal)
Figure 8.1 Sample feed tag
Processed by-product Selecting corn silage
ABC FEED (such as citrus pulp) Selecting com silage

Guaranteed Analysis Roughage products (such

Dary manager
* nave choice* when selecting com hybrids
for com silage as commercial iO»0

Crude Protein, no less than 36% as corn cobs) BMR), drought tolerance , use of herbicide to contro weeds ,
and riiect resistance. Select com silage hybrids that
( Thu includes not more than
11.5% equivalent crude protein produce the moat deared notrter s per acre, which induces
*
quality and yield (growing barter compared to lactatng
from nonprotein nitrogen) *
By using collective terms, feed cows), starch levels (over 30 percent), desired nutrients per
- -
Crude Fat . .
ton of dry matter (energy tor high producing and earty
3% companies can use different lactaton cows), and agronomic characteristics (stacked
genes for insect disease, and weed control) . Two computer -
Crude Fiber 6% feeds (usually based on least - based systems can be used to as st in the selection
*
process Milk 2006 by the University of Wisconsin and Com
Picker by the MicNgan State Unrverety
cost formulations) without

84
changing feed tags. Other Corn digestibility TDN = 80 - (8- 2) - (5 - 2) + ([4 - 3] x 2.25)
companies will lock in or guarantee
= 80 - 6 - 3 + 2.25 = 73
feed ingredients regardless of price
to maintain feed consistency and ' •<N» The TDN value for this supplement is on an air-dry basis. If value
palatability from different batches of OwMCniiWi
is being used in a computer program, convert this value to 100%
feed delivered to the farm. DM basis if used in a computer program by dividing by 0.9. In this
example, the 100% DM basis equals 80 (73/0.9).
Most feed tags do not include
energy levels. The following formula Interpreting uNDF forage values
to calculate Total Digestible
Nutrients (TDN) may be helpful Interpreting uNDF forage values
when estimating an energy value for a commercial supplement:
Forages high in undigested neutral detergent fiber (uNFD) reduce feed

TDN (as-fed DM basis) = intake due to physical fill factors which slow rate of feed passage,
reduce feed efficiency, and drop milk yield. The “new ” forage
80 - (Crude Fiber - 2) measurement is uNDF, which reflects cell wall digestion. In the lab,
- (Mineral Content - 2) rumen fluid is mixed with forage and incubated for a time period
measuring the percent of uNFD that is not digested. Guidelines of total
+ ([fat -3] x 2.25) forage uNDF intake (pounds or kilograms) is 0.35 to 0.40 percent of the
cow or herd body weight. For Holstein cows, this can be 5 to 5.5
This calculation reduces energy as fiber content increases (less pounds (2.3 to 2.5 kilograms) per day; Jerseys could be 3.5 to 4
digestible feeds were used) or as mineral or ash content pounds (1.6 to 1.8 kilograms) per day.

increases (no energy in mineral or ash). It also increases energy Another factor to consider is the length of time the in vitro test was
with more fat (fat is 2.25 greater in energy compared to conducted. Three time periods can be reported: uNDF-30 hours,
carbohydrates). This formula is based on shelled corn. An uNDF-120 hours, and uNDF 240 hours. The 30-hour test period reflect
the normal forage retention time in the rumen. The 240-hour test period
example for an 18 percent protein complete grain mix containing
can be used to model fiber digestion and dynamics in the digestive
8 percent crude fiber, 4 percent fat, and 5 percent ash (contains tract using computer modeling software. The use of NIR - based uNDF
added salt, mineral, and buffer) is calculated below: tests are commonly used.

85
Metabolic disorders vary Economics of metabolic disorders Acidosis
in frequency from herd
to herd, but the Economic impact of Occurrence: 5 to 20 percent
presence of metabolic
metabolic disorders Description: The rumen pH drops below 6 for extended time
disorders in any
Cornell researchers have calculated the periods. A common field term is SARA (subacute rumen acidosis).
frequency means a loss
cost of each disorder factoring in: lost Animals’ feed intake declines, manure can become runny,
in production along with
milk, veterinary cost if needed, added farm laminitis can occur four to six weeks later, and hardship lines or
related health care labor, drugs and treatment costs, culling,
grooves form on the face of the hoof. Milkfat test may drop 0.2
costs. This ultimately and death losses (if it occurs).
results in lost
.
points below the true milk protein test A veterinarian may
Metabolic disorder Cost conduct rumenocentesis on several cows to measure actual pH
profitability, so a goal
(cows below pH 5.5 would be indicative of SARA). In severe
should be to minimize Displaced abomasa $340
cases when pH drops below 5, acute acidosis can occur,
the occurrence of these
Ketosis $145 resulting in dehydration, sunken eyes, and sick cows. Immediate
problems.
Lameness $301 veterinary intervention is needed.
Often the cause can be
Milk fever $334
Prevention: Avoid rations that can lead to low rumen pH such as:
traced to some
high- energy feeds, reduced feed particle size, feeding
deficiency in the feeding
program or
Retained placenta $285
.
unsaturated oil, and slug feeding (see Chapter 1) Feeding 0.75
percent of the ration dry matter as sodium bicarbonate can
management. Ration
stabilize rumen pH above 6. Free -choice sodium bicarbonate may
adjustments, daily
be consumed by cows with acidosis. Increasing the feeding levels
inspections of animals, and consultation with your veterinarian
of long forages can also improve rumination and saliva flow.
can correct these problems.

A list of feed-related disorders with typical herd frequency, a

description of the condition, and possible approaches to prevent
the disorder is outlined below .
87

Bloat Fatty liver syndrome

Occurrence: Less than 1 percent Occurrence: Low

Description: An excessive accumulation of rumen gases is Description: If fresh cows don't consume sufficient energy after
trapped in the rumen due to compaction, formation of a foam- calving to satisfy energy needs, they will mobilize body fat. The
trapping gas, or lack of eructation (belching) . The animal cow uses fatty acids for milkfat synthesis, but its liver takes in
becomes distended on the left side (balloons out), breathing is fatty acids. The more fatty acids are mobilized, the more the liver
difficult, and death can occur. Feeding legume-based pastures absorbs. The liver cannot handle the extra non-esterified fatty
can increase the foam-trapped gas, while slug feeding of grain acids (NEFA) and they are stored in the liver, where they interfere
can lead to a gaseous bloat. with important liver cell activities. While occurrence is low, cows

Prevention: For legume-based bloat, introduce animals to lush

often die from fatty liver syndrome .
pastures gradually, provide 5 to 10 pounds (2.3 to 4.5 kilograms) Most high-producing cows and close-up dry cows will have
of long forage to stimulate rumination and eructation, and elevated levels of NEFA. If fat infiltrates the liver causing
supplement with a bloat prevention additive (such as poloxalene enlargement and high levels of fat (over 10 percent), the cow can
or anti-foam agents). Do not turn cattle out on pasture when they experience reduced feed intake, ketosis, and impaired immune
are hungry, as this may lead to overconsumption. system function . These cows have also often experienced
breeding problems in the previous lactation and have had long
To minimize grain bloat, adjust cattle to the diet and the amount
dry periods.
to 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms) of dry matter per meal. If a severe
bloat occurs, immediate veterinary intervention is needed. Some Prevention: The key to prevention is to maintain dry matter intake
animals develop a chronic or continuous bloating condition and prior to calving using a close-up dry cow ration higher in nutrient
may warrant culling. content . Anionic salts can maintain blood calcium, which
influences smooth muscle contractions in the digestive tract. A
gradual transition to the early -lactation ration can minimize
metabolic disorders. Using 6 grams of niacin, of which 3 grams
are rumen-protected (slows body fat mobilization), drenching with

88
one pint (one-half liter) of propylene glycol, and utilizing yeast cows go off - feed near calving, ketosis and DA can result. Control
product and buffers can be effective. Adding 15 grams of rumen- metabolic disorders and diseases to maintain health and feed
protected choline moves fat from the liver. intake.

Displaced abomasum (twisted stomach or DA) Ergot

Occurrence: 3 to 5 percent Occurrence: Very low

Description: The fourth compartment of the stomach moves from Description: A fungus infects the flower of cereal grains and
the lower right side to the left side. This left-sided displacement grasses, forming a large purple to black abnormal growth. Ergot
or LDA is most common and makes up 80 to 90 percent of all toxicity is caused by alkaloids that reduce blood flow to feet and
displacements. A right side displacement (RDA) occurs when the tail; the switch can drop off, and foot disorders may occur. Ergot
abomasum twists or turns on the right side, cutting off the blood also triggers abortion and reduces milk flow by affecting the
supply - immediate surgery is needed. cow ' s hormonal balance. Additionally, animals may act
abnormally.
Symptoms of a displacement include a drop in feed intake and
signs of ketosis. Diagnosis can be done by listening with a Prevention: Avoid feeding cereal grains containing over 0.05
stethoscope to the “pinging” sound made when the veterinarian percent damaged grain (five kernels in 10,000). Clip pasture to
taps the cow ’s left side. If the LDA is enlarged, it can be seen on remove seed heads of mature grass. Suspect feed can be diluted,
the left side toward the top of the cow. Displacements often but do not feed to pregnant animals and watch for toxicity signs.
occur near calving (one week before to three weeks after calving).
Grass tetany
Prevention: Developing a phase feeding program (see Chapter Occurrence: Low
12) can minimize displaced abomasa. Feeding 5 pounds (2.3
Description: Cows consuming lush pasture high in nitrogen and
kilograms) of long forage helps maintain rumen fill. Gradually
increase grain to avoid gas formation in the abomasum. Low potassium can lead to low magnesium absorption, and so blood
blood calcium (hypocalcemia) can reduce stomach movements. If levels of magnesium are low. Affected animals can develop
tetany, walk stiffly, become disoriented, convulse, and die.
89

Prevention: Supplement animals with a source of magnesium

Hemorrhagic bowel syndrome
(magnesium oxide or magnesium sulfate) . (HBS or bloody gut)

Hardware disease Occurrence: Less than one percent

Occurrence: Less than 1 percent Description: Large blood clots form in the intestine resulting in

Description: Wire, nails and metal can get caught in the reticulum
.
obstruction and severe enlargement of the bowel Cows rapidly

due to its low location in the body cavity and the honeycomb
drop in milk yield and feed intake leading to death in 1 to 2 days .
Causes are not clearly defined, but the presence of A. fumigatus
structure, leading to hardware disease. Sharp metal objects
(common mold), Clostridium perfingens type A, high starch
puncture the reticulum causing irritation and fluid leakage.
rations, and lack of effective fiber have been implicated. Brown
Animals will stop eating, move slowly, and walk hunchbacked.
Swiss cows and high producing cows in early lactation are more
Pressure on the bottom of the rumen will cause pain Body . prone to develop HBS.
temperature may increase due to infection .
Prevention: Vaccinating cows with vaccine to prevent
Prevention: Take care to keep nails, wire, or metal out of feed . Clostridium growth, feeding an additive, such as OmniGen-AF, to
Place a magnetic bar in the feed processing equipment to remove
improve immune response (see additives in Chapter 5), adding
metal prior to feeding. If a cow magnet is given orally, any
more forage, and/or lower available starch levels may reduce risk.
consumed metal objects will remain in the reticulum due to the
Veterinarians can open the small intestine and break up the blood
weight of the magnet . The magnet traps and holds metal objects
clot, but recovery is marginal.
(nails or wire), avoiding irritation and damage to the stomach
lining.
Ketosis (acetonemia)

Occurrence: 2 to 4 percent

Description: Ketosis occurs one week before calving to eight

weeks after calving, when energy balance is negative. Primary
ketosis is caused by an energy deficiency, especially blood

90
Figure 9.1 Cow-side BHBA meter monitor. Drenching these cows daily with propylene glycol can
prevent larger risks. Several DHI testing labs can measure blood
ketone in fresh cows to identify at-risk herds. Secondary ketosis
occurs when another disease or disorder causes the cow to go
off feed. If the secondary disorder is prevented, ketosis will not
develop.

Prevention: Maximize dry matter intake prior to and immediately

after calving. Top-quality forage will improve nutrient intake .
Review the additives discussed in the Fatty Liver section as
severe ketosis leads to fatty liver formation.

Lameness

Occurrence: 5 to 35 percent

Description: Dairy cattle can exhibit sole ulcers, white line

separation, hairy heel warts, foot rot, laminitis, and other foot
disorders. Contributing factors include standing on concrete, heat
stress, rumen acidosis, shortage of zinc and copper, and poor
Example of an electronic meter to measure blood ketone levels
cow comfort. The appearance of hardship grooves on the front of
on the farm.
the hoof often can be observed.
glucose. The cow then mobilizes body fat that is not completely
Prevention: Avoid rumen acidosis (note section in this chapter);
metabolized, leading to ketone formation Cows become thin, .
add 300 milligrams of organic zinc and 60 milligrams of organic
milk yield drops, and an elevated level of ketones appear in blood
copper, replacing inorganic sources of zinc and copper; and add
and milk. Acetone may be smelled on the cow’s breath. Recently,
20 milligrams of biotin, a B vitamin (see Feed Additives in Chapter
ketosis occurring three to 15 days after calving has been
detected in herds using blood testing strips with electronic 5).

91

Milk fever (parturient paresis);

Table 3). Adding anionic product will reduce hypocalcemia and
milk fever, especially in diets high in potassium (see Chapter 12).
hypocalcemia
Oral calcium gel products and calcium bolus(es) can temporarily
Occurrence: 1 to 5 percent (milk fever), 10 to 35 percent raise blood calcium levels .
(hypocalcemia)
Moldy feed
Description: Milk fever occurs at calving and is caused by low
blood calcium (less than 5 milligrams per deciliter). Blood Occurrence: Variable
magnesium levels can also be low. The first sign is staggering,
Description: When fungus and mold grow on feed, they can
then difficulty rising, followed by the cow going down with its
produce toxic substances (such as aflatoxin, vomitoxin, T-2, and
head turned toward its udder. If not treated, the cow will die.
zearalenone), which can negatively impact rumen microbes,
Hypocalcemia is more widespread. These cows are borderline cause liver degeneration, reduce fertility and milk yield, and
low in blood calcium (less than impair the immune system. Feeds that are stored too wet or do

Figure 9.2 Total blood

8.6 milligrams per deciliter), not ferment properly can result in mold damage .
calcium levels in cows with which affects dry matter intake
Prevention: Damaged or suspect feed should be tested to
and without milk fever and uterine contractions that
(possible hypocalcemia) determine the level of mold in feed
expel the placenta and fluids
during the transition period and those feeds should be diluted
after calving. Hypocalcemia Mycotoxin Guidelines
with good feed down to safe
may make the cow more Mycotoun Guidelines
10
levels. Do not feed moldy feed to |~ *
\ susceptible to displaced
abomasum.
young or pregnant animals. If

J: •is 10 10
Prevention: Feed dry cows a
aflatoxin in the total ration dry
matter is over 20 parts per billion
Ooy* relative to parturition
balanced mineral program, with (ppb), the levels in milk may
emphasis in controlling exceed FDA maximum allowable
^ *»
I by fO

tftrFCMi

potassium, calcium, phosphorus, guidelines (0.5 ppb). ^ icwioffrai

ilKtt

magnesium, and vitamin D levels (see Appendix Table 2 and

92
 Prevention: Avoid feeding stressed forages (drought or frost
Nitrate poisoning
damaged) and weeds that can be high in nitrate content. Levels
Occurrence: Very low below 1,000 parts per million of nitrate nitrogen or 4,400 parts per
million of nitrates in total ration dry matter are considered safe to
Description: Nitrates are converted to nitrites which bind with
feed. Dilute out the high nitrate feed or ferment it to reduce the
blood hemoglobin. The blood appears dark brown, cannot carry level. Water should be tested as well, as high nitrate levels can
oxygen, and the animal will labor to breathe. Acute cases result in compound from both feed and water sources.
death. Feed and water levels of nitrates and nitrites are additive
and can combine to reach toxic levels. Prussic acid poisoning
Prevention: Avoid feeding stressed forages (drought or frost
Occurrence: Very low
damaged) and weeds that can be high in nitrate content. Levels
below 1,000 parts per million of nitrate nitrogen or 4,400 parts per Description: Drought- or frost -stressed sorghum and sudangrass
million of nitrates in total ration dry matter are considered safe to can produce hydrocyanic acid, which is toxic to animals .
feed. Dilute out the high nitrate feed or ferment it to reduce the Hydrocyanic acid content in plants also is increased under heavy
.
level Water should be tested as well, as high nitrate levels can nitrogen fertilization, wilting, trampling, and plant disease .
compound from both feed and water sources. Affected animals will breathe rapidly, act depressed, convulse,
and may die.
Nitrate poisoning
Prevention: Avoid feeding young, succulent plants that are less
Occurrence: Very low than 24 inches (60 centimeters) in height, or plants under the
conditions described above. Pasture is more dangerous, as
Description: Nitrates are converted to nitrites which bind with
selective grazing occurs. Harvesting the forage as dry hay or
blood hemoglobin. The blood appears dark brown, cannot carry
.
ensiling it can reduce the risk of poisoning
oxygen, and the animal will labor to breathe. Acute cases result in
death. Feed and water levels of nitrates and nitrites are additive
and can combine to reach toxic levels.

93

Prevention: Limit the amount of supplemental urea to 0.4 pounds

Udder edema
(181 grams) per cow per day, and calculate the amount of soluble

Occurrence: 5 to15 percent intake protein (see Chapter 2).

Description: Edema is an excess accumulation of fluid (lymph)

under the skin in the udder, especially in springing heifers. It is
more prevalent in older heifers, damages the ligaments in the
mammary gland, and causes discomfort .

Prevention: Limit the amount of sodium and potassium given to

cows close to calving (avoid free-choice salt). Remove sodium-
based buffer products from close-up dry cow rations. High grain
feeding can also increase the severity of udder edema on some
.
farms Massaging the udder, prepartum milking (increases blood
flow through the udder), and use of diuretics (under the guidance
of a veterinarian) can reduce udder congestion, Genetic
background of the animal can also cause edema.

Urea toxicity

Occurrence: Rarely occurs .

Description: If too much urea is fed at one feeding , or animals
are not adjusted to urea, excessive amounts of ammonia can be
.
released in the rumen Blood absorbs excess ammonia, which
.
must be detoxified by the liver The animal can exhibit muscle
tremors, salivation, and labored breathing leading to death .

94
Colostrum, the first Table 10.1 Composition and From the time of the calf ' s birth, the calf ' s ability to absorb
milk produced by a characteristics of colostrum, whole colostral antibodies diminishes, the nutrient content and antibody
milk, and reconstituted milk replacer
fresh cow, is the first levels in the colostrum itself also decline (Table 10.1).
(1 pound powder + 7 pounds water
food needed by the [454 grams + 3.3 liters])
Calves should receive colostrum in an amount equivalent to 10 to
newborn calf - the
12 percent of their body weight within the first six hours after
sooner the better, and •«* griW'ytoMil) 1086 10 0 I 1W4 1 033 | 1032
$<>
*
Total fcoUda (%)
" 23.9 | 17.9 14.0 | 13
* 12.9 12.5 birth. So for a 90-pound (41 -kilogram) calf, 10 percent equals 9
in ample quantity. Fa» C% » ®7 43 40
Neaifat aobda | |
* * 1 7 12.2 11 29 pounds of colostrum, or at least 1 gallon (4 liters). A minimum of 4
Colostrum is rich in f 14*~ 11
Proto*n (%
* 4 46

quarts (4 liters), or 8 pounds (Holstein calf), should be removed

protein, fat, minerals,
2.7 39 4 4.7 30
*
Invnooofliobohn* |% » *0 42 1.0 Nona Nona Nona

Sour
* I wOng -*• «
H rj from the cow, checked with a colostrometer for quality, and fed to
and antibodies (Table
the calf within 30 minutes of birth to ensure desired intake has
10.1). Colostrum must
occurred.
be fed immediately after birth for several reasons:
Some veterinarians and nutritionists recommend feeding 1 gallon
Newborn calves have no disease protection, as blood antibodies
(4 liters) of colostrum to large breed calves immediately after birth
cannot cross the placental barrier from the dam to the calf, and
(use of an esophageal feeder may be needed) to build high levels
calves are exposed to infectious bacteria as soon as they are
of blood antibodies. Calves may not
born. Examples include the calving pen or by nursing dirty teats.
consume much colostrum in the next
Colostrum is high in antibodies (immunoglobulins) secreted by the Measuring colostrum
feeding (do not force feed if 1 gallon [4 quality
cow the last two weeks prior to calving.
liters] was fed at the first feeding).
Intact antibodies (large protein molecules) are absorbed across
the calf ' s intestinal lining until closure occurs. At this point, the
English researchers reported that s I
calves allowed to nurse the cow had
intestine cannot absorb protein molecules. Closure can start six
more sickness and death loss
to 12 hours after birth and is completed 12 to 36 hours after birth.
compared to calves fed known
So, if you wait from night until the next morning to feed the calf ||!
amounts of colostrum from a bottle or
colostrum, many of the antibodies in the colostrum may not be
pail. When the calf nurses, you never '
absorbed. i
can be sure how much it has
96
consumed. milliliters per 24 liters] of colostrum) to fresh colostrum will
“pickle” it without fermentation.
Colostrum from Johne’s- free cows should be fed to all calves.
Cows should be tested, and colostrum should not be pooled from Colostrum supplements are commercially available with
several cows unless they are Johne’s- free. guaranteed levels of antibodies. These products are extracted
from whey, colostrum from immune-stimulated cows, or
Excess, high-quality colostrum that has been measured with a
monoclonal antibody technology. Research studies indicate these
colostrometer can be frozen for future use (up to one year),
products are not equal to the cow ’s colostrum, but can be
refrigerated (one month), or fed to older calves. Thaw frozen
effective if no colostrum is available. Examples include if the cow
colostrum gradually to avoid protein (especially antibodies)
has milk fever, if colostrum is from a Johne’s- infected cow, or if
breaking down. Use a warm water bath or low power setting with
colostrum is poor quality.
a microwave.

Surplus colostrum fed to older calves should be diluted to avoid Liquid diet choices
high levels of dry matter that may lead to digestive upsets. Target .
About 40 percent of calves are fed whole milk Whole milk is
the final liquid mixture to contain 12 to 15 percent dry matter (two
higher in protein and fat compared to milk replacer (Table 10.1)
parts colostrum and one part warm water).
but it is more expensive. Whole milk
Another alternative is to store excess colostrum in a plastic barrel can cost $1 to $1.50 per day while a Automated liquid calf
and allow it to ferment, forming soured colostrum. The pH of the high-quality milk replacer costs 90 feeders
soured colostrum will drop to 4 and remain stable when stored at cents a day. On the other hand, if Automated liquKl c*« fMdm

barn temperatures as a “ pickled” colostrum milk. Stir the soured colostrum is available, feed »»»•»
uooooiJJS »J «
•w*"** 1

fermenting colostrum daily to maintain a uniform product. Mix two costs are minimal. Another

parts soured colostrum to one part warm water and feed. Adding consideration is the possibility of milk

several tablespoons (30 to 60 grams) of sodium bicarbonate can exposing the calf to Johne’s disease.
improve payability and acceptability by raising pH just prior to
Milk replacer (Table 10.2) can vary in
feeding (it will foam up, but does not affect calf acceptance).
the level of nutrients and quality of t- •
Adding 1 percent propionic acid (1 cup per 6 gallons [250
ingredients used. Review the feed tag
97

Table 10.2 Recommended nutrient content of diets for dairy Mastitic milk or waste milk can be used as a liquid feed for
heifers (dry matter basis) calves. Waste milk can be fed at the same level as whole milk or
milk replacer. However, bloody or watery waste milk and first milk
1« U0 <|
after treating for mastitis should be discarded. Waste milk may
HMI
not ferment if antibiotics are present. Do not sell calves as
feeders if they’ve been fed waste milk, as drug residue can
-
n»
appear in the meat. Mastitic milk should not be fed to calves
•»
4
•41 under 2 days of age.
•» •»
If female calves are prevented from sucking themselves or other
female calves, the risk of mastitic organisms from waste milk
becoming established in the immature female calf ' s udder is
minimized.
to evaluate feed sources. Young calves (less than 2 weeks) should
Feeding guidelines for liquid diets are 10 to 12 percent of the
receive a replacer with milk-based ingredients. Crude protein
calf ' s body weight as milk or milk replacer (100-pound [45-
levels should be 20 percent or higher with a minimum of 15
kilogram] calf multiplied by 0.10 equals 10 pounds or 5 quarts of
percent fat. Fat content should be 20 to 25 percent when calves
milk replacer (5 liters). Feeding
are exposed to cold weather or stress conditions. Milk replacers
calves twice a day is Pasteurizing waste milk
have several advantages compared to whole milk:
recommended to monitor health
• Replacer is fortified with mineral and vitamins. and appetite. Once-a-day feeding
can be successful if management
• Coccidiostat can be added to prevent coccidiosis.
is excellent and the liquid diet is
• It can be mixed when needed. concentrated. Water should be
available at all times, especially
• Replacer avoids the risk of Johne’s disease . as the calf increases in age or if
• It is cheaper than whole saleable milk. the weather is warm .
98
Calf starter textured grain to stimulate payability (recommended form of calf
starter). Adding 5 to 10 percent molasses can reduce fines and
The first dry feed a calf consumes is a calf starter that contains
dust while stimulating intake. The calf starter should contain a
grain and protein supplements designed to develop the calf 's
coccidiostat.
rumen and provide an economical source of nutrients. A pound of
calf starter can cost 15 to 20 cents while 1 pound of milk replacer
Water intake
will cost 90 cents a day. The goal is to get calves weaned
(removed from the liquid diet) to lower feed costs, reduce the risk Calves must have access to water to ensure adequate liquid
of digestive upsets, and develop the rumen. intake, when heat stress is occurring, if fever develops to avoid
dehydration, and to encourage calf starter intake. Researchers
A quality calf starter will have the nutrient characteristics listed in have reported calf starter intake was restricted when water was
Table 10.2. When the calf is consuming 2 pounds (0.9 kilogram) not available.
or more calf starter, ft can be weaned. A complete calf starter
(containing added fiber with no added forage available) is The water should be fresh and clean, and offered starting at 4
recommended. Free-choice forage fed with a starter can result in days of age. If a calf overconsumes (leading to water belly
over or under consumption of forage, which can unbalance the calves), limit the amount available, but do not remove. Monitoring
calf starter. If fiber is provided in the typical water consumption may provide an early indicator of
starter (from oats, barley, soy hulls, Accelerated calf disease. Some calf managers will mark the water line on the pail
or other grain fiber sources), rumen feeding programs to determine if a calf has increased its intake (possibly due to a
papillae and muscle development fever).
will occur.
Electrolyte use
Once the calf is consuming 4
pounds (1.8 kilograms) (small breed If a calf begins to scour, large quantities of fluid and minerals are
lost. Feeding an oral electrolyte, in addition to the normal liquid
calf) or 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms)
(large breed calf) of calf starter, diet, can return fluid balance. Feed 1 quart (1 liter) of electrolyte
15 to 30 minutes or more after each feeding of milk or milk
provide hay or haylage. Calf starter
replacer. Weak calves may require use of an esophageal feeder.
can be pelleted or fed as coarse
99

The calf receives four liquid feedings a day. Once scouring Fresh haylage must be fed each day to avoid mold formation and
subsides, reduce the volume of electrolyte. to encourage consumption.

Commercial electrolytes can be purchased and should be

Feed additives
available on the farm to be used as soon as diarrhea occurs. If no
commercial product is available, the following mixture can be All calves should receive a coccidiostat in their liquid feed and/or
used until a commercial package is purchased: calf starter to control coccidiosis. Be sure calves receive enough
additive to control the protozoa, lonophores will improve feed
•1 package of MCP pectin (making jelly) - fiber source efficiency and prevent coccidiosis. Check with your veterinarian
* 1 teaspoon (5 ml) of low sodium salt - mineral and electrolyte or feed supplier for optimal additives with coccidiostat control
source and the level needed.

• 2 teaspoons (10 ml) of baking soda - adjusts pH and minerals Probiotics (direct- fed microbial products) are recommended for
• 1 can of beef consomme - nutrients and minerals calves receiving a liquid diet to stimulate calf starter intake,
reduce health risks, and promote growth. Ask for research on the
• Add up to 2 quarts (2 liters) of water - replaces lost fluid
product as results have been variable. Yeast products can also be
beneficial.
Forage sources
Calves may pick at hay as early as 1 week of age, but they do not In summary
consume significant amounts until 4 to 8 weeks after birth. If
The goal of a successful calf rearing system is to have a healthy
calves eat hay instead of calf starter, energy and mineral intake
calf ready to move into the heifer growth phase, with no disease
will be low. Once the calf is consuming 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms)
damage (lung or small intestine) having impaired growth and with
of calf starter, good-quality hay or haylage can be offered (legume
a well- developed rumen. Calves should double their birth weight
or grass).
at weaning.
Avoid extremely high-quality forage as it can cause bloat in some
calves. Haylage over 60 percent moisture, pasture, and corn
silage should be minimized to calves less than 3 months of age.
100
Once the calf has been successfully weaned and reaches 3 shifted, depending on the Table 11.2 Dairy nutrient
months of age, it is ready to graduate to the heifer feeding number of heifers , facilities, and recommendations for
growing heifers (adapted
system. The following groupings of heifers can optimize growth age at breeding and calving.
from Dairy NRC 2001)
and cost savings. Reasons for seven groups include nutrient and Nutrient guidelines are listed in
dry matter intake differences, competition and size differences, Table 10.2 for three heifer ration
A.I. breeding, and gestation needs. groups and in Table 11.2 by
heifer weight. The following
Based on Table 11.1, three different rations should be developed
suggestions can be considered
and delivered to growing heifers. The age in each group can be
when building heifer rations:

Table 11.1 Grouping heifers for feed rationing • Do not feed corn silage, wet

Strategy haylage (over 60 percent moisture), or pasture to heifers under

Group Age (months) for the Group 3 months of age.

1 3 to 4 Ration 1, smaller groups for • Groups 1 and 2 need supplemental grain (3 to 5 pounds [1.4
competition (2 month age to 2.3 kilograms]) for energy, and a protein supplement (1/2 to
2 4 to 6 spread) 1 pound [226 to 454 grams]).

3 6 to 9 Ration 2, smaller group for • Groups 3 and 4 may need supplemental grain (1 to 3 pounds
competition ( 3 month age [0.45 to 1.4 kilograms]) depending on forage type and quality.
4 9 to 12 spread)
• Groups 5 and 6 may not need additional grain or protein
5 12 to 15 Ration 3, breeding group supplement beyond forage sources.

Ration 3, bred and/or with a • Group 7 rations can be similar to Group 5 and 6, but
6 15 to 21
clean-up bull supplemented with higher levels of trace minerals, vitamins,

Dry cow ration, adjust for

and nutrients for the unborn calf.
7 >21
growth requirements

102
 • All heifers should be force-fed a balanced mineral and vitamin are the second highest expense after dairy herd feed costs. Large
package (not free-choice) mixed with forage or grain. breed heifers should gain 1.8 to 2.0 pounds (0.8 to 0.9 kilogram)
per day after weaning while small breed heifers should gain 1.1 to
• All heifers should be fed an ionophore.
1.5 pounds (0.5 to 0.7 kilogram) per day (Table 11.2).
• Trace mineral salt can be offered separately on a free-choice
Body condition scores should remain under 3 until heifers are
basis (does not replace force- fed levels). Monitor intake to
bred. Table 11.3 lists growth guidelines for different breeds and
avoid luxury consumption and higher feed costs.
ages of heifers. Once heifers achieve the proper size, they should
Environmental factors can increase energy requirements beyond be bred as gestation is a fixed period that can delay return on
normal needs. For example, a 600-pound (272-kilogram) heifer investment. After calving, large breed heifers should weigh over
requires 9.1 pounds (4.1 kilograms) of TDN per day. If the heifer is 1,200 pounds (544 kilograms) and a body condition score of 3 to
housed in open housing in winter, add 0.30 pound (136 grams) 3.25 (which should be around 82 percent of mature body weight
TDN, or if it has heavy body mud coverage, add 0.38 pound (172 for the herd). If large breed heifers grow more than 2 inches (5
grams) of TDN. If both conditions occur, the heifer needs an centimeters) during the first lactation, these cows may direct
additional 0.75 pound (340 grams) of TDN or the heifer ’s growth nutrients from milk production to growth. One hundred pounds
rate will be reduced. (45 kilograms) of growth during the first lactation can reduce milk
yield by 600 pounds (272
Monitoring growth kilograms). Poor-quality Table 11.3 Breed
forages will prevent successful comparison for standards
Every dairy manager who raises replacement heifers should of weight and height for
accelerated growth programs. heifers
measure and monitor heifer growth. Most dairy farmers can
If heifers calve three months
quickly relay their rolling herd average or milk yield per cow per
earlier (24 versus 27 months of
day. Few managers know heifer average daily gain, weight at
breeding, wither height at calving, or body condition scores.
Heifer growth is the “report card” on the heifer rearing enterprise.
age) , heifer costs decrease by
$180, and fewer replacement — E

heifers will be required to

A new challenge for dairy managers is accelerated growth for maintain current herd size .
heifers, as rearing costs continue to climb. Heifer rearing costs
103

Risk of fatty udder development up). The level of filler forage can vary from 15 to 20 percent
of the ration DM, depending on the other forages available
Research demonstrates that high-energy rations with marginal
on the farm.
protein intake produce overconditioned heifers with decreased
mammary gland development and reduced milk production. 2. Limit feeding of the ration by delivering only the amount of
Hormonal shifts (lower levels of bovine somatotropin and other DM needed to meet nutrient requirements. These rations
mammogenic hormones) lead to this negative effect. The critical could be forage or grain and by -product based, depending
control time is the prepubertal development phase (4 to 10 on feed availability and prices. Bunk management and
months of age) when the mammary gland, secretory ducts, and space must be considered, as all heifers must eat at the
parenchyma cells develop. New York research has indicated that same time. Feed may be consumed in less than six hours.
if nutrient levels are balanced and body condition scores are Advantage of this approach is less manure is produced and
within acceptable ranges, mammary development (measured by the heifers exhibit improved feed efficiency. No negative
milk yield) is not compromised . impact on future milk production occurred in research
studies.
Controlling body condition score
As heifers increase in age (over 12 months of age), body
The late pregnant (third trimester) heifer
condition scores over 3.25 can occur leading to risks during the The last heifer group is the springing heifer. Besides gaining 1.5 to
transition period. Reasons for this problem include heifers raised 1.6 pounds (0.68 to 0.73 kilogram) of true frame, it must also
in confinement with limited exercise and the availability of high- provide nutrients for a rapidly growing fetus and mammary gland
quality forages on the farm. Two approaches can be considered development plus colostrum synthesis. During the last trimester
to control dry matter intake (DMI) or nutrient consumption: of pregnancy, fetal and related tissue gains account for 1.0 to 1.5
pounds (0.45 to 0.68 kilogram) per day of weight gain. Thus, the
1. Add a filler forage (straw, cornstalks, or low -quality forage
springing heifer should gain over 2.5 pounds (1.13 kilograms) of
with a TDN level below 48 percent) to dilute the energy
scale weight per day. These heifers also need additional trace
density of the forage-based ration in heifer rations over one
minerals and vitamins for the unborn calf, colostrum synthesis,
year of age. These rations with filler forage are offered free-
the immune system, and to minimize metabolic disorders.
choice as the filler forage limits total DMI (the heifer is filled

104
Heifer contracts Contract raising heifers
As dairy farms grow, dairy managers may raise heifers for other
Heifer contracts operations or contract to have someone else raise their heifers .
Wisconsin workers summarized the cost to raise heifers,
As more dairy managers concentrate resources and labor on
the milking herd, heifer raising can be contracted out, freeing depending on starting weight (Table 11.4). These prices provide
returns on labor, management, and capital. A signed contract or
up space, feed inventory, and labor. A signed contract should
be developed (with input from a lawyer) and signed before
agreement must be completed by both parties outlining rate of

starting this system. The contract should specify the following gain, monthly payment schedule, payment based on average

and each party ’s responsibilities (owner or calf raiser):

daily gain or cost
per day, death
Table 11.4 Heifer raising costs per day
• Death loss (over 3 percent may be the action level when (not including pre- weaning costs)
losses, breeding
cost/loss responsibilities shift from owner to raiser) program, Item Cost

• Health treatment (who decides and pays for veterinary veterinarian

Feed $1.44

treatment) charges, duration

Labor & Management
$0.54
of the contract, (paid & unpaid)
• Breeding (when to breed, sire selection, rebreeding costs,
and management Variable costs’ $0.42
and determining infertility)
practices Fixed Costs" $0 29
• Payment (monthly, per day, and/or per unit of gain) (dehorning,
$2.75 per day
parasite control, Total ($1.53 per pound of gain at
• Ownership (retained, sold to raiser, or first option to buy 1.8 pounds gained per day)
disease control,
back) .
'Bedding, veterinary, breeding, fuel, electncal interest of 8%
overcrowding, "Housing, equipment
• Health program (vaccination and co -mingling with heifers identification, and Total cost from birth to freshening $2,105 not including female
from other farms) hoof care). calf value and calving at 23.4 months of age

Based on survey of 33 Wisconsin operations (2015)

• Policy to return unthrifty and unhealthy heifers to the
owner

105
The transition cow period is critical to health, production, and If the dry period is longer than 70 days, the likelihood of
reproduction. An optimal transition cow program can improve metabolic disorders can rise, feed costs are increased, and milk
milk yield by 600 to 1,500 pounds (272 to 680 kilograms) per cow production is reduced. Phase 2 should be three weeks long to
per lactation. Dairy managers must focus on this critical 50- to ensure cows have a minimum of 10 days receiving the transition
70-day period. Goals for this period are listed below: diet.

• Involute (dry up) the mammary gland, avoid new mastitis If the transition diet is started 10 days before the cow’s due date,
infections, and regenerate the udder prior to calving 4 percent of the cows will calve early and miss the entire
transition diet, and 18 percent will calve early and receive it for
• Provide added nutrients to meet needs of the unborn calf
less than five days (over a fifth of the cows). In this phase, the
• Adjust body condition score, if needed, while maintaining rumen must be given a higher energy diet to stimulate rumen
positive energy balance; papillae elongation. This increases the surface area to absorb
volatile fatty acids. Rumen microbial changes must occur as
• Stimulate the immune system to minimize disease cows receive high-energy diets after calving.
• Stimulate rumen bacteria and papillae
Chapter 3 discusses feeding strategies for Phase 1 and 2 dry
• Minimize metabolic disorder cows. Appendix Table 2 and Table 3 list recommended nutrient
guidelines for dry cows. Springing heifers should also be fed
• Maintain dry matter intake allowing for higher intake (DMI) these dry cow phase rations plus growth allowances. If optimal
after calving dry cow rations and transition feed management occurs, dry
matter intake (DMI) can be maintained and metabolic disorders
Dry cow stages minimized. The following levels of metabolic disorders should be

The length of Phase 1 (far-off dry cow) must be a minimum of 30 monitored:

days to allow for complete involution of the udder. Phase 2 • Milk fever - less than 3 percent
(close-up dry cow) must be a minimum of 15 days to allow for
mammary gland regeneration and colostrum formation, which is • Hypocalcemia - less than 15 percent
hormonally controlled.

107

• Ketosis (primary) - less than 2 percent period the low -energy ration, which should stabilize body
condition scores at 3.0 to 3.25. Close-up cows can remain on this
• Retained placenta - less than 8 percent
ration while adding extra trace minerals, needed feed additives,
* Displaced abomasum - less than 5 percent and higher levels of MP.

Nutrient Recommended intake

Low- energy dry cow rations
Dry matter 45 to 47 percent (add water)
One goal is to maintain feed intake and rumen fill without
excessive body weight gain or higher body condition scores. 0.59 to 0.61 megacalories per pound
Illinois researchers have developed low-energy dry cow rations Net energy (1.3 to 1.4 megacalories per kilogram)
(also called the high straw diet or Goldilocks diet) that can be fed of dry matter
free-choice using wheat straw to limit feed intake and energy Metabolizable
1,300 grams
.
intake These rations consist of 30 to 35 percent straw, 30 to 35 protein (MP)
percent kernel processed corn silage, and balanced for
Starch 12 to 18 percent
metabolizable protein (MP), minerals, vitamins, and additives. A
Holstein cow should consume over 30 pounds (13.6 kilograms) of Sugar 5 to 7 percent
dry matter, which provides 16 to 18 megacalories of net energy. A Vitamin E 2,000 IU per cow per day
Holstein springing heifers can consume 25 pounds of dry matter
(11.3 kilograms) to meet nutrient intake. Recommended nutrient
guidelines are listed below. Anionic products / salts
Hypocalcemia, or low blood calcium (less than 8.6 milligrams per
Straw must be processed reducing particle length to less than 2
deciliter), can cause lower feed intake, retained placenta, and
inches (5 centimeters) to prevent sorting. Using a Penn State
displaced abomasum. Feeding acidogenic diets with anionic salts
Particle Box , one-third should be in each box (three-box system)
during the close-up dry period reduces milk fever and
after processing. Adding water improves payability as the straw
hypocalcemia.
absorbs the water and reduces sorting. Other straw types and
low -quality grasses could be used. Cows are fed for the entire dry

108
Anion and cation are terms used to describe minerals in a ration. First, all feed must be tested for sodium, potassium, sulfur, and
Whether a mineral element is an anion or cation depends on its chlorine using wet chemistry analysis (no NIR tests). DCAD
electrical charge. Anions have a negative charge, while cations equivalence is calculated by determining the sum of sodium and
have a positive charge. potassium minus the sum of chloride and sulfur. But first, these
elements must be converted from percent to milliequivalents per
Important ration anions include chloride, sulfur, and phosphorus . kilogram (meq/kg) of feed. Factors to convert from percent dry
Ration cations include sodium, potassium, calcium, and
matter basis (% DM) to meq/kg are:
magnesium. Cation-anion difference is calculated by subtracting
the equivalent weight (molecular weight divided by the ion charge) Element Factor
of anions from the equivalent weight of the cations.
Sodium (Na) 434
Rations high in cations relative to anions, or having a higher or Potassium (K) 256
positive cation-anion balance, are considered alkaline rations. On Chloride (Cl) 282
the other hand, rations low in cations relative to anions or having Sulfur (S) 624
a low or negative cation-anion balance, are considered acidic.
After finding the percent of these elements in the ration, and
Alkaline rations tend to cause milk fever, while acidic rations tend
multiplying percent by the factor to obtain meq/kg, the DCAD is
to prevent milk fever. The main benefit of feeding acidic rations is
found by this equation:
increased mobilization of calcium from bone and parathyroid
hormone function. Anionic products improve blood calcium levels DCAD = (Na + K) - (Cl + S)
for two reasons: the products promote bone mobilization of
Here is a sample calculation of the DCAD of a ration:
calcium (bone acts as a buffer by exchanging calcium), and they
increase vitamin D metabolites and parathyroid function. Na: 0.20 % DM 0.20 x 434 = 87 meq/kg

If the calcium control is “turned on,” cows can respond to sudden K: 1.0 % DM 1.0 x 256 = 256 meq/kg
calcium demands at calving and in early lactation. The potential
Cl: 0.20 % DM 0.20 x 282 = 56 meq/kg
of a diet to be acidogenic can be calculated by DCAD (dietary
cation-anion difference). S: 0.20 % DM 0.20 x 624 = 122 meq/kg

109

Note: DCAD may be expressed as meq per kg or meq per 100 g: Step 4. Balance DCAD (- 50 to -150 meq/kg) using a
the above would then be expressed as +165/kg, but +16.5 per chloride source.
100 g. Both values are equal and must be used correctly.
Step 5. Raise ration calcium to 120 to 180 grams using
The DCAD for this example would be: calcium carbonate or calcium propionate (40 to 50 grams
from inorganic sources).
(87 + 256) - (56 + 122) = +165 meq/kg
.
Step 6 Check ration phosphorus (40 to 50 grams) using
The recommended DCAD to maintain blood calcium is zero to dicalcium phosphate if needed.
-50. The DCAD can be lowered by adding anionic products.
Anionic products and feeds used in the field include magnesium Avoid phosphorus levels over 60 grams as it can interfere with
sulfate, calcium sulfate, magnesium chloride, calcium chloride, vitamin D conversion in the kidney. Close -up dry cows will
ammonium sulfate, ammonium chloride, and hydrochloric acid- experience a drop in urine pH when DCAD goals are achieved.
treated feed. The cow attempts to correct the metabolic acidosis by excreting
hydrogen ions in the urine, lowering urine pH. Normal urine pH is
Build your anionic salt mixture following these steps: over 8. If an optimal DCAD is fed, urine pH should drop to 6.0 to
6.5 (Jersey cows need to be 5.5 to 6).
Step 1. Select feed ingredients with low dietary cation-anion
difference (DCAD), especially forages low in potassium (K) . If urine pH is below 5, kidney
The goal in a dry cow ration is to provide an excess of Measuring urine pH
damage could occur due to over
anions, mainly Cl and S, compared to cations, mainly Na acidification and reducing DMI . Measuring urine pH

and K. Check urine pH after three to five

-
Ybu can check urine pH of cloee v© dry cows on
rionic saHs using commercial pH strips. They coma
.
100 to 200 strips per box w h a pH range 6 to 8.1
* .
days of feeding anionic salts on
.
Step 2 Balance ration magnesium at 0.4 percent using
optimal
.
for urine checking. 1b ceded a sample of
.
urme try ticking me cow bekrw me vutva especially if
several cows to determine if the me cow was tying down and has just stood up. Catch
magnesium sulfate or magnesium chloride. a small wnoont of mei#tne midstream r a paste cup
Dio a pH indicator strip or paper m the urtne and reed
.
cows are eating the ration and the cotor change The typical cost is 10 to 12 cents a

.
Step 3 Raise ration sulfur to 0.4 percent using calcium DCAD is optimal. Collect urine
ttnp. Strips are available from lab supply cornpanes or
onine. Two sources are listed below.

«-
Fisher Scientific 800 76 7000
sulfate. samples two to four hours after
Whatman ( GE Healthcare Life Sciences ):

feeding anionic salt -containing -

800 528 3593

110
feed. Use of a pH meter or pH paper provides satisfactory results. Chlorine-based products will drop urine pH more than sulfate
products on an equivalent basis. A second generation of anionic
A typical close-up dry cow ration with anionic products and
products is commercially available using hydrochloric acid
calculated DCAD is shown below.
instead of salts as the acidifying agent (BIOCHLOR or
SoyChlor products, for example, or by unique processing such
Element Amount Factor DCAD
as Animate ). These products are more palatable and can
Sodium (Na) 0.2% 434 87
improve DMI. Cows should consume an anionic ration for a
Potassium (K) 1.2 % 256 307 minimum of 10 days. Udder edema is not increased when feeding
Chloride (Cl) 1.0% 282 282 anionic salts.
Sulfur (S) 0.3% 624 187
Attempts to use anionic products to prevent hypocalcemia
sometimes fail. If dietary calcium concentration and intake are not
DCAD = (Na + K) - (Cl + S)
raised to recommended amounts for pre- fresh cows, the
expected responses to anionic products may not occur, even
DCAD with anionic salts added:
when the DCAD is low or negative.
(87 + 307) - (282 + 187) = -75 meq/kg
Monitor ration total NPN (nonprotein nitrogen) if ammonium
Shifting the DCAD from +165 to -75 should increase blood sulfate or ammonium chloride are used. If rations contain
calcium and lower urine pH. Anionic products will increase close- considerable soluble nitrogen or rumen degraded protein, use
up dry ration costs by 50 to 70 cents per cow per day, but the ammonium salts carefully. Rumen degraded protein should not
benefit-to-cost ratio is favorable at 10:1. These products can be .
exceed 70 percent of total crude protein Finally, avoid providing
unpalatable and should be diluted with 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms) milking cows anionic products and negative DCAD’s under any
of grain. It may be better to mix the anionic salts with the grain. If circumstances. After calving, switch cows to a ration with a
late dry cows are fed a TMR, the anionic product can be added positive DCAD (+200 to +400 meq/kg dry matter) for higher intake
directly to the mixer with a carrier. Some commercially formulated and milk production.
products are pelleted to reduce separation of feed ingredients
and to improve handling.

in
There are many conditions that present special feeding reluctant to come to the system (fear, lameness, nutrient level of
challenges to dairy farmers. Four areas that will be addressed are the PMT, or pellet quality). Most cows will be milked 2.8 to 3.2
robotic grain feeding, feeding when milking three times a day, times per 24 hours.
heat stress, and lameness.
Two systems can be used with AMS: free flow, where cows can
access all barn areas without restrictions, and guided flow. Two
Robotic milking systems — feeding strategies
guided flow options exist.
and considerations
• Feed first: where cows consume PMR and then are milked
For the past several years, a rapid adoption of automatic milk
.
system (AMS) has occurred in Canada and the U.S This growth • Milked first: where grain is fed during the milking process and
has allowed smaller dairy farms to milk three times a day, not hire
then cows are released to PMR
additional labor, remove the drudgery of milking, and collect more
management data on their herd. Feed delivery for this system Field reports and research suggest the grain first is more
includes a partial mixed ration (PMR) and an electronic grain .
desirable as cows consume the allocated grain levels Pellet
dispensing system that allows for individual delivery of needed quality is critical to avoid dustiness, which lowers grain
nutrients by grain sources . consumption. A Canadian study reported low - quality pellets
resulted in 16 percent fetch cows and 1.72 milking per day. High-
In AMS herds, a PMR is fed to provide 55 to 70 percent of the
quality pellets lowered fetch cows to 7 percent and improved
nutrient requirements including forage and effective fiber sources
milking per cow to 2.1 per day. Avoid unpalatable feed due to
(65 to 70 percent forage is typical in the PMR). The remaining
taste or odor such as blood meal, fat, feather meal, and pork
nutrients are delivered by a pelleted grain mix, which acts as a
.
meat and bone meal Palatable ingredients include roasted
reward system by encouraging cows to come to through milking
soybeans, molasses, soybean meal, soy hulls, and oats. A survey
system to be milked. If the PMR meets too much of their needs,
of nutritionists reported six keys to successful AMS feeding
cows are reluctant to come to the AMS. This results in a larger
systems and milk production:
percent of fetch cows (the dairy farmers must find these cows
.
and drive them to the AMS) If fetch cows or lazy cows are over 5 • Know dry matter intake and set ration nutrient level to meet
to 7 percent of the herd, review the reasons why cows can be cow needs.

113

• Match energy to level of milk production from the AMS and not gain as much weight prior to dry -off when compared to 2x
PMR. cows. Consider the following strategies when switching to 3x or
4x with comparisons to BST strategies are noted.
• Develop PMR that cannot be sorted .
• Nutrient content of the ration should be increased to meet
• Diets must promote healthy cows.
higher nutrient needs of the higher producing 3x cows.
• Communicate with the herd manager and feeder. • Monitoring milk components of 3 x cows can indicate if
• Ensure consistent feeding schedules for the PMR. nutrient needs are not being met.

Some AMS systems can deliver more than one grain mixture such • Body weight changes with 3x must be evaluated and rations
as an 18 percent complete pellet or roasted soybean. Utilizing adjusted if weight gain is not achieved. Lower body weight
liquid molasses may be a feasible strategy when sprayed on the can affect reproductive performance and future milk
meal grain, compared to more expensive pellets . production.

• If cows dry off at low body condition scores (BCS < 2.75), add
Feeding with three-times-a- day milking weight during the dry period.
Milking cows three times a day (3x) is another way to boost milk
• Feedbunk management must be optimal, as with BST use, to
yield and income. Maryland researchers summarized 19 studies
allow cows to consume more feed. With 3 X, cows may spend
and reported that milk yield was 7.7 pounds (3.5 kilograms) higher
more time waiting in the parlor holding area and standing on
compared to cows milking 2x, regardless of current milk
concrete which adds stress and reduces eating and lying-
production or lactation number. Milkfat tests declined 0.14
down time.
percent (3.65 percent to 3.51 percent). Milk protein averages
declined 0.05 percent (3.10 percent to 3.05 percent).
Feeding during hot weather
In Californian studies, feed intake increased 4 to 6 percent , but
Heat stress in dairy herds can be a serious problem. Milk
this did not meet the higher nutrient needs associated with the
production may decline 20 percent or more, milkfat and protein
higher milk yield. First -lactation cows did not raise their dry
tests may drop, reproductive efficiency declines, and metabolic
matter intake (DMI) as much as older cows milked 3x. Cows did
114
disorders can be life-threatening. Two key factors related to heat Factor 2. Dry matter intake drops as heat stress increases.
stress must be considered:
Table 13.1 illustrates the potential amount milk production drops
.
Factor 1 Dairy cows experiencing heat stress will require due to both factors. Farm managers must reduce heat load on
increased energy to reduce heat load (expressed as an increase dairy cows through housing, shade, air movement, and cooling.
in maintenance requirement). The additional pounds of dry matter Check with your housing specialists to get the latest guidelines
to support this increase in energy is calculated in Table 13.1. and ideas on how to lower heat stress.

Table 13.1 Relative changes in maintenance requirement and dry matter intake (DMI) for a 1300-pound cow producing 60
pounds (27.2 kilograms) of 3.7% fat milk at various temperatures

Maintenance
Temp Requirements DMI Requirements' Expected DMI2 Expected Milk3
°F (°C) (% at 68°F/20 °C) lbs. (kg)/day lbs. (kg)/day lbs. (kg)/day
68 (20) 100 40.0 (18.1) 40.0 (18.1) 60.0 (27.2)

86 (30) 111 41.6 (18.9) 37.4 (17.0) 51.0 (23.1)

95 (35) 120 42.2 (19.1) 36.7 (16.7) 39.8 (18.1)

104 (40) 132 44.4 (20.1) 22.4 (10.2) 26.0 (11.8)

1. Dry matter intake needed to maintain 60 pounds (27.2 kilograms) of milk plus increased maintenance requirements.

2. Predicted dry matter intake consumed under heat stress conditions.

3. Expected milk yield is based on expected DMI.

115

Strategies for heat stressed cows • Heat is generated internally when feed is digested. Heat
Several nutritional challenges occur when cows are under heat increment increases and adds heat for the cow to dissipate.
stress: Strategy: Feed high-quality forages, more digestible energy
sources, and supplemental fat to reduce the heat associated
• Feed intake can decline 10 to 30 percent due to the heat with digestion.
increment related to feed digestion.
Strategy: Use all the “tricks of the trade” to maintain feed • Avoid secondary fermentation in the feed bunk.

intake. Remove unpalatable feeds such as animal proteins, Strategy: Provide shade over the feed bunk, and include corn
improve feed bunk management, or use higher feed quality silage in the ration to lower feed pH and slow down heating.
options. Try adding feed additives such as buffers, rumen Consider a mold inhibitor such as a propionic acid-based
protected niacin, immune stimulating products, and/or yeast additive, feed at night, and add water to the dry rations to
culture. Check with your housing specialists to get the latest increase feed intake. Adding water dilute down silage acids
guidelines and ideas on how to lower heat stress through and cause fast secondary heating of feed.
housing, shade, wetting the cow, air movement, and cooling
• Rumen acidosis is a risk due to shifting eating patterns.
cows.
Strategy: Maintain constant feeding times, meet minimum
• Blood flow is reduced to the digestive tract as cows attempt functional and chemical fiber levels, avoid slug feeding of
to dissipate heat . grain (over 5 pounds [2.3 kilograms] of grain dry matter per
Strategy: Improve feed digestibility by using high-quality feed meal), and keep cows from sorting feed (use a TMR) .
ingredients . • Add fat as an energy source carefully.
• Cows will eat during cooler times of the day resulting in Strategy: Oilseeds (such as soybeans or cottonseed) can
variable intake patterns. increase the amount of unsaturated fatty acids, reducing fiber
Strategy: Pasture cows at night and provide more of the feed digestibility. Inert fats reduce the risk of negative rumen
at night. Measure feed intake to maintain adequate feed effects.
supplies and challenge the herd at night.

116
 • Total ration neutral detergent fiber (NDF) below 28%
Mineral relationships
Higher levels of sodium (0.5 percent) in the total ration dry matter • Forage NDF or effective NDF below 21 %
are beneficial during heat stress .
• Feeding more than 5 pounds (2.3 kilograms) of grain per meal
Sodium is excreted in urine while potassium losses occur due to
sweating. Maintain a ratio of 3 parts potassium to 1 part sodium • Feeding more than 2 percent of the cow ’s body weight as
(for example, 1.2 to 1.5 percent potassium and 0.4 to 0.5 percent grain dry matter
sodium). Magnesium also should be increased from 0.25 to 0.35
When a buffer pack is added, monitor DMI to assess its
percent of the ration dry matter with higher levels of potassium
effectiveness. Offer sodium bicarbonate free-choice (in addition
with a ratio of 5:1 potassium to magnesium.
to force-fed levels listed above) for cows that crave more buffer -
Higher cationic rations (400 meq/kg) can increase DMI based on this can be an indicator of acidosis. Sodium bentonite and salt
the dietary cation-anion difference (DCAD) equation using meg/kg can also be offered free -choice, but they should be offered
as the measurement for each element (see Anionic Salts section separately. Recommended amounts of buffer and salt should be
in Chapter 12 for more examples): force- fed through the TMR or grain mixture.

DCAD = (sodium + potassium) - (chlorine + sulfur) Dairy managers must address heat stress. Hoping for a cool
summer is not a sound strategy. Heat stress management and
Add 0.75 percent of the total ration dry matter as sodium ration adjustments can maintain milk yield and components
bicarbonate or sodium sesquicarbonate (50 pounds dry matter resulting in 50 cents to over $1 added profit per cow per day.
multiplied by 0.0075 = 0.37 pounds of bicarbonate per cow per
day [22.7 kilograms x 0.0075 = 170 grams or 0.17 kilograms per Impact of nutrition on hoof health
cow per day]). Adjust buffer intake based on total dry matter
Dairy Herd Improvement (DHI) records indicate lameness as the
consumption. Supplement a buffer pack containing potassium
third most common cause of culling or premature removal from
carbonate and sodium bicarbonate under the following conditions
the herd, behind reproduction and mastitis.
when heat stress is occurring:
Laminitis is an inflammation in the hoof area causing disrupted
* Total ration acid detergent fiber (ADF) below 19%
blood flow to the corium. Inflammation of the laminae can
117

Movie 13.1 Measuring lameness on the farm

Measuring
Lameness
on the Farm

-r V' **

.- -
mi '
—
m -1

Z ILLINOIS

118
compromise blood supply and nutrient delivery to the keratin- feed), and feed sorting (allows dairy cows to consume high levels
producing cells, which impacts horn tissue quality. of fermentable carbohydrates). A suboptimal transition program
can lead to rumen acidosis as dry cows consuming high-fiber
Excessive rumen fermentable carbohydrates can lead to higher
rations are moved to rations containing higher levels of grain and
volatile fatty acid (VFA) production, higher levels of lactic acid
less forage. This can lead to hoof disorders observed 60 to 100
(strong acid that drops rumen pH) and an increase in rumen fluid
days after calving.
osmolality. Blood histamine is increased after the death of gram-
negative bacteria releasing endotoxin that causes blood pooling Related feeding factors, ingredient -based factors, and
in the claw. Coliform bacteria may thrive by releasing endotoxins recommended nutrient levels to minimize the hoof risk are
and amides. Protein degradation in the rumen also could summarized below.
contribute to histamine production. Rumen acidosis produces an
Starch and sugar lead to greater DMI and an increase in VFA
enzyme that activates a metalloproteinase (MMP) that breaks
production. These carbohydrates can shift fermentation away
down bonds between the epidermis of the hoof wall and soft
from fiber digestion and increase levels of propionic and lactic
tissue in the corium leading to sole ulcers and white line
acids. Grain particle size (finely ground less than 500 microns),
abscesses.
grain processing (steam flaking or high-moisture grain over 28
Subacute rumen acidosis (SARA) continues to be a factor in hoof percent moisture), and starch sources (wheat grain versus corn
disorders as it can lead to laminitis. Factors that can lower rumen grain) impact the rate of rumen fermentation. Sugars have faster
pH below 6 include high levels of rumen fermentable starch and rates of rumen fermentation (found in high-quality pasture, for
sugars, excessive unsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), high DMI that example). Suggested starch level in the total ration dry matter is
shift the rate of passage and availability of nutrients, slug feeding 24 to 28 percent starch and 5 to 7 percent sugar.
of grain (over 5 to 7 pounds [2.3 to 3.2 kilograms] of dry matter
per meal), forages lower in natural buffering capacity (such as Protein quality and quantity can impact hoof hardness. High

corn silage), forages that are processed too short reducing cud levels of degradable protein and total protein may lead to rumen

chewing (less than 0.35 inch [9 millimeters]), wet rations (over 55 fermentation products that can impact hoof health. Balance

percent moisture), high-quality pasture (lack of functional fiber), rations based on metabolizable protein requirements using a
rumen modeling program to avoid excessive nitrogen while
empty feedbunks (over four hours resulting in engorgement of
meeting amino acid needs for milk yield.
119

Physically effective fiber maintains a rumen forage raft to susceptible to heel, foot rot, and sole abscesses. Suggested
optimize rate of passage and normal rumination (over 450 to 600 level of total copper in the ration dry matter is 10 to 15 ppm (one-
minutes of cud chewing activity per day). Rumen pH should be third from organic copper sources and two-thirds from inorganic
maintained above 6 related to saliva production rich in sodium copper sources).
bicarbonate (pka 6.25 which is the buffering point of sodium
Manganese is needed for normal bone density and joint
bicarbonate). Five pounds or 2 kilograms of forage particles over
structure. It is required for chondroitin sulfate synthesis in its role
0.75 inches (19 millimeters) in length, 21 percent forage NDF, or
in joint cartilage. Manganese has a role as a superoxide
19 to 21 percent effective NDF are suggested minimum levels for
scavenger decreasing free radicals that lead to oxidative damage.
physically effective fiber.
Suggested level of manganese is 40 to 60 ppm with one-third
Unsaturated fats and oils can reduce fiber digestion, shift VFA from organic sources.
patterns, or lower rumen pH depressing fiber-digesting bacteria.
Sulfur is needed for sulfur containing amino acids synthesized by
Unsaturated fatty acids can be changed to CU\ (conjugated
rumen bacteria (requires a ratio of 10 to 12 parts nitrogen to one
linoleic acids) forms of the fatty acid lowering milkfat test. Limit
part sulfur), vitamins (biotin and thiamine), and chondroitin sulfate.
added vegetable oil to 2.5 percent from oilseeds, free oil (not
Harder hooves have been reported with added sulfur by
contained in the seed cell) to 225 grams per cow per day, or fish
strengthening the associated protein bond. Suggested level of
oil to 50 grams per day. Feeding rumen inert fat sources reduces
total sulfur is 0.22 to 0.25 percent in the total ration dry matter.
rumen fermentation changes. Total levels of PUFA should be
under 500 grams per cow per day. Keep total ration ether extract Zinc is a component of over 300 enzyme systems and improves
(fats and oils) below six percent of the ration dry matter. claw integrity through wound healing, epithelium maintenance,
and keratin synthesis and maturation. Synthesis of collagen,
Copper is needed for synthesis and maintenance of elastic tissue
keratin, and related protein-keratin compound require zinc for
such as tendons. Copper can impact the claw by raising the
enzyme function. Zinc levels in pasture vary with the lowest levels
production of a copper enzyme, thiol oxidase, increasing hoof
in the spring lush growth period. Recommended zinc level in the
hardness through disulfate bonds in keratin. Immunity and
total ration dry matter is 40 to 60 ppm (one-third organic zinc
antioxidant activity by superoxide dismutase need copper for cell
sources).
membrane protection. Cattle deficient in copper are more

120
 .
Vitamin A is important for epithelial skin and bone health A Body condition scores are positively associated with digital
deficiency can result in inflammation of the coronary band of the cushion thickness (DCT), which can provide cushion to the hoof
hoof. Suggested supplemental levels of vitamin A range from support structure. Cows with the highest DCT score/thickness
75,000 to 100,000 III per cow per day. had 15 percent lower lameness score compared to the lowest
DCT scored cows. The DCT continued to drop after parturition
Biotin is needed for keratin formation and claw horn
reaching the lowest level (nadir) at 120 days after calving. Dairy
development. A deficiency leads to foot disorders in cattle and
managers need to monitor changes in BCS after calving
horses. Biotin supplementation can increase milk yield by 4 to 5
minimizing BCS losses to less than 0.5 point (on a 1 to 5 scale).
pounds (2.0 to 2.5 kilograms). Milk production increases were not
related to hoof improvement based on the immediacy of the milk
response. Instead, the mechanism for higher milk yield may be
related to its metabolic vitamin B function. Supplemental biotin
requires 6 to 12 months to observe a hoof response. The
recommended level of biotin is 20 milligrams per day.

Direct fed microbial (DFM) or probiotics include yeast products

and live bacteria that can reduce lactic acid levels in the rumen,
increase fiber digestion, and/or stabilize the rumen environment.
Check DFM products for controlled research results as numerous
commercial products are available with different bacterial
combinations.

Monensin reduces lactic acid levels in the rumen while lowering

ketosis risk in transition cows, which can maintain feed intake
and meet nutrient needs. Monensin can also lead to smaller and
Well-tended hooves are essential to long- term health for a
cow, and to prevent premature culling due to lameness.
more frequent meals per day, which reduces shifts in the rumen
environment based on feedlot data .
121
In the spring of 2001, after several years of committee review and percent lower than Dairy NRC Protein values found in
writing, the National Research Council released the seventh 1989. But do NOT directly Dairy NRC 2001
revised edition of the Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle compare or interchange these Protein values found m Dwry NRC 2001

(referred to as Dairy 2001 NRC in this publication). The 382 -page values since they are calculated
Tte

book summarizes the most current research to determine the differently. *»r

nutrient requirements of dairy cattle, describe nutrients, and list

In the NRC feed tables, a
the nutrient composition of dairy feeds.
undegraded protein values •» »%
* Vl \
*
The Dairy 2001 NRC may be viewed for free online at change as dry matter changes . • Ovi
http:// www.nap.edu under ISBN: 978-0-309-06997 - 7. Higher dry matter intake will
increase RUP as feed remains in
In this chapter, we summarize changes and applications that
the rumen for a shorter time and
dairy managers, nutritionists, consultants, and veterinarians
less microbial degradation will
should be aware of and how these changes will impact field
occur. When using the model, users can adjust the rate of protein
results and recommendations.
degradation (expressed as percent per hour) and intestinal RUP
digestibility can be adjusted. The model calculates the amount of
Protein applications amino acids available for absorption in the small intestine, but no
A new protein term is metabolizable protein (MP) , representing amino acid requirements are included. A ratio of three parts lysine
the amount of amino acids from rumen microbial synthesis and to one part methionine is a desirable amino acid balance (these
rumen undegraded protein (RUP) sources. The term RUP also two amino acids are considered first limiting). No soluble protein
replaced undegraded intake protein (UIP). Protein requirements in values are listed for feeds, and no requirements are included.
the appendix tables include the amount and/or percent of MP,
rumen degraded protein (RDP), RUP, and crude protein. Energy changes
Crude protein recommendations in Dairy NRC 2001 are based on The method for calculating energy content of feed is now based
metabolizable protein needs. Generally, crude protein on a summative equation to estimate TDN at one-time
recommendations using Dairy NRC 2001 will be about 0.5 maintenance. Truly digestible NFC, crude protein, fatty acids
multiplied by 2.25, and NDF were used in the equation. As cows
123

consume more dry matter, energy values are reduced due to a Mineral update Mineral values listed in
shorter time in the digestive tract lowering digestibility. Energy Dairy NRC 2001
content of feeds is changed based on multiples of maintenance.
True mineral availability in feeds . »
Mineral HUM l ted W Dairy NRC 2001

and inorganic supplements is

The computer model adjusts values for intake and energy levels calculated to target mineral
in the base ration. Processing adjustment factor (PAF) allows the requirements and avoid
user to adjust for NFC (primarily starch) availability due to excessive mineral
processing or heat treatment (such as steam flaking or plant .
supplementation Phosphorus
processing corn silage). Energy requirements for each milk availability is increased from 50
component are calculated independently as the user enters percent (Dairy NRC 1989) to 70
percent milkfat, lactose, and total or true protein. percent for concentrates and 64
percent for forages in Dairy NRC 2001, reducing the amount
Maintenance requirements for cows on pasture are increased for
needed. With higher dry matter intakes and phosphorus
the distance walked (miles or kilometers), frequency of trips per
availability, ration phosphorus levels drop to 0.38 percent.
day (milking and pasture frequency), and topography (slope).
Pregnancy requirements begin when pregnant cows and heifers In the feed composition table, each feed has an average mineral
reach 190 days in calf and increase up to 279 days as the fetus content, a standard deviation (reflects the variation in the mineral
requires more nutrients (no adjustment for twins is included) . content), and number of samples used to calculate the data (if the
Energy needs for body condition changes vary based on body number of feed samples is low, less accuracy may occur and on-
composition changes (percent protein, fat, ash, and water) and farm testing may be warranted). Ration phosphorus, calcium, and
shifts in body condition score (changing from 2 to 3 requires less manganese levels dropped while the remaining mineral
energy compared changing from 3 to 4). Heifer requirements are requirements and ration recommendations did not greatly
adjusted for cold stress, hair length, and matting of the hair coat . change.
No adjustment for feeding an ionophore (improves energy
balance) is included. Dry matter intake (DMI)
DMI guidelines are based on published research studies totaling
over 17,000 cows, rather than calculating from energy balance
124
and requirements based on body weight and milk yield equations. •A complex discussion on growth reflects tissue deposition
DMI increased 3 to 4 pounds (2 kilograms) for high-producing and gain, gut fill and target growth rates.
lactating cows (both for small and large breeds). Top managers
with high -quality feed and excellent feedbunk management can The model
reach these higher values. Nutrient concentrations in Dairy NRC
The Dairy NRC 2001 includes a companion computer model that
2001 are based on higher DMIs. If your cows do not eat at these
calculates nutrient requirements, levels of nutrients provided,
higher levels, nutrient content will need to be adjusted. DMI for
adjusts for DMI (such as RUP and net energy value of each feed),
cows fresh less than 14 weeks are adjusted down based on days
predicts microbial amino acid synthesis and rumen production,
in milk. DMI values for first-lactation and mature cows are
and develops reports. To customize each report, animal
different, based on week of lactation when using the model. No
description (size, breed, and milk components) , feed selection
reduction in DMI is included for rations with over 50 percent
and nutrient content based on feed test results, actual DMI (this is
moisture.
critical) , and amounts of each feed ingredient fed must be
accurately entered. Changing one feed or nutrient value shows
Other items of interest the user the impact of that specific change. The following reports
• Higher levels of vitamin E are recommended for transition are available:
cows.
• Nutrient summary report
• Water intake equations and a list of potentially toxic
• Energy and protein supply based on ration specifics
contaminants and nutrients are listed.
• Duodenal amino acid supply
* A chapter on transition cow feeding research and
recommendations is an excellent addition. • Dry matter intake

• Calf feeding requirements are based on metabolizable energy • Growth requirements

and apparent digestible protein to improve muscle (frame)
growth. • Mineral requirements and sources in the ration

• Several heifer and growth requirement tables

125

The program does NOT balance rations. If protein or mineral unique since dry matter intake, feed selection, and animal
levels are not balanced, the user must add feed(s) or change the performance will impact the results. It is an excellent tool to fine-
amount to correct for the imbalance. The model’s ability to adjust tune rations.
energy values, RUP and RDP levels, and mineral availability can
improve performance and/or reduce feed costs. Each ration is

Screenshot of NRC nutrient requirements of dairy cattle v. 1.1.9

1.1.9 - Default Simulation X
* NRCGo Nutrient
File
Requirement of Dairy C «ttle

To... Help
! v

« 1 115 ICI ffll

*
Input! I Feeds | | Ration Reports|

Feed Name
Help |

Ration List (Dry Matter Basis)

Qty. (ko/d«y) % Total *
Ration Results
Emered Milk Production 36 3 (kg/day)
NEi Alowable Milk 46 7 (kg/day)
1 Com Sil 40% GR - Medium gmd (308) 3194654 12 86 %
Allowable Milk 38 9 (kg/day)
2 Alfala Sil - M Bloom (218) 3833 1543 %
3 Com Gnd - Grain56 (407) 5110 20 57 % NEi Balance 7 A (McaVdov)
4 Soybean - Meal - 49 (525) 5 748 23 14 % Days lo gam one condmon score 66
5 Cottonseed - High Lint (507) 6 387 25 71 %
ROP Balance 2238 (g/d)
6 Protein Mix 0 000 000 %
7 Weighbacks 0 000 0.00 % MP Balance 116 (g day)
8 Medium Mineral 0 569 229 % '
Diet NEI 1 74 (Mcal/kg DM)
9 Dry Cow Mineral 0 000 000 %
10 Heifer Mineral 0 000 000 % v Diet CP 246 (SOM)
DM •Predicted 24 84 (kg/day)
Total Intake 24 842 ko/dav

Estimate Intake I Set to 100%

126
 .
Appendix Table 1 Nutrient level in common feedstuffs

.
Appendix Table 2 Feeding guidelines for Holstein cattle at various ages, levels of production, and gestation expressed on a 100
percent DM basis (adapted from Dairy NRC 2001)

.
Appendix Table 3 Feeding guidelines for Jersey cattle at various ages, levels of production, and gestation expressed on a 100
percent DM basis (adapted from Dairy NRC 2001)

.
Appendix Table 4 Nutrient value of common forages

.
Appendix Table 5 Nutrient value of energy concentrates (grains, by -product feeds, and fat)

.
Appendix Table 6 Nutrient value of protein concentrates

.
Appendix Table 7 Nutrient requirements for various body weights, days pregnant, and milk components (adapted from Dairy NRC
2001

128
Appendix
Table 1 Protein Carbohydrate
Nutrient level
Feedstuff RDP Fat ( %)
in common SP RUP NFC ADF NDF fNDF eNDF
feedstuffs A +B1+B2
B3 (%) (%) (%) ( %NDF) (%NDF)
(%CP)
Hay 30 70 30 25 35 46 100 92 3

Silage, long 35 76 24 25 35 46 100 70 3

Legume /grass
Silage, line 35 76 24 25 35 46 100 30 3

Corn silage 50 70 30 36 26 48 100 65 3

Barley 20 75 25 56 7 26 0 50 2

Blood meal 5 30 70 6 0 0 0 0 1

.
Dry rolled 12 40 60 75 3 9 0 70 4

Dry, ground 25 50 50 75 3 9 0 20 4
Corn, shelled
High moisture 45 60 40 75 3 9 0 40 4

Corn gluten feed 50 70 30 19 10 45 0 33 2

Fish meal 12 20 80 29 10 12 0 10 1

Soybean meal ( 44) 20 72 28 29 10 112 0 10 1

Raw 40 80 20 20 10 13 0 50 19

10 52 48 20 10 13 0 50 19
Soybean seed Heated

Urea 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

SP = Soluble protein; the A fraction in the NY-PA model ADF = Acid detergent fiber
RDP = Rumen degraded protein; A +B1+B2 fractions in the NY-PA model NDF = Neutral detergent fiber
RUP = Rumen undegraded protein: the B3 fraction in the NY-PA model fNDF = NDF derived from forages expressed as percentage of total NDF
NFC = Non- fiber carbohydrate eNDF = NDF contributes to cause cud chewing expressed as percent of total NDF

129

Appendix Holstein
Table 2 Dry Close
Item Fresh Early Mid Late
Feeding
guidelines for Body wt - lbs (kg) 1.500 (680) 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500 1.500
Holstein cattle
DMI - lbs (kg) 32 (14) 22 (10) 34 (15) 66 (30) 52 (24) 45 (20)
at various
ages, levels of Milk - lbs (kg*) 77 (35) 120 (55) 77 (35) 55 (25)
production, .
C.P (%) »9 124 19 5 16 7 152 14 1
and gestation
RDP < %) 77 96 105 98 97 95
expressed on
a 100 percent RUP (%) 22 28 90 69 55 46
DM basis Met Protein (%) 60 80 138 11 6 102 92
(adapted from
Dairy NRC -
NE I meal/ lb
0 60 (1 32) 0 65 (143) 0 70 (1 54) 0 73 (161) 067 (147) 0 62 (1 36)
< >
2001) *
NDF (%) 40 35 30 28 30 32

ADF (%) 30 25 21 18 21 24

NFC %) < 30 34 35 38 35 32

Calcium (%) 044 048 0 79 060 061 062

Phosphorous (%) 022 036 042 038 035 032

Magnesium (%) 011 040 029 021 019 018

Chlorine (%) 013 020 020 029 026 024

Sodium (%) 010 014 034 022 023 022

Potassium (%) 0 51 062 124 107 104 1 00

Sulfur (\) 020 020 020 020 020 020

Vitamin A (IU) 80.300 83270 75000 75.000 75.000 75.000

Vitamin D (IU) 21.900 22 700 21000 21000 21.000 21,000

Vitamin E (IU) 1.168 1200 545 545 545 545

•M4kcomponents 3 5% fat. 30% Hue p»otem. and 4 8% lactose

Trace mineral added to ration (expressed as ppm)
Cobal 0.11 Copper 10 to 18 Iodine 0 3 to 0 4 Iron 13 to 30 Manganese 14 to 24 Selenium 0 30 Zinc : 22 to 70

130
Appendix
Table 3
Feeding
guidelines for
Item

Body wt lbs (kg)

Fresh

1.000 (454)
a
1.000 (454 )
Mid

1.000
Jersey cattle DMI - lbs (kg) 26 ( 12) 52 (235) 48 ( 22) 40 ( 18 )
at various
Milk - lbs (kg* ) 55 (25) 88 ( 40) 77 ( 35) 55 (25 )
ages, levels of
production, . .<
C P %) 21 1 176 171 161

and gestation RDP %) < 105 97 98 97

expressed on
RUP < \ ) 106 79 73 64
a 100 percent
DM basis Met Protein (%) 151 126 120 112

(adapted from NEI- meal lb 070 ( 154) 078 ( 168) 0 73 ( 1601 0 70 ( 154)
( kg)
Dairy NRC
NDF (%) 30 26 30 32
2001)
ADF (%) 21 18 21 24

NFC (%) 35 38 35 32

Calcium (%) 080 063 054 054

Phosphorous (%) 040 036 035 033

Magnesium (%) 027 020 019 018

Chlorine (%) 036 027 025 024

Sodium (%) 031 020 020 020

Potassium (%) 1 19 104 103 102

Sulfur (%) 020 020 020 020

Vitamin A ( IU) 49.900 49.500 49,500 49.500

Vitamin D (IU) 13.600 13.500 13.500 13.500

Vitamin E (IU) 363 360 360 360

•M4k components 4 2% (at, 36% protein, and 4 8% lactose

Trace mineral added to ration ( expressed as ppm)
Cobalt : 0.11 Copper: 10 Iodine: 0.34 to 04 Iron: 15 to 21
Manganese 12 to 21 Selenium: 0 30 Zinc: 47 to 60

131

Appendix Net Energy

P
Table 4 .
M lk
.
Nutrient value ( Meal 1b DM) ..
| (Mc IU DM)
<\ DM) ‘ DM)
(

of common early vegetatrvr 90 23 25 75 30 068 042 4 102 18 035

forages
.. .
AK lt , h y
- early bloom

- mm- bloom
90
90
18
17
30
33 67
70 29
28
31
35
42
46
274
253
60
58
061
059
034
031
3
26
96
91
141
141
022
024
fuB bloom 90 15 40 60 26 37 50 241 55 056 026 2 89 125 022
65 18 24 76 35 31 42 274 60 061 034 3 96 141 022
..
All If heylage -early bloom 50 18 22 78 40 31 42 274 60 061 034 3 96 141 022
30 18 16 84 55 31 42 274 60 061 034 3 u. 141 022
..
All ll
(1
ead, 50 17 29 71 28 33 49 219 64 064 039 28 99 086 03
2)-gratt
(1 2) late 50 13 35 66 25 40 60 155 53 054 025 22 84 0 78 022
.. .
B rl ge or barley til ge , average 45 9 26 75 25 33 60 214 63 064 026 21 76 021 03
.
Bird loot treloil - early bloom 90 18 30 70 29 33 43 295 63 064 032 21 74 175 022

Bromegrata .
pauure tf»mg 25 24 20 80 45 30 56 9 72 074 047 26 '. ' •l n -l 037
late bloom 90 10 40 60 20 43 68 113 59 06 032 23 84 03 035
Clover, altike, - average 90 149 40 60 26 36 46 27 4 58 059 031 3 87 129 026
Clover, ladtno - patlyre 20 22 15 85 35 32 36 292 66 067 044 27 101 135 031
Clover, rad - average 50 16 25 75 40 36 46 267 55 056 026 28 85 153 025
- high m gram 35 81 35 66 45 22 42 423 72 073 047 31 45 02 022
tvfigf m gram 35 85 30 70 50 26 48 395 70 07 043 3 5 02 022

Corn Silage km in gram 35 9 30 70 55 30 52 334 62 064 036 3 72 034 019

- aveiagem
gram, vnth 10 lb 35 12 25 75 65 23 44 395 70 07 043 3 5 023 022
urer/T

Cornetover 90 59 35 65 55 39 67 186 50 05 019 13 72 057 01

Oatlage boot 45 14 25 75 50 35 58 155 61 059 034 41 B4 034 024

dough 45 9 30 70 45 44 74 59 53 054 024 42 69 037 017
- boot 90 15 25 75 45 34 61 125 65 067 04 28 87 027 034
Orchardgrr
- headed 90 84 30 70 40 45 72 61 54 055 025 34 101 026 03
P*a» and oat * 50 18 28 72 50 30 46 235 58 057 029 4 85 034 028

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Appendix Table 4 continued Nutrient value of common forages

Net energy
DM CP RUP RDP SP ADF NDF NFC TDN Fat Ash Ca P
Forage
(%) ( SDMI ( %CP) < \CP) (\CP) | (%DM) (\DM ) ( SDMI .
( ° DM ) Milk Gain ( \DM) ( %DM ) (SDM ) ( SDM)
(Meal lb DM) I (Meal lb DM)

Quackgrass 90 11 40 60 45 48 79 0 52 048 02 1.8 8 034 028

Reed canary grass 90 11 35 65 40 39 68 11 54 055 028 2.7 7.3 037 0.21

Sorghum silage
• 30 75 30 70 45 38 63 17 8 60 061 034 3 8.7 035 0.21
Sorghum- sudan
- silage 30 108 30 70 45 42 68 86 56 056 026 28 98 046 021

Soybean wlagc 40 182 24 76 35 34 46 233 53 054 025 26 99 132 044

- oats 90 4.4 30 70 25 47 70 156 50 0.5 019 22 78 024 006

Straw -wheat 90 36 30 70 25 54 85 1.8 44 044 01 1.8 7.8 0.18 0.05

-barley 90 43 30 70 25 59 80 6.7 49 049 024 1.9 7.1 03 007

-process 30 77 30 70 50 34 61 67
Sweet corn silage
residue
212 069 043 52 49 03 09

Triticale silage •boot 40 175 28 72 45 31 55 17 60 061 034 25 8 056 056

Wheat silage 40 119 25 75 45 41 68 101 55 055 025 25 7.5 027 0.27
.
Values were derived from Feeding the Da»y Herd NCR Publication 235.

133