RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SAMPLING METHODS

Sampling is the process of selecting participants from the population. Or Sampling the process of
using a small number of items or parts of a larger population to make conclusions about the whole
population. It enables the researchers to estimate unknown characteristics of the population.

As we begin to talk about sampling techniques, we need to be clear about the definitions of six
terms: population, target population, sampling frame, sample, sampling unit and element. The
relationships among the six critical sampling terms are summarized in Figure.

Population

Target Population

Sampling frame

Sample

Sampling Unit

Element

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1. Population

A population is the theoretically specified aggregation of study elements. It is translating the

abstract concept into workable concept. For example, let us look at the study of “college students.”

Theoretically who are the college students? They might include students registered in government

colleges and/or private colleges, students of intermediate classes and/or graduate classes, students

of professional colleges and/or non-professional colleges, and many other variations. In this way

the pool of all available elements is population. Contacting everyone in a large population is often

practically impossible. Therefore, researchers usually select a subset of the population to represent

the population as a whole.

2. Target Population

Out of the conceptual variations what exactly the researcher wants to focus on. This may also be

called a target population. Target population is the complete group of specific population elements

relevant to the research project. Target population may also be called survey population i.e. that

aggregation of elements from which the survey sample is actually selected. At the outset of the

sampling process, it is vitally important to carefully define the target population so the proper

source from which the data are to collected can be identified. In our example of ‘college students”

finally we may decide to study the college students from government institutions located in

Islamabad, who are studying social sciences, who are aged 19 years of age, and hailing from rural

areas.

3. Sampling Frame

In actual practice the sample will be drawn from a list of population elements that is often different
from the target population that has been defined. A sampling frame is the list of elements from

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which the sample may be drawn. A simple example could be listing of all college students meeting
the criteria of target population and who are enrolled on the specified date.
A sampling frame is also called the working population because it provides the list that can be
worked with operationally. In our example, such a list could be prepared with help of the staff of
the selected colleges.

4. Sample
The subset of the population actually drawn from the sampling frame is called the sample. We
might select 100 students from the registrar’s list to serve as the sample for our computer survey.
How closely the attitudes of this sample of students will represent all students’ attitudes depends
critically on how the sample is selected.

5. Sampling Unit

A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of
sampling.
Sampling may be done in single stage or in multiple stages. In a simple, single-stage sample, the
sampling units are the same as the elements. In more complex samples, however, different levels
of sampling units may be employed. For example, a researcher may select a sample of Sectors in
a city, and then select a sample of Streets from the selected Sectors, and then select a sample of
Houses from the selected Streets, and finally may select a sample of Adults from the selected
Houses. The sampling units of these four stages of sampling are respectively Sectors, Streets,
Houses and adults, of which the last of these are the elements. More specifically, the terms
“primary sampling units,” “secondary sampling units,” “tertiary sampling units” and “final
sampling units” would be used to designate the successive stages.

6. Element
Each member of the population is called an element. The identification and selection of elements
that will make up the sample are at the heart of all sampling techniques. It is important to
emphasize at this point that samples are of little or no interest in themselves. A new computer
facility is not going to be built for the sole use of the 100 students surveyed. Similarly, the social

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psychologist is not. It can be a person, groups, families, organizations, corporations, communities, and
so forth.

Why sample?

1. Saves Cost, Labor, and Time

2. Quality Management/supervision
3. Accurate and Reliable Results
4. Sampling may be the Only Way
5. Determine the Period of Study

TYPES OF SAMPLING

Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

There are several alternative ways of taking a sample. The major alternative sampling plans may
be grouped into probability techniques and non-probability techniques.

A. Non-probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that
does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. In any form of
research, true random sampling is always difficult to achieve.
Most researchers are bounded by time, money and workforce and because of these limitations, it
is almost impossible to randomly sample the entire population and it is often necessary to employ
another sampling technique, the non-probability sampling technique.
In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized
selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of their
accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher.
The downside of the non-probability sampling method is that an unknown proportion of the entire
population was not sampled. This entails that the sample may or may not represent the entire

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population accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used in generalizations
pertaining to the entire population.

This sampling method is usually employed in studies that are not interested in the parameters of
the entire population. Some researchers prefer this sampling technique because it is cheap, quick
and easy.

1. Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling (also called haphazard or accidental sampling) refers to sampling by
obtaining units or people who are most conveniently available.

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected

because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the researcher
did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire population.
In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most cases, the
population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual. This is the reason why
most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience sampling, the most common of all
sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique because it is fast,
inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.

Examples
1. One of the most common examples of convenience sampling is using student volunteers
as subjects for the research.
2. Another example is using subjects that are selected from a clinic, a class or an institution
that is easily accessible to the researcher.
3. A more concrete example is choosing five people from a class or choosing the first five
names from the list of patients.
4. For example, it may be convenient and economical to sample employees in companies in
a nearby area, sample from a pool of friends and neighbors. The person-on-the street
interview conducted by TV programs is another example. TV interviewers go on the street
with camera and microphone to talk to few people who are convenient to interview. The

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people walking past a TV studio in the middle of the day do not represent everyone
(homemakers, people in the rural areas). Likewise, TV interviewers select people who
look “normal” to them and avoid people who are unattractive, poor, very old, or
inarticulate.
5. Another example of haphazard sample is that of a newspaper that asks the readers to clip a
questionnaire from the paper and mail it in. Not everyone reads the newspaper, has an
interest in the topic, or will take the time to cut out the questionnaire, and mail it. Some
will, and the number who do so may seem large, but the sample cannot be used to
generalize accurately to the population.

In these examples, the researcher inadvertently excludes a great proportion of the population.
A convenience sample is either a collection of subjects that are accessible or a self-selection of
individuals willing to participate which is exemplified by your volunteers.

Uses
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it also has
other research advantages.
In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to obtain
basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using a randomized
sample.
This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a substance or
phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very useful for detecting
relationships among different phenomena.

Criticisms
The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the sample is
not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest disadvantage when using a
convenience sample because it leads to more problems and criticisms.
Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between the
results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is not rare that
the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with the results from
the entire population. A consequence of having systematic bias is obtaining skewed results.

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Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in generalization
and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is not representative of the
population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire population. This results to a low
external validity of the study.

Notes
When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would differ
from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to describe the individuals
who might be left out during the selection process or the individuals who are overrepresented in
the sample.
In connection to this, it is better if you can describe the possible effects of the people who were
left out or the subjects that are overrepresented to your results. This will allow the readers of
your research to get a good grasp of the sample that you were testing. It will also enable them to
estimate the possible difference between your results and the results from the entire population.

2. Purposive Sampling (Judgmental sampling)

Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the

researcher selects units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.
This type of sampling technique is also known as purposive sampling and authoritative sampling.
Purposive sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can select a more
representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using other probability
sampling techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely handpicking individuals from
the population based on the authorities or the researcher's knowledge and judgment.

Example of Purposive Sampling (Judgmental Sampling)

A researcher is interested in studying students who are enrolled in a course on research methods,
are highly regular, are frequent participants in the class discussions, and often come with new
ideas. The criteria has been laid down, the researcher may do this job himself/herself, or may
ask the teacher of this class to select the students by using the said criteria. In the latter situation
we are leaving it to the judgment of the teacher to select the subjects.

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When to Use Judgmental Sampling

1. Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals
possess the trait of interest.
2. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining information from a very specific
group of people.
3. It is also possible to use judgmental sampling if the researcher knows a reliable
professional or authority that he thinks is capable of assembling a representative sample.

Setbacks of Judgmental Sampling

1. The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the
sampling process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that accompanies
the sampling technique.
2. Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the expert or the
authority.
3. The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to choose the best and most
experienced authority in the field of interest.
4. When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since no randomization was
used in obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the members of the population
did not have equal chances of being selected. The consequence of this is the
misrepresentation of the entire population which will then limit generalizations of the
results of the study.

3. Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the
same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known characteristics,
traits or focused phenomenon.
In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final sample to be
used in the study meets the research's quota criteria.

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Step-by-step Quota Sampling

1. The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive
subgroups.
2. Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population;
this same proportion will be applied in the sampling process. Finally, the researcher selects
subjects from the various subgroups while taking into consideration the proportions noted
in the previous step.
3. The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also
allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.

Example of Quota Samples

In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the different high
school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status, the researcher first
identifies the subgroups.
Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher divides the
entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic status. Then, he
takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and then samples each
subgroup accordingly.

When to Use Quota Samples

1. The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the researchers to
sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study.
2. If a study aims to investigate a trait or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of
sampling is the ideal technique.
3. Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between subgroups.
4. In some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another subgroup.
In such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type of sampling technique.

Disadvantages of Quota Samples

1. It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the
population. In some cases it is not.

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2. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population were taken into account in
forming the subgroups.
3. In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be
overrepresented.
4. In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the basis of the
subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of age, race, educational
attainment, marital status and a lot more.

4. Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling (also called network, chain referral, or reputational sampling) is a method for
identifying and sampling (or selecting) cases in the network. It is based on an analogy to a
snowball, which begins small but becomes larger as it is rolled on wet snow and picks up additional
snow. It begins with one or a few people or cases and spreads out on the basis of links to the initial
cases. Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to
identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate. This design has been found
quite useful where respondents are difficult to identify and are best located through referral
networks. In the initial stage of snowball sampling, individuals are discovered and may or may
not be selected through probability methods. This group is then used to locate others who possess
similar characteristics and who, in turn, identify others. The “snowball” gather subjects as it rolls
along.
For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the researcher
may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It is also possible
that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able to observe one of the
members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects for the study.
For example, a researcher examines friendship networks among teenagers in a community. He
or she begins with three teenagers who do not know each other. Each teen names four close
friends. The researcher then goes to the four friends and asks each to name four close friends, then
goes to those four and does the same thing again, and so forth. Before long, a large number of
people are involved. Each person in the sample is directly or indirectly tied to the original
teenagers, and several people may have named the same person. The researcher eventually stops,

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either because no new names are given, indicating a closed network, or because the network is so
large that it is at the limit of what he or she can study.

Types of Snowball Sampling

1. Linear Snowball Sampling

2. Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling

3. Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling

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Advantages of Snowball Sampling

1. The chain referral process allows the researcher to reach populations that are difficult to
sample when using other sampling methods.
2. The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient.
3. This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to other
sampling techniques.

Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

1. The researcher has little control over the sampling method.
2. The subjects that the researcher can obtain rely mainly on the previous subjects that were
observed.
3. Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed.
4. The researcher has no idea of the true distribution of the population and of the sample.
5. Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique.
6. Initial subjects tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it is highly
possible that the subjects share the same traits and characteristics, thus, it is possible that
the sample that the researcher will obtain is only a small subgroup of the entire
population.

5. Sequential Sampling

Sequential sampling is similar to purposive sampling with one difference. In purposive sampling,
the researcher tries to find as many relevant cases as possible, until time, financial resources, or
his or her energy is exhausted. The principle is to get every possible case. In sequential sampling,
a researcher continues to gather cases until the amount of new information or diversity is filled.
The principle is to gather cases until a saturation point is reached. The sample size, n, is not fixed
in advanced, nor is the timeframe of data collection. The process begins, first, with the sampling
of a single observation or a group of observations. These are then tested to see whether or not the
null hypothesis can be rejected. If the null is not rejected, then another observation or group of
observations is sampled and the test is run again. In this way the test continues until the researcher
is confident in his or her results. This technique can reduce sampling costs by reducing the
number of observations needed.

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For example, a researcher locates and plans in-depth interviews with 60 widows over 70 years old
who have been living without a spouse for 10 or more years. Depending on the researcher’s
purposes, getting an additional 20 widows whose life experiences, social background, and
worldview differ little from the first 60 may be unnecessary.

Advantages of Sequential Sampling

1. The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and sampling schedule.
2. The sample size can be relatively small of excessively large depending on the decision
making of the researcher.
3. Sampling schedule is also completely dependent to the researcher since a second group of
samples can only be obtained after conducting the experiment to the initial group of
samples.
4. As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-tune his
research methods and results analysis.
5. Due to the repetitive nature of this sampling method, minor changes and adjustments can
be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
6. There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling
technique.
7. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive.

Disadvantages of Sequential Sampling

1. This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population.

2. Its only hope of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very
large sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population.
3. The sampling technique is also hardly randomized.
4. This contributes to the very little degree representativeness of the sampling technique.
5. Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot be
used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population.

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When to Use Non-Probability Sampling

1. This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the
population.
2. It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory
study.
3. It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost
limitless.
4. It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to
create generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
5. It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.
6. This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a
randomized, probability sampling.

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TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process that
gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.
In this sampling technique, the researcher must guarantee that every individual has an equal
opportunity for selection and this can be achieved if the researcher utilizes randomization.
The advantage of using a random sample is the absence of both systematic and sampling bias. If
random selection was done properly, the sample is therefore representative of the entire population.
The effect of this is a minimal or absent systematic bias which is the difference between the results
from the sample and the results from the population. Sampling bias is also eliminated since the
subjects are randomly chosen.

1. .Simple Random Sample

Random sampling is one of the most popular types of random or probability sampling.

In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject.
The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected independently of
the other members of the population.
There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive and
mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is assigned a unique
number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed thoroughly. The blind-folded
researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the individuals bearing the numbers picked
by the researcher are the subjects for the study. Another way would be to let a computer do a
random selection from your population. For populations with a small number of members, it is
advisable to use the first method but if the population has many members, a computer-aided
random selection is preferred.

For example, to select a sample of 25 people who live in your college dorm, make a list of all the
250 people who live in the dorm. Assign each person a unique number, between 1 and 250. Then
refer to a table of random numbers. Starting at any point in the table, read across or down and note
every number that falls between 1 and 250. Use the numbers you have found to pull the names

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from the list that correspond to the 25 numbers you found. These 25 people are your sample. This
is called the table of random numbers method.

Another way to select this simple random sample is to take 250 ping-pong balls and number then
from 1 to 250. Put them into a large barrel and mix them up, and then grab 25 balls. Read off the
numbers. Those are the 25 people in your sample. This is called the lottery method.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

1. One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the sample.
2. It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given population since every
member is given equal opportunities of being selected.
3. Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the population.
Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is luck. If the
sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is called sampling
error.
4. An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing
conclusions from the results of a study.
5. Remember that one of the goals of research is to be able to make conclusions pertaining to
the population from the results obtained from a sample.
6. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling, it is
reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the population.

Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling

One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of a complete
list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list of the population must
be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available for large populations. In cases as such,
it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.

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2. Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by researchers

for its simplicity and its periodic quality.
In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or subject from
the population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the list.
The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done manually.
The results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of the population are
repeated for every n'th individual, which is highly unlikely.
The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.

1. Starting number:
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals in
the population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.

2. Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference between
any two consecutive numbers in the progression.
The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size

For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12 subjects.
He first picks his starting number, 5. Then the researcher picks his interval, 8.
The members of his sample will be individuals: 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 93.
Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they first identify
the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the population with the sample size
to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then used as the constant difference
between subjects.

Advantages of Systematic Sampling

1. The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is its
simplicity.

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2. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the random selection of
subjects.
3. Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is the
assurance that the population will be evenly sampled.
4. There exists a chance in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of
subjects. This is systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.

Disadvantage of Systematic Sampling

The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the population. If the
sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sampling technique will no
longer be random and representativeness of the sample is compromised.

Notes
Since systematic random sampling is a type of probability sampling, the researcher must ensure
that all the members of the population have equal chances of being selected as the starting point
or the initial subject.
The researcher must be certain that the chosen constant interval between subjects do not reflect a
certain pattern of traits present in the population. If a pattern in the population exists and it
coincides with the interval set by the researcher, randomness of the sampling technique is
compromised.

3. Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the entire
population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata

It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping subgroups will
grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject. This completely negates the
concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability sampling.
Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability sampling within the
different strata.

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The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender, socioeconomic status,
religion, nationality and educational attainment.

Uses of Stratified Random Sampling

1. Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a specific
subgroup within the population.
2. This technique is useful in such researches because it ensures the presence of the key
subgroup within the sample.
3. Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe existing
relationships between two or more subgroups.
4. With a simple random sampling technique, the researcher is not sure whether the
subgroups that he wants to observe are represented equally or proportionately within the
sample.
5. With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the smallest and
most inaccessible subgroups in the population.
6. This allows the researcher to sample the rare extremes of the given population.
7. With this technique, you have a higher statistical precision compared to simple random
sampling. This is because the variability within the subgroups is lower compared to the
variations when dealing with the entire population.
8. Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires a small
sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the researchers.

Types of Stratified Sampling

1. Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling

The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of
the stratum when viewed against the entire population. This means that the each stratum has
the same sampling fraction.
For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes respectively. And the
researcher chose a sampling fraction of ½. Then, the researcher must randomly sample
50,100 and 150 subjects from each stratum respectively.

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The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling fraction for
each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the strata. It is much like
assembling a smaller population that is specific to the relative proportions of the subgroups
within the population.

2. Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling
is their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different strata have different
sampling fractions.
The precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction allocation of the
researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting sampling fractions, a stratum may
either be overrepresented or underrepresented which will result in skewed results.

4. Cluster Sampling

In cluster sampling, instead of selecting all the subjects from the entire population right off, the

researcher takes several steps in gathering his sample population.

First, the researcher selects groups or clusters, and then from each cluster, the researcher selects

the individual subjects by either simple random or systematic random sampling.

The researcher can even opt to include the entire cluster and not just a subset from it.

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The most common cluster used in research is a geographical cluster. For example, a researcher

wants to survey academic performance of high school students in Spain.

1. He can divide the entire population (population of Spain) into different clusters (cities).

2. Then the researcher selects a number of clusters depending on his research through simple or

systematic random sampling.

3. Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected cities) the researcher can either include all

the high school students as subjects or he can select a number of subjects from each cluster through

simple or systematic random sampling.

The important thing to remember about this sampling technique is to give all the clusters equal

chances of being selected.

Types of Cluster Sample

One-Stage Cluster Sample

Recall the example given above; one-stage cluster sample occurs when the researcher includes all

the high school students from all the randomly selected clusters as sample.

Two-Stage Cluster Sample

From the same example above, two-stage cluster sample is obtained when the researcher only

selects a number of students from each cluster by using simple or systematic random sampling.

Difference between Cluster Sampling and Stratified Sampling

The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling lies with the inclusion of

the cluster or strata.

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In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is sampled while in cluster sampling,

the researcher only randomly selects a number of clusters from the collection of clusters of the

entire population. Therefore, only a number of clusters are sampled, all the other clusters are left

unrepresented.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling

This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an entire country when

using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate his limited resources to the few

randomly selected clusters or areas when using cluster samples.

Related to the first advantage, the researcher can also increase his sample size with this technique.

Considering that the researcher will only have to take the sample from a number of areas or

clusters, he can then select more subjects since they are more accessible.

From all the different type of probability sampling, this technique is the least representative of the

population. The tendency of individuals within a cluster is to have similar characteristics and with

a cluster sample, there is a chance that the researcher can have an overrepresented or

underrepresented cluster which can skew the results of the study.

This is also a probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling error.

This is brought by the limited clusters included in the sample leaving off a significant proportion

of the population un-sampled.

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Research Triad

Results from the sample can be

The resulting sample must be
generalized. To speak for the Population
representative of the population
entire population from which the
to warrant accurate
aforementioned sample was taken.
generalization.

Results Sample

Should be systematic,
repeatable and nonbiased

1. Result Generalization
Results from the sample can be generalized. To speak for the entire population from which the
aforementioned sample was taken.

2. Population Sampling
The resulting sample must be representative of the population to warrant accurate generalization.

3. Experimentation/testing
Should be systematic, repeatable and nonbiased.

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The differences between Probability (Random) Sampling and Non-Probability (Non-Random)

Sampling are summarized below.

Probability (Random) Sampling Non-Probability (Non-Random) Sampling

Allows use of statistics, tests hypotheses Exploratory research, generates hypotheses

Can estimate population parameters Population parameters are not of interest

Eliminates bias Adequacy of the sample can't be known

Must have random selection of units Cheaper, easier, quicker to carry out

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