Topic 1.

1: Change in Tandem (Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

A _______________ is a mathematical relation that maps a set of input values to a set of output values such that each
input value is mapped to exactly _______ output value.

Note: In previous courses, you may have used the “Vertical Line Test” to determine if a relation is a function or not;
however, we will learn later in this course why that is not always valid. In AP Precalculus, you should avoid using this
language. Make a connection between input and output values when explaining why a relation is a function (i.e. “Every
input has exactly one output.”).

The set of input values of a function is called the ______________, represented by the ___________________ variable.

The set of output values of a function is called the ____________, represented by the __________________ variable.

Example 1: In interval notation, write the domain and range of each function graphed below.

Domain: __________________________ Domain: __________________________

Range: ___________________________ Range: ___________________________

A function is ______________ when the graph of the function lies above the 𝑥-axis.

● The outputs are greater than zero.

A function is ______________ when the graph of the function lies below the 𝑥-axis.

● The outputs are less than zero.

Graphical Behavior of Functions

Increasing Decreasing Concave Up Concave Down
As the input values As the input values
increase, the output values increase, the output values The rate of change is The rate of change is
always increase: If 𝑎 < 𝑏, always decrease: If 𝑎 < 𝑏, increasing. decreasing.
then 𝑓(𝑎) < 𝑓(𝑏). then 𝑓(𝑎) > 𝑓(𝑏).

2
Example 1: The graph of ℎ(𝑥) is shown above. Use the graph of ℎ to find the open intervals where ℎ has the following
behaviors.
a) ℎ is positive ______________________________ b) ℎ is negative _________________________________

c) ℎ is increasing ______________________________ d) ℎ is decreasing _________________________________

e) ℎ is concave up ______________________________ f) ℎ is concave down ______________________________

g) ℎ is positive, decreasing and concave up ______________________________

h) ℎ is negative, decreasing and concave down _____________________________

Example 2: The graph of 𝑘 is increasing on the intervals (− 4, 1) and (5, 7), and 𝑘 is decreasing on the interval (1, 5).
Additionally, the graph of 𝑘 is concave up on the interval (3, 6) and concave down on the intervals (− 4, 3) and (6, 7).
Sketch a graph of 𝑘(𝑥) below.

3
 Topic 1.2: Rates of Change (Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

The average rate of change between any two points on a graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is the _________ through those points.

Finding the Average Rate of Change

𝑦2− 𝑦1 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)

Average Rate of Change = 𝑥2− 𝑥1
= 𝑏−𝑎
When to use this formula:

1. Finding the ____________________________ of the function for the given

input-interval (𝑎, 𝑏).

2. Finding the ____________________ of the secant line between the points

(𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) and (𝑏, 𝑓(𝑏)).

𝑥+1
Example 1: Find the average rate of change of ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥+6
on [1, 4].

𝑡 (year of birth) 1850 1900 1950 2000

𝐴(𝑡) (age in years) 46.10 53.63 70.65 81.83

Example 2: The table above lists the life expectancy of US females born in a given year. Find the average rate of
change in the life expectancy of US females born from 1850 to 2000. Include units of measure.

Example 3: The figure shows an empty vase. At time 𝑡 = 0 water begins pouring into the vase at a
constant rate until it is full. Which of the following could depict this situation, where time, in seconds, is
the independent variable, and the height of the water in the vase, in inches, is the dependent variable?

4
Anytime we see the phrase “rate of change” in this course, we can generally replace it with the word “slope” to help us
better comprehend what is being said.

We must read very carefully in this course. Stating that “ 𝑓 is increasing” is very different than stating that “the rate of
change of 𝑓 is increasing”.

Example 4: Fill in the table below to help organize information that we can tell about a function and its rate of change.

Function Average Rate of Change

positive/negative

increasing/decreasing

concave up/concave down

Examples 5 & 6: Fill in the blanks based on the behavior/rate of change of the graphed functions.

5) 6)

𝑓 is _____________________ because the graph of 𝑓 lies 𝑔 is _____________________ because the graph of 𝑔 lies
above the 𝑥-axis. below the 𝑥-axis.

𝑓 is decreasing because the rate of change of 𝑓 is 𝑔 is increasing because the rate of change of 𝑔 is

_____________________. _____________________.

The rate of change of 𝑓 is _____________________ The rate of change of 𝑔 is _____________________

because 𝑓 is concave up. because 𝑔 is concave down.

5
Example 7: The function 𝑓(𝑥) is graphed below.

a) Draw the secant line that passes through the function where 𝑥 =− 3 and 𝑥 = 5.

b) Use the given graph to find the average rate of change from 𝑥 =− 3 and 𝑥 = 5.

c) Use the average rate of change found in (b) to find the equation of the secant line between the points
(− 3, − 2) and (5, 0). Name this function 𝑔(𝑥).

d) Find 𝑓(4) and 𝑔(4). Compare the answers and explain why they differ.

The equation of the secant line (remember, the slope of the secant line is the average rate of change!) can be
used to _______________ values for a given scenario. This could be an overestimate or an underestimate.

The values estimated from the The values estimated from the
equation of the secant line equation of the secant line
on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] are on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏] are
_________________ _________________
if the function is if the function is
________________. ________________.

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 Topic 1.3: Rates of Change in Linear and Quadratic Functions (Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

Rates of Change in Linear Functions

For any linear function, the average rate of change over any length input-value interval is constant.

Note: We often think of this as the _________ of the line.

Example 1: The table below gives selected values of the function 𝑓(𝑥). Explain why 𝑓(𝑥) is not a linear
function. Use precise language and complete thoughts.

𝑥 1 2 4 8

𝑓(𝑥) 4 7 10 13

Rates of Change in Quadratic Functions

2
Consider the quadratic function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2 graphed to the right.

1) Draw the secant line that passes through the function where 𝑥 = 1 and
𝑥 = 2.

2) Find the slope of the secant line over the interval [1, 2].

△𝑦 𝑓( ) − 𝑓( )
∆𝑥
= ( )−( )
=

3) What does the slope of the secant line represent over the interval [1, 2]?

4) Find the average rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) over the following consecutive equal-length input value intervals:

Interval [− 1, 0] [0, 1] [1, 2] [2, 3]

AROC

5) What do you notice about the average rates of change of 𝑓(𝑥) over consecutive equal-length input value
intervals? What can we conclude about quadratic functions?

7
 Summary:

When the average rate of change (slope) is constant over any input value intervals, the data is modeled by a

___________ function.

When the average rate of change (slope) is linear over equal-length input value intervals (changing at a

constant rate), the data is modeled by a ______________ function.

If you’re lucky, the data set will be presented with consecutive equal-length input value intervals (ELIVI).
In this case, you can look at the successive differences between output values instead of calculating the
average rate of change over each interval to determine the type of function that best models the data.

Example 2: Selected values of functions 𝑔 and 𝑓 are given in the tables below. Use either average rates of
change or successive finite differences to determine if the function could be linear, quadratic, or neither.

a) b)

____ is best modeled by a _____________ function

____ is best modeled by a _____________ function because the ___________ successive differences over
because the ___________ ___ __________ is ________- ________ _______ _________ ________
___________. are constant.

c) d)

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Recall from Topic 1.2:

Concave Up: The average rate of change over equal length intervals is ______________________for all
small length intervals.

Concave Down: The average rate of change over equal length intervals is ______________________for all
small length intervals.

Example 4:
An object is thrown from the top of a building. The object’s height in feet above the ground after t seconds is
2
given by the function ℎ(𝑡) = 144 − 𝑡 on the interval [0,3]. Calculate the rates of change on the following
intervals.

𝑡 ℎ(𝑡) Interval Rate of Change

From [0,1]
1

From [1,2]
2

From [2,3]
3

The rates of change are becoming more __________________. Therefore they are _________________.

This makes the graph __________________ _________________.

Example 5:
Given the years and salary find the rates of change and determine if the graph is concave up or down.

t Salary
Interval Rate of Change
(years) ($1000’s)

0 40

10 72 From [0,10]

From
20 128
[10,20]

From
30 230
[20,30]

The rates of change are becoming more __________________. Therefore they are _________________.

This makes the graph __________________ _________________.

9
Example 6: Selected values of functions 𝑘 and 𝑝 are given in the tables below. For each function, determine if
the function could be concave up, concave down, or neither.

a) b)

____ is concave _________ because the average rate

of change over equal length intervals is
______________________for all small length
intervals.

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 Topic 1.4: Polynomial Functions & Rates of Change (Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

Polynomial Functions
Polynomial functions take on the form:
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−2 2 1
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−2𝑥 + ... + 𝑎2𝑥 + 𝑎1𝑥 + 𝑎0

where n is a positive integer, 𝑎𝑖 is a real number for each i from 1 to n, and 𝑎𝑛is nonzero.

Leading Term: _____ Degree:______ Leading Coefficient: ______

Example 1: Find the leading coefficient and degree of the following polynomial functions.

4 3
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2𝑥 − 7 b) 𝑦 = 12𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 11 c) 𝑔(𝑥) = 4
Leading Coefficient: _____ Leading Coefficient: _____ Leading Coefficient: _____
Degree: _____ Degree: _____ Degree: _____

Extrema and Points of Inflection

The extrema of a graph are the minimums and maximums of a function. There are ____ types of extrema.

Relative Extrema (Local) Absolute Extrema (Global)

A polynomial has a relative minimum or relative Of all local extrema, the greatest is called the
maximum where it switches between decreasing and absolute maximum. The least of all local minima is
increasing (or at an endpoint if the polynomial has a called the absolute minimum.
restricted domain).

Local minimums at 𝑥 =_____________ Absolute minimum = _______ at 𝑥 =_________

Local maximums at 𝑥 =_____________ Absolute maximum = _______ at 𝑥 =_________

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 Points of Inflection

● A point of inflection occurs when a function changes from concave up to concave down or from
concave down to concave up.
● At a point of inflection, the rate of change of a function changes from increasing to decreasing or
from decreasing to increasing.

Example 1: The graph of 𝑔(𝑥) is shown in the figure above. Use the graph of 𝑔 to answer the following.

a. Find any values of 𝑥 where 𝑔 has a point of inflection.

b. For each of the following intervals, determine whether the rate of change of 𝑔 is increasing or decreasing.
Explain your reasoning for each answer using features of the graph of 𝑔(𝑥).
i. (3, 4) ii. (− 4, − 3) iii. (− 1, 1) iv. (1, 2)

Example 2:
Identify the characteristics of the function.

Zeros: ____________________________ Points of Inflection: _________________

Local Maximum: ________________________ Local Minimum: ________________________

Absolute Maximum: _______________________ Absolute Minimum: _______________________

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Which polynomials have global and local extrema?
Draw a sketch below where the number of zeros matches the degree of the function.

Linear Quadratic Cubic Quartic

Global Max or Min? Global Max or Min? Global Max or Min? Global Max or Min?

Will even degree functions always have a global minimum or maximum? Explain why or why not.

Will odd degree functions always have a global minimum or maximum? Explain why or why not.

Key Features of Polynomials

1. Between 2 real zeros of a polynomial, there must be at least one __________ ______________ or
__________ ______________.

2. Polynomials of ________ degree must have either a __________ ______________ or __________

______________.

Practice 1:
Identify the characteristics of the function, f(x). Be sure to use correct interval notation.

Increasing: _____________________

Decreasing: ____________________

Local Max: _____________________

Local Min: ____________________

Absolute Max: __________________

Absolute Min: __________________

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Practice 2: Find and classify each type of extrema for the functions below, or write N/A.

Relative minimum at 𝑥 =________

Relative maximum at 𝑥 =________

Absolute minimum = ________ at 𝑥 =________

Absolute maximum = ________ at 𝑥 =________

Practice 3: For 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3, the number of cars in a parking lot at time t hours can be modeled by
5 4 2
the function 𝐶(𝑡) =− 1. 37𝑡 + 4. 218𝑡 − 0. 357𝑡 + 3. Based on this model, at what time t
does the number of cars in the parking lot change from increasing to decreasing?

Practice 4: For 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 3, the rate of cars entering a parking lot at time 𝑡 hours can be modeled by
4 3
the function 𝑅(𝑡) =− 6. 85𝑡 + 16. 872𝑡 − 0. 714𝑡. Based on this model, at what time 𝑡 does the
number of cars in the parking lot change from increasing to decreasing?

14
Determining the Degree of a Polynomial Given a Table of Values
If a given table of values with equal width input intervals, we can determine the degree of a polynomial by
examining the successive differences in the output values. The number of successive differences needed for the
differences to be constant is equal to the degree n of the polynomial.

Example 3: Determine the degree of the polynomial in the tables listed below

a) b)

____ is best modeled by a _____________ function

because the ___________ successive differences over
________- ________ _______ _________ ________
are constant.

Binomial Expansion & Pascal’s Triangle

When we expand a power of a binomial expression 𝑥 + 𝑦, we will see a pattern.

15
 What patterns do you notice in each row?

𝑛
We observe that each expression (𝑥 + 𝑦) expands in the same way.

If we detach the coefficients and display them in a triangular format, we see more patterns.

This triangle is known as Pascal's triangle and is very useful for finding the
coefficient in the binomial expansion.

What patterns do you see?

Can you determine the numbers that will go into the next row of Pascal’s triangle?

5
Example 4: Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (𝑥 + 2) .

4
Example 5: Use Pascal’s Triangle to expand (2𝑥 − 1) .

4 6
Example 6: What is the coefficient of the term containing 𝑥 when the expression (𝑥 + 5) is expanded?

16
 Topic 1.5 Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros (Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

A polynomial function of degree 𝑛 > 0 will always have a total of ________ zeros or roots.

Some of these zeros may be non-real values. 𝑥 – intercepts are determined by real zeros.

If “𝑟” is a real zero of a polynomial function 𝑓, then 𝑓(𝑟) = ________.

(𝑟, 0) is an ____________________________ of the graph of 𝑓.
𝑟 is a _________________ of the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑟 is a _________________ of the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 0.

Repeated Zeros (Multiplicity)

If a linear factor (𝑥 − 𝑎) is repeated 𝑛 times, the corresponding zero of the polynomial has a multiplicity of 𝑛.
The multiplicity of a zero is the ________________ of its factor.

The graph of a polynomial with passes _____________ the 𝑥-axis when the zero has odd multiplicity. The
graph of a polynomial ________________, but does not pass through, the 𝑥-axis when the zero has even
multiplicity.

Example 1:
3 2
The function 𝑦 =−. 01(𝑥 + 4)(𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 3) is graphed to the right. Find all real zeros and state the
multiplicity for each zero. Describe the behavior of the function around the zero.
𝑥 = ________ Multiplicity: ________
Behavior of the function:

𝑥 = ________ Multiplicity: ________

Behavior of the function:

𝑥 = ________ Multiplicity: ________

Behavior of the function:

Example 2: For each of the following polynomials, determine the degree of the polynomial, find all real zeros,
and state the multiplicity for each zero.
2 4 3 2 2
a. 𝑔(𝑥) = 3(𝑥 − 4)(𝑥 − 2) b. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 𝑥 − 6𝑥)(𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 12)

17
Complex Roots

Some polynomials have roots that contain an imaginary number. This means you will ______ see them on the
2
graph. The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 is shown on the right.

2
a) Find the zeros of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1

Although there are no x-intercepts, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, there are exactly two zeros of f(x).
These zeros are 𝑥 =_______ (nonreal zeros).

Key Understanding: All imaginary roots come in _________. If 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 is a root of 𝑓(𝑥), then so is
___________. These are called __________________ _________________.

Example 1: Determine the conjugate of the following complex numbers.

a. 4𝑖 b. − 𝑖 c. 2 − 3𝑖 d. − 4 + 2𝑖

Practice: Find the zeros of the following functions without a calculator.

2 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 25 ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 81

2 3
𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 10 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 64

3 2 4 2
𝑚(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 7𝑥 + 4𝑥 − 28 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 7𝑥 − 144

18
Mixed Practice
1. Write the factored form of the polynomial function of least possible degree.

Zeros: 𝑥 = − 3, 𝑥 = 2 and 𝑥 = 4, 𝑓(0) = 120

2. Given the following information about the polynomial 𝑓(𝑥), find the remaining zeros of 𝑓.

Degree = 4, Zeros: 𝑥 = 1 + 5𝑖 and 𝑥 = 2 + 2𝑖

3. Write the factored form (real coefficients) of the polynomial function of least possible degree.

Zeros: 𝑥 =− 5 + 2𝑖 and 𝑥 = 1 (multiplicity 2)

4. Write the factored form (real coefficients) of the polynomial function of least possible degree.

Zeros: 𝑥 = 1, 𝑥 = 1 + 2𝑖, and 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑖

5. The graph of the polynomial function 𝑓(𝑥) is shown

below. It is know that 𝑥 = 𝑖 3 is a zero of 𝑓. If 𝑓 has
degree 𝑛, what is the least possible value of 𝑛?

19
Symmetry

Even Functions Odd Functions

𝑓(− 𝑥) =_________ 𝑔(− 𝑥) =_________

Even functions are symmetric over ___________. Odd functions are symmetric about ___________.

4 2 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 1 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 9𝑥

Example 1: Determine whether the given functions are even, odd, or neither.

a.
𝑥 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
ℎ(𝑥) 19 8 2 .5 0 -.5 -2 -8 -19

3
b. 𝑚(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑥
3
c. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 − 4𝑥 + 1 d.

20
 Topic 1.6 Polynomial Functions and End Behavior (Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

End Behavior: The end behavior of a function describes how a function _____________ as it moves infinitely
to the right and left.

In other words, the end behavior is what happens to values of ______ as 𝑥 increases or decreases without
bound.

End Behavior and Limit Notation

Left End Behavior: lim 𝑓(𝑥) = Right End Behavior: lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥→∞

As the 𝑥 values decrease without bound, the As the 𝑥 values decrease without bound, the
𝑦 values of 𝑓(𝑥)… 𝑦 values of 𝑓(𝑥)…

Example 1: Describe the end behavior of the following polynomials verbally and using limit notation.

a) b)

Left Behavior Verbally: Left Behavior Verbally:

Left Behavior Limit Statement: Left Behavior Limit Statement:

Right Behavior Verbally: Right Behavior Verbally:

Right Behavior Limit Statement: Right Behavior Limit Statement:

21
Example 2: Sketch a polynomial function with the following end behaviors.
a. lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− ∞ b. lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− ∞
𝑥 → −∞ 𝑥 → −∞
lim 𝑓(𝑥) =− ∞ lim 𝑓(𝑥) = ∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞

Polynomial End Behavior

Determine the end behavior for the following polynomials. Using the trends that you see, fill in the blanks to the
prompts below.

Sign of Leading Degree of

Function Left Right
Coefficient Polynomial

4 3 2
𝑓(𝑥) = 0. 5𝑥 + 𝑥 − 5𝑥 − 3𝑥 + 6

4 2
𝑔(𝑥) =− 4𝑥 + 9𝑥 − 2

6
𝑦 =− 2(𝑥 + 3)

2 5
ℎ(𝑥) = 8𝑥 + 4 + 𝑥

𝑚(𝑥) = 2𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(6 − 𝑥)

For polynomial equations, it is easiest to find the end behavior of the ________________ side first.

The RIGHT side:

1. Goes _____________ if the leading coefficient is _______________________.
2. Goes _____________ if the leading coefficient is _______________________.

The LEFT side:

1. Goes in the _____________ direction as the right if the degree is _______________________.
2. Goes in the _____________ direction as the right if the degree is _______________________.
22
 Sketching Polynomials

For each of the given functions, use the following information to sketch a graph of the polynomial:
degree, end behavior, 𝑦 −intercept, zeros, behavior of the graph at each zero
1 1 2 3
1. 𝑦 = 2
(2𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 6) 2. 𝑦 = 3
(𝑥 + 3) (𝑥 − 1)

Degree: __________ L.C.: ______________ Degree: __________ L.C.: ______________

Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
𝑦 −intercept: ___________________________ 𝑦 −intercept: ___________________________
Right End Behavior: ____________________ Right End Behavior: ____________________
Left End Behavior: _____________________ Left End Behavior: _____________________

2 2 2 2
( )
3. 𝑦 =− 2 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 + 2) 4. 𝑦 =−
1
16
(2𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 4)

Degree: __________ L.C.: ______________ Degree: __________ L.C.: ______________

Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ 𝑦 −intercept: ___________________________
𝑦 −intercept: ___________________________ Right End Behavior: ____________________
Right End Behavior: ____________________ Left End Behavior: _____________________
Left End Behavior: _____________________

23
 2 3 2 2
( )
5. 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑥 − 4 (𝑥 + 4) (
6. 𝑦 =− 𝑥 (𝑥 + 3) 𝑥 − 16 )

Degree: __________ L.C.: ______________ Degree: __________ L.C.: ______________

Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________ Zero: ___________ Multiplicity: __________
𝑦 −intercept: ___________________________ 𝑦 −intercept: ___________________________
Right End Behavior: ____________________ Right End Behavior: ____________________
Left End Behavior: _____________________ Left End Behavior: _____________________

Topic 1.5 Polynomial Functions and Complex Zeros (continued)

(Adapted from notes by Bryan Passwater)

Polynomial Inequalities

Consider the function 𝑓(𝑥) to the right.

a. Where does 𝑓(𝑥) = 0?

b. Where is 𝑓(𝑥) > 0?

c. Where is 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 0?

Reminder:

When we write “𝑓(𝑥)”, we are referring to the ____-value on the graph of 𝑓(𝑥).

𝑓(𝑥) > 0 means the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is __________ the ___-axis.

𝑓(𝑥) < 0 means the graph of 𝑓(𝑥) is __________ the ___-axis.

24