1 ANCIENT CITES OF 6-N 1

TAMILAGAM

2 SOCIETY AND CULTURAL 6-N 6

IN ANCIENT TAMIZHAM

3 EARLY TAMIL SOCIETY 9-N 19

AND CULTURE

4 EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY 11-N 39

IN SOUTH INDIA

5 IMPERIAL CHOLAS 11-O 53

6 EMERGENCE OF NEW 7-N 62

KINGDOMS IN SOUTH
INDIA
LATER CHOLAS-THE
LATER PANDYAS
7 LATER CHOLAS AND 11-N 68
PANDYAS

8 ART AND ARCHITECT OF 7-N 75

TN

9 SOUTH INDIAN 7-O 106

KINGDOMS
 TAMIL SOCIETY

Ancient cities of tamilagam

Mesopotamian civilisation is the earliest civilisation in the world. It
is6500years old.
Poompuhar
1. Poompuhar is one of the oldest towns in ancient Tamilagam.
2. This is the place where well known characters of Silapathikaram,
Kovalan and Kannagi lived.
3. It was also a port town along the Bay of Bengal.
4. The ports were established for facilitating maritime trade.
5. Even in times past, countries began to export their surplus products
and import the scarce commodities by sea.
6. Poompuhar is one such historic port that emerged in the wake of
increasing maritime trade.
7. It is a coastal town near the present-day Mayiladuthurai and is located
where the river Cauvery drains into the sea.

Poompuhar Port
1) Poompuhar was also known by names such as Puhar and
Kaveripoompattinam.
2) It served as the port of the early Chola kingdom.
3) One of the popular Sangam Literature, Pattinappaalai and Tamil epics,
Silappathikaram and Manimegalai, have references to the brisk
sea-borne tradethat took place in the port city, Puhar.
4) Silappathikaram, in particular, speaks about the greatness of
Poompuhar.
5) The lead female character of Silappathikaram is Kannagi.
6) Her father is Maanaigan.Sea traders are known by the name
Maanaigan.
7) The male character Kovalan’s father is Maasathuvan. Massathuvan
means a big trader.
8) It is clear from the text that Poompuhar was a place where big traders
and sea traders had settled down.

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9) Numerous merchants from foreign countries such as Greece and
Rome landed at Poompuhar.
10) Due to busy and continuous trade, many of them stayed on
indefinitely in Poompuhar.
11) There are evidences of foreigner's settlements in the town. People
speaking many languages inhabited Poompuhar in its glorious days.
12) As loading and unloading of ships took some months, the foreign
traders began to interact with the local people during that period.
13) This enabled the natives to learn foreign languages for
communication. Similarly, the foreigners also learnt Tamil to
communicate with the natives.
14) This contact facilitated not only exchange of goods but also languages
and ideas resulting in cultural blending.
15) The traders of Poompuhar were known for their honesty and integrity.
They sold goods at legitimate prices.
16) Pattinappaalai states that “selling any commodity at a higher price
was considered bad”.
17) The author of Pattinappaalai, Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar, belonged
to 2nd century BC(BCE).
18) This is indicative of Puhar’s antiquity.
 Horses were imported by sea.
 Pepper was procured through the land route.
 Gold that came from Vadamalai was polished and
exported to the overseas countries.
 Sandal from Western Ghats,
 pearls from southern sea,
 corals from eastern sea and
 food items from Eelam were imported.
19) Poompuhar had been built differently from other towns.
20) Each social group had a separate settlement.
21) Streets were broad and straight, dotted with well-designed houses.
There was also a dockyard.
22) We can learn about the life of the people of Puhar by reading
Pattinappaalai and “Puhar Kandam” of Silappathikaram.
23) Puhar was a busy port upto 200 AD(CE).

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24) It might have been either washed away by sea or destroyed by big
shore waves.
25) The remains of that destruction can still be seen in the present
Poompuhar town.

Madurai
1. Madurai has been one of the oldest cities in India. Its antiquity can be
understood from the sobriquet “Sangam Valartha Nagaram” it has
earned.
2. Pandyas, the Cholas and later the Kalabras ruled Madurai in the
ancient period.
3. During medieval times, later Cholas and later Pandyas followed by
the Nayaks ruled this historic town.
4. This has resulted in cultural blending. Trade flourished and evidence
for this has been unearthed in archaeological excavation done in
Keezhadi near Madurai.
5. Madurai is proudly associated with tamil sangam (academies), which
worked for the promotion of Tamil language.
6. Forty-nine poets were associated with the last Sangam.
7. Ahil, fragrant wood, was brought from Port Thondi to Madurai.
8. King Solomon of ancient Israel imported pearls from Uvari near the
Pandyan port, Korkai.
9. A mint of Roman coins was present at Madurai. The coins of other
countries were also minted at Madurai, which is a proof for the glory
of Madurai.
10. The fame of Madurai is attested by the accounts of the Greek
historian Megasthanese.
11. Chanakya, Chandragupta’s minister, makes a mention of Madurai in
his book, Arthasastra.
12. In the moat around the town, tunnels had been constructed in such a
way that even elephants could comfortably enter.
Thoonga nagaram
 Madurai had Naalangadi and Allangadi.
 Naalangadi – Day Market. Allangadi – Evening Market.
 Madurai is known as Thoonga Nagaram (the city that never sleeps).

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 Madurai was a safe place where women purchased things from
Allangadi without any fear

Kanchi
1. A place of learning is called school. Several schools were established
in great numbers for the first time in Kancheepuram.
2. Jains studied in Jainapalli, and Buddhists studied in Viharas.
3. The greatness of Kanchi as an educational centre can be understood
from the fact that the Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang who studied at
Nalanda University visited Kanchi ‘Kadigai’ to pursue his further
studies.
4. Poet Kalidasa says, “Kanchi is the best of thetowns”.
5. Tamil poet saint Thirunavukarasar praises Kanchi as “Kalviyil
Karaiillatha Kanchi”.
6. Hieun Tsang remarked that Kanchi can be counted as one among the
seven sacred places like Bodh Gaya and Sanchi.
7. Kanchi is the oldest town in Thondai Nadu.
8. Scholars like Dharmabalar, Jothibalar, Sumathi and Bodhi Dharmar
were born in Kanchi.
9. Kanchi is also known as the temples city.
10. The famous temple of great architectural beauty, Kailasanathar
temple, was built by later Pallava king Rajasimha at Kanchi.
11. During the Pallava period, a large number of cave temples were built.
12. The Buddhist monk Manimegalai spent the last part of her life at
Kanchi speaks highly of that town.
13. Water management played an important role in the agrarian society of
those times.
14. Hundreds of lakes were created for storing water around the town of
Kanchi.These lakes were well connected with canals.
15. During the later period, Kanchi came to be known as the district of
lakes. Water management skills of the ancient Tamils can be
understood from the construction of Kallanai in the Chola country
and the lakes and canals in Kanchi.
16. Apart from Poompuhar,Madurai and Kanchi, there were other
towns too in ancient Tamilagam.

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17. Korkai, Vanchi, Thondi, Uraiyur, Musiri, Karuvur, Mamallapuram,
Thanjai, Thagadoor and Kaayal are some of them.

Note
 Poompuhar was a port.
 Madurai was a trading town.
 Kanchi was educational centre.

Tamil sayings represent the uniqueness of each ancient Tamil kingdom

 Chola Nadu - sorudaithu (rice in abundance).
 Pandya Nadu - muthudaithu (pearls in abundance).
 Chera Nadu - vezhamudaithu (elephants in abundance).
 Thondai Nadu - Saandrorudaithu (scholars in abundance)

Chera- Comprised Malayalam-speaking regions and Tamil districts of

Coimbatore, Nilgiris, Karur, Kanniyakumari and Some parts of
present Kerala
Chola- thanjavur, Tiruvarur, Nagai, Trichy and Pudukkottai districts
Pandya- madurai,Ramanathapuram,Sivagangai, Thuthukkudi and
Tirunelveli districts
Thondai nadu- Kancheepuram, Dharmapuri, Tiruvallur, Tiruvannamalai,
Vellore and northern parts of Villupuram districts.

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 Society and Culture in Ancient Tamizhagam: The
Sangam Age

Note
 ArumugaNavalar (Jaffna), U.V.Swaminatha Iyer and Damodharam
Pillai (Jaffna) strove hard and spent many years in retrieving and
publishing the Tamil classics and the ancient Tamil texts, which were
originally present as palm leaf manuscripts.
Sangam age
 The word ‘Sangam’ refers to the association of poets who flourished
under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings at Madurai.
 The poems composed by these poets are collectively known as
Sangam literature.
 The period in which these poems were composed is called the
Sangam Age.

Sources
A) Inscriptions -
1. Hathigumpha Inscription of King Karavela of Kalinga,
2. Pugalur (near Karur) Inscription,
3. Ashokan Edicts II and XIII, and
4. Mangulam, Alagarmalai and Kilavalavu (all near Madurai)
B) Copper Plates
Velvikudi and Chinnamanur copper plates
C) Coins
Issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas and the chieftains of
Sangam Age as well as the Roman coins
D) Megalithic Monument -Burials and Hero stones
E) Excavated Materials
Excavated Materials from Adichanallur, Arikamedu,
Kodumanal, Puhar, Korkai, Alagankulam, Uraiyur
E)Literary Sources
 Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogai (eight anthologies),

6
  Pathupattu (ten idylls),
 Pathinan Keezhkanakku (a collection of eighteen poetic
works),
 Pattinapalai and
 Maduraikanji.
 Epics Silapathikaram and Manimegalai.
F)Foreign Notices
The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, Pliny’s NaturalHistory,
Ptolemy’sGeography, Megasthenes’s Indica,Rajavali, Mahavamsa
andDipavamsa

NOTE
 Time Span -3rd century BC (BCE) to c. 3rd century AD (CE)
 Tamizhagam - Vengadam (Tirupathi hill) in the north
toKanyakumari (Cape Comorin) in the south, Bounded by sea
on the east and the west.
 Age -Iron Age
 Culture-Megalithic
 Polity -Kingship
 Dynasties ruled-The Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas
Note
 Tholkappiyam is a work on Tamil grammar. It represents the
quality of Tamil language and the culture of Tamil people of
the Sangam Age.
 George L. Hart, Professor of Tamil language at the University
of California, has said that Tamil is as old as Latin.
 The language arose as an entirely independent tradition with
no influence of other languages

Cheras
1. Muvendars (Three Great Kings) controlled the territories of
Tamizhagam during the Sangam Age.
2. The Tamil word ‘Vendar’ was used to refer to three dynasties, namely
the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.

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3. The Cheras ruled over the central and north Travancore, Cochin,
south Malabar and Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
4. The Pathitrupathu (a collection of ten decades of verses) provides
information about the Chera kings.
5. It is known that the Chera king Senguttuvan went on a military
expedition to North India.
6. He brought stones from the Himalayas for making the idol of Kannagi,
an epic character from Silappathikaram.
7. He introduced pattini cult. CheranSenguttuvan’s younger brother was
IlangoAdigal.
8. He was the author of Silappathikaram.
9. Another Chera king, CheralIrumporai, issued coins in his name. Some
Chera coins bear their emblem of bow and arrow.

Prominent Chera Rulers

 UdayanCheralathan
 Imayavaramban NetunCheralathan
 CheranSenguttuvan
 CheralIrumporai
Cholas
1. The Chola kingdom of Sangam period extended upto Venkatam
(Tirupathi) hills.
2. The Kaveri delta region remained the central part of the kingdom.
This area was later known as Cholamandalam.
3. KarikalValavan or Karikalan was the most famous of the Chola kings.
4. He defeated the combined army of the Cheras, Pandyas and the
eleven Velir chieftains who supported them at Venni, a small village
in the Thanjavur region.
5. He converted forests into cultivable lands. He built Kallanai (meaning
a dam made of stone) across the river Kaveri to develop agriculture.
6. Their port Puhar attracted merchants from various regions of the
Indian Ocean.
7. The Pattinapaalai, a poetic work in the Pathinenkeezhkanakku, gives
elaborate information of the trading activity during the rule of
Karikalan.

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note
 Kallanai
 It was a dyke, built with stones.
 It was constructed across the Kaveri to divert water throughout
the delta region for irrigation.
 When it was built, Kallanai irrigated an area of about 69,000
acres

Prominent Chola Rulers

 Ilanchetsenni
 KarikalValavan
 Kocengannan
 KilliValavan
 Perunarkilli

Pandyas
1. The Pandyas ruled the present-day southern Tamil Nadu. The Pandya
kings patronized the Tamil poets and scholars.
2. Several names of Pandya kings are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Nedunchezhiyan is hailed as the most popular warrior.
3. He defeated the combined army of the Chera, Chola and five Velir
Chieftains at Talayalanganam.
4. He is praised as the lord of Korkai. Pandya country was well known
for pearl hunting. Pandya
5. kings issued many coins. Their coins have elephant on one side and
fish on another side. MudukudimiPeruvazhuthi issued coins to
commemorate his performance of many Vedic rituals.

Prominent Pandya Rulers

 Nediyon
 Nanmaran

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  MudukudumiPeruvazhuthi
 Nedunchezhiyan

The Titles Assumed by the Muvendars

CHERAN
 Adhavan
 Kuttuvan
 Vanavan
 Irumporai

CHOLAN
 Senni
 Sembiyan
 Killi
 Valavan

PANDIYAN
 Maran
 Valuthi
 Sezhiyan
 Tennar

Minor Chieftains – Ay, Velir and Kizhar

1. Apart from three great kings, there were several brave independent
minor chieftains.
2. The name ‘Ay’ is derived from the ancient Tamil word ‘Ayar’
(meaning shepherd).
3. Among Ay chiefs of Sangam Age, Anthiran, Titiran and Nannan were
the important names.
4. The Velirs–Vellalars– constituted the ruling and land-owning class in
the ancient Tamizhagam.
5. The famous Velirs were the seven patrons(kadaiyezu vallalgal).

10
6. They were pari,kari,ori,pegan,ay,adiyaman and nalli
7. Kizhar was village chief.

Muvendar Garland Port Capital Symbols

Palmyra Muziri/ Vanchi/

Cheras flower Tondi Karur

Bow and arrow

Fig (Athi) Uraiyur/

Cholas flower Puhar Puhar

Tiger

Pandyas Margosa Korkai Madurai

(neem) flower

Two Fish

Sangam Polity
Kingship
1) The kingship was hereditary. The king was called Ko.
2) It is the shortened form of Kon. Vendan, Kon, Mannan, Kotravan and
Iraivan were the other titles by which the king was addressed.
3) The eldest son of the reigning king generally succeeded to the throne.
The coronation ceremony was known as arasukattilerudhal or
mudisoottuvila.
4) The crown prince was known as komahan, while the young ones were
known as Ilango, Ilanchezhiyan and Ilanjeral.
5) King held a daily durbar (naal- avai) at which he heard and resolved
all the disputes.

11
6) The income to the state was through taxation.
7) Land tax was the main source of revenue and it was called ‘Irai’.
8) This apart, the state collected tolls and customs (sungam), tributes and
fines.
9) The kings and soldiers wore the heroic anklet (Veera kazhal). On the
anklet, the name and achievement of the wearer were blazoned.
10) Spies were used not only to find out what was happening within the
country, but also in foreign countries.
11) A wound in the back was considered a disgrace and there are
instances of kings fasting unto death because they had suffered such a
wound in the battle.

The Court
1. The king’s court was called Arasavai.
2. The king occupied a ceremonious throne in the court called Ariyanai.
3. In the court, the king was surrounded by officials, distinguished
visitors and court poets.
4. The rulers had five-fold duties. They were encouraging learning,
performing rituals, presenting gifts, protecting people and punishing
the criminals.
5. Ambassadors were employed by the kings.
6. They played a significant role. The king was assisted by a number of
officials.
7. They were divided into Aimperunguzhu (five-member committee)
and Enberaayam (eight-member group).

Army
1) The king’s army consisted of four divisions, namely, infantry, cavalry,
elephants and chariot force.
2) The army was known as ‘Padai’.
3) The chief of the army was known as Thanaithalaivan.
4) The prominent weapons used during this period were sword, kedayam
(shield), tomaram (lance), spears, bows and arrows.

12
5) Tomaram is mentioned as a missile to be thrown at the enemy from a
distance.
6) The place where the weapons were kept was known as paddaikottil.
7) The forts were protected by deep moats and trenches. The war drum
was worshipped as a deity.

Law and Justice

1. The king was the final authority for appeal. In the capital town, the
court of justice was called Avai.
2. In the villages, Mandram served as the place for dispensing justice.
3. In civil cases, the method of trial followed was to call upon the
plaintiff to thrust his hand into a pot containing a cobra.
4. If the cobra bit him, he was sentenced; if the cobra did not bite him he
was considered innocent and acquitted.
5. Punishment was always severe. Execution was ordered for theft cases.
The punishment awarded for other crimes included beheading,
mutilation of the offending limbs of the body, torture and
imprisonment and imposition of fines.

Local Administration
1) The entire kingdom was called Mandalam.
2) Mandalam was divided into Nadus.
3) Kurrm was subdivision of Nadu.
4) The Ur was a village, classified into perur (big village), Sirur (a small
village) and Mudur (an old village) depending upon its population,
size and antiquity.
5) Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was the general
term for harbour town.

Important Towns
Puhar, Uraiyur, Korkai, Madurai, Muziri, Vanji or Karur and Kanchi.
 Land was classified according to its fertility.
 Marutham was called menpulam (fertile land).
 It produced paddy and sugarcane.

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  The rest of the landscape, excluding Neithal, was called vanpulam
(hard land), and it produced pulses and dry grains.

Thinai (tract)-based Sangam Society

The land form was divided into five thinais (eco-regions).

Eco-region
(thinai) Landscape Occupation People Deity
Kurinji Palmyra Hunting Kuravar/kurathiyar Murugan
flower /gathering

Mullai Forest region Herding Aayar/aaichiyar Maayon

Marutham Riverine track Agriculture Uzhavan/uzhathiyar Indiran

(plains)

Neithal Coastal region Fishing/saltmakin Parathavar/ nulathiyar Varunan

g

Palai Parched land Heroic deeds Maravar/Marathiyar Kotravai

Status of Women
1. There was no restriction for women in social life. There were learned
and wise women.
2. Forty women poets had lived and left behind their valuable works.
Marriage was a matter of self-choice.
3. However, chastity (karpu) was considered the highest virtue of
women. Sons and daughters had equal shares in their parents’
property

Women Poets of Sangam Age

1) Avvaiyar, VelliVeethiyar, Kakkaipadiniyar, AathiManthiyar,
PonMudiyar.

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Religious Beliefs and Social Divisions
1. The primary deity of the Tamils was Seyon or Murugan.
2. Other gods worshipped during Sangam period were Sivan, Mayon
(Vishnu), Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai.
3. The Hero stone (natukkal) worship was in practice. Buddhism and
Jainism also co-existed.
4. Caste did not develop in Tamizhagam as it did in the northern India.
5. Varuna system (occupation-based caste) came to the Dravidian south
comparatively late

Veerakkal/Natukkal
1. The ancient Tamils had a great respect for the heroes who died in the
battle field.
2. The hero stones were erected to commemorate heroes who sacrificed
their lives in war.

Dress and Ornaments

1) The rich people wore muslin, silk and fine cotton garments.
2) The common people wore two pieces of clothes made of cotton.
3) The Sangam literature refers to clothes, which were thinner than the
skin of a snake (Kalingam).
4) Women adorned their hair plaits with flowers. Both men and women
wore a variety of ornaments.
5) They were made of gold, silver, pearls, precious stones, conch shells
and beads. The People were fond of using aromatic perfumes.

Arts
1. There are many references to variety of musical instruments such as
drum, flute and yazh.
2. Karikalan was master of seven notes of music (EzhisaiVallavan).
3. Singing bards were called panar and vraliyar.
4. Dancing was performed by kanigaiyar.
5. Koothu (folk drama) was the most important cultural practice of the
people of Sangam Age.

15
6. They developed the concept of Muthamizh (Iyal, Isai, Naatakam).
Occupation
1) The major occupations of the people were: agriculture, cattle rearing,
fishing and hunting.
2) Other craftsmen like carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith, and potters
were also part of the population.
3) Weaving was the most common part-time occupation of the farmers
and a regular full time job for many others.

Festivals and Entertainments

1. People celebrated several festivals. The harvest festival, (Pongal) and
the festival of spring, kaarthigai, were some of them.
2. Indira vizha was celebrated in the capital. There were many
amusements and games.
3. This included dances, festivals, bull fights, cock fights, dice, hunting,
wrestling and playing in swings.
4. Children played with toy cart and with the sand houses made by them.

Trade
1) Trade existed at three levels: local, overland and overseas.
2) The extensive and lucrative foreign trade that Tamizhagam enjoyed
during this period stands testimony to the fact that Tamils had been
great seafarers.
3) Warehouses for storing the goods were built along the coast. The
chief ports had light houses, which were called
KalangaraillanguSudar. Caravans of merchants carried their
merchandise to different places in oxen-driven carts.
4) Barter system was prevalent.

Malabar Black Pepper

1. When the Mummy of Ramses II of the Egypt was uncovered,
archaeologists found black pepper corns stuffed into his nostrils and
in his abdomen (as a part of embalming process practised in olden
days)

16
2. There were two kinds of markets or bazaars in the leading cities like
Puhar and Madurai.
3. In Madurai they were Nalangadi (the morning bazaar) and Allangadi
(the evening bazaar).
4. In these markets large varieties as well as large quantities of goods
were sold and purchased.
Major Ports: Musiri, Tondi, Korkai

Main Exports
salt, pepper, pearls, ivory, silk, spices, diamonds, saffron, precious stones,
muslin, sandal wood

Main Imports
Topaz, tin, wine, glass, horses
Silk supplied by Indian merchants to the Roman Empire was
considered so important that the Roman emperor Aurelian declared it to
be worth its weight in gold.

Muziris – First Emporium

 The Roman writer Pliny the Elder writes of Muziris in his Natural
History as the ‘first emporium (shopping complex) of India’.
 A temple of Augustus was built at Muziris, which had a Roman
colony.
 A papyrus document (now in Vienna museum) of 2nd century BC
(BCE) records the agreement between two merchants’ shippers of
Alexandria and Muziris.

Trade Contact with Overseas Countries

Archaeological excavations have confirmed the trading relations between
the Tamizhagam and the countries such as Greece, Rome, Egypt, China,
South East Asia and Sri Lanka.

Kalabhras
1. Towards the end of the 3rd century AD (CE), the Sangam period
slowly went into a decline.

17
2. Following the Sangam period, the Kalabhras had occupied the Tamil
country for about two and half centuries.
3. We have very little information about Kalabhras. They left neither
artefacts nor monuments.
4. But there is evidence of their rule in literary texts. The literary sources
for this period include Tamil NavalarCharithai, Yapernkalam and
Periapuranam.
5. SeevakaChinthamani and Kundalakesi were also written during this
period.
6. In Tamizhagam, Jainism and Buddhism became prominent
during this period.
7. Introduction of Sanskrit and Prakrit languages had resulted in
the development of a new script called Vattezhuththu.
8. Many works under PathinenKeezhkanakku were composed. Trade
and commerce continued to flourish during this period.
9. So the Kalabhra period is not a dark age, as it is portrayed.

Note
 GatewayHan Dynasty – China 206 BC(BCE) – 220 AD(CE
 Pyramid Mayan Civilisation Central America
 Colosseum Roman Civilisation – Italy 3rd BC(BCE) – 1st AD(CE)

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 Early Tamil Society and Culture

Introduction
1. Tamil civilization, as we have seen, begins atleast three centuries
before the Common Era (AD (CE)).
2. As seafaring people, Tamil traders and sailors established commercial
and cultural links across the seas and merchants from foreign
territories also visited the Tamil region.
3. The resulting cultural and mercantile activities and internal
developments led to urbanization in this region.
4. Towns and ports emerged.
5. Coins and currency came into circulation. Written documents were
produced.
6. The Tamil-Brahmi script was adopted to write the Tamil language.
Classical Tamil poems were composed.

Sources for the study of early Tamil society

The sources for reconstructing the history of the ancient Tamils are:
1) Classical Tamil literature
2) Epigraphy (inscriptions)
3) Archaeological excavations and material culture
4) Non-Tamil and Foreign Literature

The Classical Sangam Tamil Literature

The Classical Sangam corpus (collection) consists of the Tholkappiyam,
the Pathinen Melkanakku (18 Major works) and the Pathinen Kilkanakku
(18 minor works) and the five epics.

Tholkappiyam
1. Tholkappiyam, attributed to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest written work
on Tamil grammar.
2. Apart from elaborating the rules of grammar, the third section of
Tholkappiyam also describes poetic conventions that provide
information on Tamil social life.

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3. The texts of Pathinen Melkanakku include Pathupaattu (ten Idylls)
and Ettuthogai (the eight anthologies).
4. These texts are the oldest among the classical Tamil texts. The texts
of Pathinen Kilkanakku belong to a later date.
The Ettuthogai or the eight anthologies are
(1) Nattrinai (2) Kurunthogai
(3) Paripaadal (4) Pathittrupathu
(5) Aingurunuru (6) Kalithogai
(7) Akanaanuru (8) Puranaanuru

Pathupattu or ten Idylls collection includes ten long songs

1) Thirumurugatrupadai
2) Porunaratrupadai
3) Perumpanatruppadai
4) Sirupanatrupadai
5) Mullaipaattu
6) Nedunalvaadai
7) Maduraikanchi
8) Kurinjipaattu
9) Pattinappaalai
10) Malaipadukadam

Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works)

1. The Pathinen Kilkanakku comprises eighteen texts elaborating on
ethics and morals.
2. The pre-eminent work among these is the Thirukkural composed by
Thiruvalluvar.
3. In 1330 couplets Thirukkural considers questions of morality,
statecraft and love.

The Five Epics

The epics or Kappiyams are long narrative poem of very high quality.
They are,

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1) Silappathikaaram
2) Manimekalai
3) Seevaka Chinthamani
4) Valaiyapathi
5) Kundalakesi

Epigraphy
 Epigraphy is the study of inscriptions.
 Inscriptions are documents scripted on stone, copper plates, and other
media such as coins, rings, etc.
 The development of script marks the beginning of the historical
period.

Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions
1. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found in more than 30 sites in
Tamil Nadu mostly on cave surfaces and rock shelters.
2. These caves were the abodes of monks, mostly Jaina monks. The
natural caves were converted into residence by cutting a drip-line to
keep rain water away from the cave.
3. Inscriptions often occur below such drip-lines.
4. The sites have smooth stone beds carved on rock surface for monks
who led a simple life and lived in these shelters.
5. Merchants and kings converted these natural formations as habitation
for monks, who had renounced worldly life.
6. Mangulam, Muttupatti, Pugalur, Arachalur and Kongarpuliyankulam
and Jambai are some of the major sites of such caves with
Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
7. Around Madurai many such caves with Tamil-B ra hmi inscriptions
can still be seen.
8. Many of them are located along ancient trade routes.

Note: You will notice that among the old inscriptions, people (both local
and tourists) have marked their names thereby destroying some of the
ancient inscriptions.

21
Such acts of destruction of heritage property or property belonging to
others are called vandalism.

Hero Stones
1) Hero stones are memorials erected for those who lost their lives in the
battles and in cattle raids.
2) As cattle were considered an important source of wealth, raiding
cattle owned by adjoining tribes and clans was common practice in a
pastoral society.
3) During the Sangam Age, the Mullai landscape followed the pastoral
way of life.
4) Tribal chieftains plundered the cattle wealth of enemies whose
warriors fought to protect their cattle.
5) Many warriors died in such battles and were remembered as martyrs.
Memorial stones were erected in their honour.
6) Sangam literature vividly portrays these battles and clashes, and
describes such hero stones as objects of worship.
7) Tholkappiyam describes the procedures for erecting hero stones.
8) Hero stones of the Sangam Age with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions can
be found at Pulimankombai and Thathapatti in Theni district and
Porpanaikottai in Pudukkottai district.
9) Those of the Sangam Age discovered till now do not have images or
sculptures.
10) Hero stones of the post-Sangam Age and the Pallava period occur in
large numbers in pastoral regions especially around the Chengam
region near Thiruvannamalai district.
11) These hero stones have inscriptions and the images of warriors and
names of heroes.

Inscriptions on Pottery
1. Pottery vessels from the Early Historic Period have names of people
engraved on them in Tamil-Brahmi script.
2. Potsherds have been discovered in Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam,
Kodumanal, Keezhadi, and many other sites in Tamil Nadu.
3. Pottery inscribed with names in Tamil-Brahmi script have also been
found in Berenike and Quseir al Qadhim in Egypt and in Khor Rori in

22
 Oman indicating that early Tamils had trade contacts with West Asia
and along the Red Sea coast.
4. People etched their names on pottery to indicate ownership. Many of
the names are in Tamil while some are in Prakrit.

Pulimankombai Hero stone

1) Pulimankombai is a village in the Vaigai river valley in Theni district.
2) In 2006, rare hero stone inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi script were
discovered in this village.
3) One of the inscriptions from Pulimankombai reads “Kudalur Akol
pedu tiyan antavan kal”
4) It means "The stone of Tiyan Antavan who was killed in a cattle raid
at the village of Kudalur".
Prakrit was the language used by the common people in the Northern part
of India during the Mauryan period.

Archaeological Sites
1. Archaeological excavation refers to systematically digging a site to
recover material evidence for exploring and interpreting societies of
the past.
2. Archaeological excavations at the early historic sites are the source of
evidence of the activities of the Sangam Age people.
3. Excavations at Arikkamedu, Azhagankulam,
Uraiyur,Kanchipuram,
Kaveripoompattinam, Korkai,
Va s a va s a m udra m, Keezhadi,
Kodumanal in Tamil Nadu, and
Pattanam in Kerala provide the evidence we have of
this period.
4. A rik k a m e d u , near Puducherry,is a Sangam Age port, excavated
by the Archaeological Survey ofIndia (ASI).
5. British archaeologist, Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler,
French Archaeologist, J.M. Casal, and
Indian archaeologists, A. Ghosh and Krishna Deva, excavated thissite.

23
6. They found evidence of a planned town, warehouse, streets, tanks and
ring wells.
7. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is a Central government
agency that manages archaeological sites and monuments in India.
8. The Government of Tamil Nadu has its own department for
archaeology called the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology.
 The Indian Treasure Trove Act (1878),
 the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act (1972),
 the Ancient Monuments and
 Archaeological Sites and Remains Act (1958)
are legislation related to the preservation of archaeological remains in
India.

Material Culture
1. A r c h ae o log i s ts have found evidence of brick structures
and industrial activities, as well as artefacts such as beads, bangles,
cameos, intaglios, and other materials in these sites.
2. Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions on pottery and coins have also been
unearthed. Evidences of the various arts, crafts and industries together
help us reconstruct the way of life of the people of those times.
3. From this we learn and understand how they might have lived.
4. Cameo – an ornament made in precious stone where images are
carved on the surface.
5. Intaglio – an ornament in which images are carved as recess, below
the surface.

Coins
1) Coins as a medium of exchange were introduced for the first time in
the Sangam Age.
2) The coins of the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas, punch-marked
coins, and Roman coins form another important source of evidence
from the Sangam Age.
3) Punch- marked coins have been found at Kodumanal and
Bodinayakkanur.

24
4) Roman coins are concentrated in the Coimbatore region, and are
found at Azhagankulam, Karur, and Madurai.
5) They were used as bullion for their metal value and as ornaments.
6) Bullion means precious metal available in the form of ingots.
7) Punch-marked coins are the earliest coins used in India.
8) They are mostly made of silver and have numerous symbols punched
on them. Hence, they are known as punch-marked coins

Non-Tamil Sources (Foreign Accounts)

 Non-Tamil literary sources also offer information on early Tamil
society.
 The presence of the non-Tamil sources reveals the extensive
contacts and interactions of the early Tamil society with the outside
world.

Arthasastra
 Arthasastra, the classic work on economy and statecraft authored by
Kautilya during the Mauryan period, refers to Pandya kavataka.
 It may mean the pearl and shells from the Pandyan country.
Mahavamsa
 Mahavamsa, the Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle, composed in the Pali
language, mentions merchants and horse traders from Tamil Nadu and
South India.
 Chronicle is a narrative text presenting the important historical events
in chronological order.

Periplus of Erythrean Sea

 Periplus of Erythrean Sea is an ancient Greek text whose author is not
known.
 The term Periplus means navigational guide used by sailors.
Erythrean Sea refers to the waters around the Red Sea.
 It makes references to the Sangam Age ports of Muciri, Thondi,
Korkai and Kumari, as well as the Cheras and the Pandyas.

25
Pliny’s Natural History
 Pliny the Elder, was a Roman who wrote Natural History.
 Written in Latin, it is a text on the natural wealth of the Roman
Empire. Pliny speaks about the pepper trade with India.
 He states that it took 40 days to reach India, from Ocealis near North
East Africa, if the south west monsoon wind was favourable.
 He also mentions that the Pandyas of Madurai controlled the port of
Bacare on the Kerala coast.
 The current name of Bacare is not known.
 Pliny laments the loss of Roman wealth due to Rome’s pepper trade
with India indication of the huge volume of the pepper that was
traded.

Ptolemy’s Geography
 Ptolemy’s Geography is a gazetteer and atlas of Roman times
providing geographical details of the Roman Empire in the second
century AD (CE).
 Kaveripoompattinam (Khaberis Emporium), Korkai (Kolkoi),
Kanniyakumari (Komaria), and Muciri (Muziris) are some of the
places mentioned in his Geography.

Peutingerian table
1. Peutingerian table is an illustrated map of the Roman roads. It shows
the areas of ancient Tamilagam and the port of Muziris.
2. Note: Taprobane refers to Sri Lanka as Island. Muziris refers to the
port of Muchiri. Vienna Papyrus
Vienna papyrus
1. Vienna papyrus, a Greek document datable to the second century AD
(CE), mentions Muciri’s trade of olden days.
2. It is in the Papyrus Museum attached to the Austrian National Library,
Vienna (Austria).
3. It contains a written agreement between traders and mentions the
name of a ship, Hermapollon, and lists articles of export such as
pepper and ivory that were shipped from India to the Roman Empire.

26
4. Papyrus, a paper produced out of the papyrus plant used extensively
for writing purposes in ancient Egypt.

Sangam Age
 The Sangam Age or the Early Historic period is an important phase in
the history of South India.
 This period is marked out from prehistory, because of the availability
of textual sources, namely Sangam literature and Tamil- Brahmi
inscriptions.
 Sangam text is a vast corpus of literature that serves as an important
source for the study of the people and society of the relevant period.

Chronology
1. There is considerable debate among scholars about the age and
chronology of Sangam society.
2. The Sangam texts are generally dated to between third century BC
(BC (BCE)) and the third century AD (CE).
3. The references in Greco-Roman texts, Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and
the references to the Cheras, Cholas and the Pandyas in the Ashokan
inscription corroborate this date.
4. It is generally agreed that the Sangam poems were composed in the
early part of the historical period, but were compiled into anthologies
in the later period.
5. Ashokan Brahmi - the Brahmi script used in Ashokan edicts or
inscriptions.

The Thinai
1) The concept of Thinai is presented in the Tamil Grammar work of
Tholkappiyam and this concept is essential to understand the classical
Tamil poems.
2) Thinai is a poetic theme, which means a class or category and refers
to a habitat or eco-zone with specific physiographical characteristics.
3) Sangam poems are set in these specific eco-zones and reveal that
human life has deep relationships with nature.
4) The themes of the poems are broadly defined as akam (interior) and
puram (exterior).

27
5) Akathinai refers to various situations of love and family life, while
Purathinai is concerned with all others aspects of life and deals
particularly with war and heroism.
6) Ainthinai: The Five Thinais or landscapes.
7) Tamilagam was divided into five landscapes.
8) Each region had distinct characteristics – a presiding deity,
occupation, people and cultural life according to its specific
environmental conditions.
9) This classification has been interpreted by scholars to reflect real life
situations in these landscapes.
 The five landscapes are Kurunji, Mullai, Marutham, Neythal and
Paalai.
 Kurunji refers to the hilly and mountainous region.
 Mullai is forested and pastoral region.
 Marutham is the fertile riverine valley.
 Neythal is coastal region.
 Paalai is sandy desert region.

Sangam age polity

1. The Sangam Age has its roots in the Iron Age. In the Iron Age people
were organised into chiefdoms.
2. From such communities of Iron Age emerged the Vendhars of the
early historic period and the Velirs of the Sangam Age were
chieftains.
3. The Mauryan emperor, Asoka, conquered Kalinga (Odisha) and parts
of Andhra and Karnataka regions.
The Muvendhar
Among the political powers of the Sangam Age, the Cheras, the Cholas
and the Pandyas occupied pre-eminent positions.
They were known as Muvendhar (the three kings). The muvendhar
controlled the major towns and ports of the Sangam period.
The Cheras
1) The Cheras, referred to as Keralaputras in the Ashokan inscriptions,
controlled the region of present-day Kerala and also the western parts
of Tamil Nadu.

28
2) Vanci was the capital of the Cheras while Muciri and Thondi were
their port towns.
3) Vanci is identified with Karur in Tamil Nadu while some others
identify it with Thiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala.
4) Pathirtruppathu speaks about the Chera kings and their territory. The
Cheras wore garlands made from the flowers of the palm tree.
5) The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention the Chera kings of
three generations.
6) Coins of Chera kings have been found in Karur.
7) The Silappathikaram speaks about Cheran Senguttuvan, who built a
temple for Kannagi, the protagonist of the epic.
8) Legend has it that Ilango who composed the Silappathikaram, was the
brother of Cheran Senguttuvan.
9) The bow and arrow was the symbol of the Cheras.

The Cholas
1. The Cholas ruled over the Kaveri delta and northern parts of Tamil
Nadu.
2. Their capital was Uraiyur and their port town was
Kaveripoompattinam or Pumpuhar, where the river Kaveri drains into
the Bay of Bengal.
3. Pattinappaalai is a long poem about Kaveripoompattinam
composed by the poet Kadiyalur Uruthirankannanar.
4. Silappathikaram describes the trading activities at
Kaveripoompattinam.
5. Karikalan is notable among the Chola kings and is credited with
bringing forestlands under the plough and developing irrigation
facilities by effectively utilising the water from the river Kaveri.
6. The foundation for the extensive harnessing of water for irrigation
purposes, which reached its zenith in later Chola times (10th to 13th
centuries) was laid in his time.
7. Karikalan fought battles with the Pandyas, the Cheras and other
chieftains.
8. The Chola emblem was tiger and they issued square copper coins
with images of a tiger on the obverse, elephant and the sacred
symbols on the reverse.

29
The Pandyas
1) The Pandyas who ruled the southern part of Tamil Nadu are referred
in the Ashokan inscriptions.
2) Madurai was the Pandya’s capital. Tamil literary tradition credits
Pandyan rulers with patronizing Tamil Sangams (academies) and
supporting the compilations of poems.
3) The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription mentions the king
Nedunchezhiyan.
4) Nediyon, Mudathirumaran, Palayagasalai Mudukudumipperuvazhuthi
were some of the important rulers of the dynasty.
5) The Pandyan symbol was the fish.

Velirs / Chieftains
1. Apart from the Vendhars, there were Velirs and numerous chieftains
who occupied territories on the margins of the muvendhar.
2. The velirs were the seven chiefs Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ai and
Athiyaman.
3. Sangam poems write extensively about the generosity of these velirs.
These chiefs had intimate relations with the poets of their time and
were known for their large-heartedness.
4. These chieftains had alliance with one or other of the muvendhar and
helped them in their battles against the other Vendhars.

Society in Sangam Age

Many of the communities of the Iron Age society were organised as tribes,
and some of them were Chiefdoms.
The Sangam Age society was a society in transition from a tribal
community ruled by a chief to a larger kingdom ruled by a king

Composition of the Society

1) Social stratification had begun to take root in Tamil society by the
Sangam times.
2) There were several clan-based communities including groups such as
Panar, Paratavar, Eyinar, Uzhavar, Kanavar, Vettuvar and Maravar.

30
3) The Vendhars, chiefs, and their associates formed the higher social
groups.
4) There were priests who were known as Antanars.
5) There were artisan groups specialising in pottery and blacksmithy.
6) The caste system we find in northern India did not take root in Tamil
country as social groups were divided into five situational types
(tamil) and related occupational patterns.
7) The development of agriculture and pastoral ways of life might have
harmed the eco-system and the naturally available forest and wild
animals.
8) It is possible that some of the hunter-gatherers might have been
pushed to the forest areas and a few might have taken up the
occupation of manual labourers.
9) The development of agriculture in the wet-land region depended on
the use of certain groups of people as labourers.

Women
1. Women are frequently referred to in Tamil texts as mothers, heroines,
and foster-mothers.
2. friendly Women from Panar families, dancers, poets, and royal
women were all portrayed in Sangam literature.
3. There are references to women from all five eco-zones. For example,
Vennikkuyathiyar is identified as a poetess from the village of Venni.
4. There a re r eferences to women protecting Thinai fields from birds
and Umanar kula women selling salt showing that women were
involved in primary production.
5. Instances where women preferred to die along with their husbands
also occur in the literature of the times.

Economy
 The economy was mixed as elaborated in the Thinai concept.
 People practiced agriculture, pastoralism, trade and money exchange,
hunting-gathering, and fishing depending upon the eco-zones in
which they lived.
Agricultural Production
1) Agriculture was one of the main sources of subsistence.

31
2) Crops like paddy, sugarcane, millets were cultivated. Both wet and
dry land farming were practiced.
3) In the riverine and tank-irrigated areas, paddy was cultivated. Millets
were cultivated in dry lands.
4) Varieties of rice such as sennel (red rice), vennel (white rice), and
aivananel (a type of rice) are mentioned in the literature.
5) Rice grains were found in burial urns at excavations in Adichanallur
and Porunthal.
6) People in the forest adopted punam or shifting cultivation.
7) Pastoralism – nomadic people earning livelihood by rearing cattle,
sheep, and goat.

Industries and Crafts of the Sangam Age

 Craft production and craft specialization were important aspects of
urbanization.
 In the Sangam Age there were professional groups that produced
various commodities.
 The system of production of commodities is called industry.

Pottery
 Pottery was practised in many settlements.
 People used pottery produced by Kalamceyko (potters) in their daily
activities and so they were made in large numbers.
 Black ware, russet-coated painted ware, black and red ware potteries
were the different types of pottery used.

Iron Smelting Industry

1. Iron manufacturing was an important artisanal activity.
2. Iron smelting was undertaken in traditional furnaces and such
furnaces, with terracotta pipes and raw ore have been found in many
archaeological sites.
3. For instance evidence of iron smelting has been found in Kodumanal
and Guttur.

32
4. Sangam literature speaks of blacksmiths, and their tools and activities.
Iron implements were required for agriculture and warfare (swords,
daggers, and spears).

Stone Ornaments
Sangam Age people adorned themselves with a variety of ornaments.
While the poor wore ornaments made of clay, terracotta, iron, andleaves
and flowers, the rich wore jewellery made of precious stones, copper, and
gold.

Gold jewellery
1) Gold ornaments were well known in this period.
2) Goldcoinsfrom Romanwasusedtomake jewellery. Evidence of gold
smelting has been found at Pattanam in Kerala.
3) Gold ornaments have been unearthed at the megalithic sites of
Suttukeni, Adichanallur and Kodumanal, and towns of Arikkamedu,
Keezhadi and Pattanam.

Glass Beads
1. The presence of glass beads at the sites reveals that people of the
Sangam Age knew how to make glass beads.
2. Glass material (silica) was melted in a furnace and drawn into long
tubes which were then cut into small beads.
3. Glass beads came in various shapes and colour. Arikkamedu and
Kudikkadu, near Cuddalore show evidence of glass beads industry.
4. It is possible that people who could not afford precious stones used
glass beads instead.

Pearl Fishery and Shell Bangle

1) The Pamban coast is famous for pearl fishery.
2) A pearl has been discovered in recently excavated Keezhadi site.
Shell bangles were very common in the Sangam Age.
3) The Parathavars collected conch shells from the Pamban Island,
which were cut and crafted into bangles by artisans.

33
4) Whole shells as well as fragments of bangles have been found at
many sites.
5) Sangam literature describes women wearing shell bangle

Textiles
1. Textile production was another important occupation.
2. Evidence of spindle whorls and pieces of cloth have been found at
Kodumanal.
3. Literature too refers to clothes called kalingam and other fine
varieties of textiles.
4. Periplus also mentions the fine variety of textiles produced in the
Tamil region.
5. Spindle whorls were used for making thread from cotton.

Exchange, Trade, Merchants, and Trade Routes

1) We saw the primary production of grains, cattle wealth, and various
commodities.
2) These goods were not produced by everybody and were not produced
in all settlements.
3) Resources and commodities were not available in all regions. For
example, the hill region did not have fish or salt and the coastal
regions could not produce paddy.
4) Therefore trade and exchange waimportant for people to have access
to different commodities.
This system was known as barter system.

Traders
 The terms vanikan and nigama (guild) appear in Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions.
 There were different types of merchants: gold merchants, cloth
merchants, and salt merchants.
 Salt merchants were called Umanars and they travelled in bullock
carts along with their family.

34
Means of Transport
1. Bullock carts and animals were used to transport goods by land.
Trade routes linked the various towns of Tamilagam.
2. Various types of water crafts and sea-going vessels such as Kalam,
Pahri, Odam, Toni, Teppam, and Navai are also mentioned in Tamil
literature.
Barter and Coins
 Barter was the primary mode of exchange. For instance, rice was
exchanged for fish.
 Salt was precious and a handful of it would fetch an equal amount of
rice.
 The extensive availability of coin hoards of the Sangam Age of the
Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and Malayaman indicates that they were
used widely.

Tamilagam and Overseas Interactions

1. Tamil country had connections with countries overseas both in the
east and west.
2. Roman ships used monsoon winds to cross the Western Sea or the
Arabian Sea to connect Tamilagam with the Western world.
3. Spices including pepper, ivory, and precious stones were exported.
Metal including gold, silver and copper and precious stones were
imported.
4. Yavanar referred to the Westerners, including the Greeks, Romans
and West Asian people.
5. Yavana derives from the Greek region of Ionia.

Tamil Nadu to Red Sea Coast

1) An Indian jar with 7.5 kg of pepper, teak wood, a potsherd with
Tamil-Brahmi inscription and Indian pottery have been discovered at
Berenike, a port on the Red Sea coast of Egypt.
2) At Quseir al Qadhim, another port located north of Berenike on the
Red Sea Coast, three Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, Panaiori, Kanan, and
Cattan, have been found on pottery discovered here.
3) A stone with the name “Perumpatankal” has been found at Khuan
Luk Pat, Thailand.

35
4) Southeast Asia was known as Suvarna Bhumi in Tamil literature.
5) This stone was used by a person called Perumpattan, probably a
goldsmith.
6) It was a touchstone used to test the purity of gold.

Emergence of towns and ports

1. The Sangam Age saw the first urbanization in Tamilagam.
2. Cities developed and they had brick buildings, roof tiles, ring wells
and planned towns, streets, and store houses.
3. The towns worked as ports and artisanal centres.
4. Arikkamedu, Kaveripoompattinam, Azhagankulam and Korkai on the
east coast
5. Pattanam in Kerala were port centres. Kanchipuram, Uraiyur, Karur,
Madurai and Kodumanal were inland trade centres.
6. Many goods and commodities were produced in these centres and
were exported to various regions. Though few in number,large towns
appeared in the Sangam Age.
7. Small villages however were found in many areas.
8. Bronze vessels, beads, shell bangles, glass beads, pottery with names
of people written in Tamil-Brahmi script were found at these sites.

What is an urban centre?

 A planned town with brick architecture and a proper layout.
 Urban centres have a larger population involved in non-agrarian,
commercial and political occuptations.
 Various industrial activities are seen in these towns.

Pattanam, Kerala
 Pattanam is located near North Paravur in Vadakkekara village of
Ernakulam district of Kerala.
 It was an ancient port town that had overseas connections with the
western and eastern worlds

36
Kodumanal, Tamil Nadu
 Kodumanal is located near Erode in Tamil Nadu and is identified with
the Kodumanam of Pathitrupattu.
 Evidence of iron, stone bead and shell work, as well as megalithic
burials have been discovered at this site.
 More than 300 pottery inscriptions in Tamil-Brahmi have also been
found.

Keezhadi near Madurai, Tamil Nadu

1. Keezhadi is located near Silaimaan east of Madurai, on the highway
to Rameswaram.
2. In a large coconut garden, called Pallichandai Tidal, the
Archaeological Survey of India and Tamilnadu state Archaeological
Department excavated an ancient town dating to the Sangam Age.
3. Archaeological excavations have produced evidence for brick
buildings, drainage, Tamil-Brahmi inscription on pottery, beads of
glass, carnelian and quartz, pearl, iron objects, games pieces, and
antimony rods.
4. Further excavation may shed light on the nature of the craft
production and the cultural activities undertaken at this settlement

Faith and belief system

1) Like the diverse nature of the society and economy, the belief system
of the Sangam
2) Age was also diverse. It consisted of animism, ancestor worship, hero
worship and worship of several deities.
3) Tholkappiyam lists the presiding deities of Kurunji, Mullai,
Marutham, Neythal and Paalai landscapes, as Murugan, Thirumal,
Indiran, Varunan and Kotravai, respectively.
4) However, people also worshipped natural forces and dead heroes, and
ancestors.
5) The force of anangu is mentioned in the literature which indicates the
prevalence of animistic beliefs.
6) Jainism was present as evidenced by the caves with Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions.

37
7) Performance of Yagna is also evidenced. Buddhism was also present
in certain centres.
8) Different groups practiced various forms of worship

Fine arts
 Various art forms too existed in the Sangam Age.
Performances of ritual dances called Veriyatal are
referred to in the literature.
 Composition of poems, playing of music instruments and dances were
also known.
 The literature mentions the fine variety of cuisine of the Sangam Age.
People took care of their appearance and evidence of antimony rods
(kohl sticks) made of copper has been found in archaeological sites.
 They were used by women for decorating their eyebrows.

38
 Evolution of Society in South India
Introduction
 In the Deccan region, encompassing major parts of present day
Andhra, Karnataka and Maharashtra, the Satavahanas established a
powerful kingdom in the first century BCE.
 In the south, the three family ruling houses, the Cholas, the Cheras
and the Pandyas were their contemporaries, ruling the fertile parts of
Tamizhagam.
 But the Tamil rulers started two centuries earlier as they figure in
Asoka’s inscriptions of the third century BCE.
 There were many common things as well as differences in the polity
and society of the Deccan and Tamil regions.

Sources
Archaeological
 The megalithic burials sites of the early historic period.
 Excavated material from ancient sites, including ports, capital towns,
with architectural remains, such as in Arikamedu, Kodumanal,
Alagankulam, and Uraiyur.
 Buddhist sites with stupas and chaityas located in Andhra and
Karnataka regions (Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, etc.)

Numismatic
1. Coins of pre-Satavahana chieftains and of the Satavahanas from
Andhra- Karnataka region.
2. The coins issued by the Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and the chieftains
of the Sangam Age.
3. Roman copper, silver and gold coins.
Epigraphic
4. The Asokan inscriptions, written in Prakrit, found in
Andhra-Karnataka regions.
5. The Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found in the caves of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala such as in Mangulam, Jambai, and Pugalur.
6. The Satavahana inscriptions and other Buddhist inscriptions of the
Andhra region

39
7. Short inscriptions found on pottery and rings and stones in Tamil
Nadu and some sities outside india ,like in berenike and quseir al
qadhim (egypt).
Note
Stupas.
1) The stupa is a heap of clay that evolved out of earthen funerary
mounds, in which the ashes of the dead were buried.
2) Buddhist stupas evolved out of the burial of the ashes of the mortal
remains of the Buddha.
3) Buddhist sacred architecture originated with the eight stupas where
the ashes were divided.
4) Hemispherical shape, the stupa symbolizes the universe; and the
Buddha represents the emperor of the spiritual universe.
5) The stupa has a path around it for devotional circumambulation.

Literary
 Tamil texts including the Sangam and post-Sangam literature
 The Arthasastra, the treatise on economy and statecraft authored by
Kautilya
 The Puranas which mention the genealogy of the
Andhras/Satavahanas,
 Buddhist Chronicles such asMahavamsa.
 Gatha Saptasati, aPrakrit text composed by the Satavahana king
Hala

Classical Tamil Literature

 The Classical Sangam corpus consists of Tholkappiyam, the eight
anthologies (Ettuththokai), Paththuppattu. Tholkappiyam, attributed
to Tholkappiyar, is the earliest extant Tamil grammatical text dealing
not only with poetry but also the society and culture of the times.
 The Pathinen Kilkanakku (18 minor works) and the five epics belong
to post-Sangam times (fourth to sixth century CE) and describe a
different social and cultural set-up.

40
Note
Ettuthogai and Pathupattu collections have about 2400 poems. These
poems, varying in length from 3 to 800 lines, were composed by panar,
the wandering bards and pulavar, the poets.
The Eight Anthologies are 1. Natrinai; 2. Kurunthogai; 3. Aingurunuru;
4. Patitruppathu;5.Paripadal; 6. Kalithogai; 7. Akananuru; 8. Purananuru

Pathupattu(ten long songs):

1. Thirumurugatrupatai; 2. Porunaratrupatai; . 3Sirupanatruppatai;
4. Perumpanatruppatai; 5. Mullaipattu;6. Maduraikanchi;
7. Nedunalvadai; 8. Kurinjipattu; 9. Pattinappalai;
10. Malaipadukadam.
Patinen Kilkanakku texts, which are post-Sangam works, include
eighteen texts, which mostly deal with ethics and moral codes.
The most important of them are Thirukkural, and Naladiyar.
Silappathikaram and Manimekalai are the two important epics useful for
insights into cultural and religious history.

Foreign Notices
1. The following Greek and Latin sources inform us about the long
distance cultural and commercial connections.
2. The Periplus of Erythrean Sea, an ancient Greek text of the first
century CE.
3. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History, first century CE
4. Ptolemy’s Geography, second century CE
5. Vienna Papyrus G 40822, a Greek document datable to the second
century CE.
6. A Roman Map called Peutingerian Table

Si during maurya
1) The Asokan edicts (c. 270-30 BCE) present for the first time a picture
of the political condition in south India.
2) Rock Edict II lists the Tamil ruling houses Cholas, Pandyas,
Keralaputras and Satiyaputra as neighbour rulers, lying beyond his

41
 domain, where he is said to have made provision for two types of
medical treatment: medical treatment for both humans and animals.
3) The Mauryan empire at that time included northern parts of
Karnataka and Andhra while the Tamil kingdoms were treated as
independent neighbours.
4) After the decline of the Mauryan power, and before the rise of the
Satavahanas, many small principalities emerged.
5) Although not much information is available about their rulers, their
coins and inscriptions reveal that they were chiefs who controlled
small territories.

Women Poets of the Sangam Age

 Of the over 450 poets who contributed to the corpus of Sangam
poetry about thirty are women.
 They composed more than 150 poems.
 The most prominent and prolific amoung them was avvaiyar,others
include allurnanmullaiyaar,kaakkaipadiniyar,kavarpendu,nalveliyaar,
okkur masaathiyar,and paarimakalir.

Si during satavahanas
1. The Satavahanas emerged in the first century BCE in the Deccan
region. They ruled over parts of Andhra, Maharashtra, Karnataka and
Madhya Pradesh.
2. From recent archaeological evidence it is understood that the
Satavahanas started to rule in the Telengana area and then moved to
Maharashtra to rule in the Godavari basin with Prathistan (Paithan in
Maharashtra) as their capital.
3. Later they moved eastwards to control coastal Andhra also.
4. The work of Pliny talks about 30 walled towns, a large army, cavalry
and elephant force in the Andhra country
5. Gautamiputra Satakarni was the greatest of the Satavahana kings.
6. He defeated the Shaka ruler Nahapana and reissued the coins
of Nahapana with his own royal insignia.
7. The inscription of his mother Gautami Balashri at Nashik mentions
him as the conqueror of the Shakas, Pahlavas, and Yavanas.

42
8. He is also said to have performed the prestigious Vedic asvamedha
sacrifice.
9. Vasishthiputra Pulumavi, the successor of Gautamiputra Satakarni,
expanded the frontiers of the Satavahana Empire.
10. The coins issued by him are found scattered in many parts of south
India. Yagnashri Satakarni was another famous ruler who issued
coins with a ship motif, indicating the importance of the overseas
trade during his reign.
11. King Hala is credited with the writing of Gatha Sattasai, a collection
of 700 love poems.
12. Written in Maharshtri Prakrit dialect, it has themes similar to those
found in the Tamil Sangam poetry.
13. The Satavahana Empire declined around the 3rd century CE and was
replaced by the Ikshvakus, followed by the Pallavas, in Andhra and
the Kadambas in northern Karnataka.

Importance of Satavahana Period

1) Offering land grants was an important development of the Satavahana
times.
2) The beneficiaries of these grants were mostly Buddhists and
Brahmins. The Naneghat inscription refers to tax exemptions given to
the lands granted to Buddhist monks.
3) Thus we notice the beginning of priestly groups attaining higher
status. These land donations created a group of people who did not
cultivate, but owned land.
4) This led to the development of land-based social hierarchy and
divisions in the society.
5) For the first time a big state covering a major part of the Deccan was
established.
6) Several rock-cut caves dedicated to the Buddha sangha bear evidence
that they were situated in the trade routes linking the interior to the
coastal parts of Konkan region.
7) It was also a period of brisk Indo- Roman trade.

43
Sangam age
 The first three centuries of the Common Era are widely accepted as
the Sangam period, as the information for this period is mainly
derived from the Sangam literature.
 More correctly this has to be called as the early historical period and
starts one or two centuries earlier, from the second century BCE, as
we have clear epigraphical and archaeological evidence, in addition to
literary evidence.

The Muvendar
 Though the three Tamil ruling families were known to Asoka in the
third century BCE itself, some individual names are known only from
the Sangam poems of the first century and later Known as
muvendar, ‘the three crowned kings’, the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas
controlled major agrarian territories, trade routes and towns.
 But the Satiyaputra (same as Athiyaman) found in the Asokan
inscription along with the above three houses is a Velir chief in the
Sangam poems.

The Cholas
1. The Cholas controlled the central and northern parts of Tamil Nadu.
2. Their core area of rule was the Kaveri delta, later known as
Cholamandalam.
3. Their capital was Uraiyur (near Thiruchirapalli town) and Puhar or
Kaviripattinam was an alternative royal residence and chief port town.
Tiger was their emblem.
4. Kaviripattinam attracted merchants from various regions of the
Indian Ocean.
5. Pattinappalai, composed by the poet Katiyalur Uruttirankannanar,
offers elaborate descriptions of the bustling trading activity here
during the rule of Karikalan.
6. Karikalan, son of Ilanjetchenni, is portrayed as the greatest
Chola of the Sangam age.
7. Pattinappalai gives a vivid account of his reign.
8. Karikalan’s foremost military achievement was the defeat of the
Cheras and Pandyas, supported by as many as eleven Velir chieftains
at Venni.

44
9. He is credited with converting forest into habitable regions and
developing agriculture by providing irrigation through the
embankment of the Kaveri and building reservoirs.
10. Kaviripattinam was a flourishing port during his time.
11. Another king, Perunarkilli is said to have performed the Vedic
sacrifice Rajasuyam.
12. Karikalan’s death was followed by a succession dispute between the
Puhar and Uraiyur branches of the Chola royal family.

The Cheras
1) The Cheras controlled the central and northern parts of Kerala and the
Kongu region of Tamil Nadu.
2) Vanji was their capital and the ports of the west coast, Musiri and
Tondi, were under their control.
3) Vanji is identified with Karur, while some scholars identify it with
Tiruvanchaikkalam in Kerala.
4) Now it is accepted by most scholars that there were two main
branches of the Chera family and the Poraiya branch ruled from Karur
of present-day Tamil Nadu.
5) The Patitrupathu speaks of eight Chera kings, their territory and fame.
6) The inscriptions of Pugalur near Karur mention Chera kings of three
generations.
7) Chellirumporai issued coins in his name. Imayavaramban
Nedun-cheralathan and Chenguttuvan are some of the prominent
Chera kings.
8) Chenguttuvan defeated many chieftains and is said to have ensured
the safety of the great port Musiri by putting down piracy.
9) But the great north Indian expedition of Chenguttuvan mentioned in
Silappathikaram is however not mentioned in the Sangam poems.
10) He is said to have ruled for fifty-six years, patronising the orthodox
and heterodox religions.
11) Some Cheras issued copper and lead coins, with Tamil-Brahmi
legends, imitating Roman coins.
12) There are many other Chera coins with their bow and arrow emblem
but without any writing on them.

45
The Pandyas
1. The Pandyas ruled from Madurai.
2. Korkai was their main port, located near the confluence of
Thampraparani with the Bay of Bengal.
3. It was famous for pearl fishery and chank diving. Korkai is referred to
in the Periplus as Kolkoi.
4. Fish was the emblem of the Pandyas.
5. Their coins have elephant on one side and a stylised image of fish on
the other.
6. They invaded Southern Kerala and controlled the port of Nelkynda,
near Kottayam.
7. According to tradition, they patronized the Tamil Sangams and
facilitated the compilation of the Sangam poems.
8. The Sangam poems mention the names of several kings, but their
succession and regnal years are not clear.
9. The Mangulam Tamil-Brahmi inscription mentions a Pandya king by
name Nedunchezhiyan of the second century BCE.
10. Maduraikanchi refers to Mudukudumi- Peruvazhuthi and another
Nedunchezhiyan, victor of Talaiyalanganam, and a few other Pandya
kings.
11. Mudukudimi-Peruvazhuthi is referred to in the Velvikkudi copper
plates of eighth century for donating land to Brahmans.
12. He seems to have issued coins with the legend Peruvazhuthi, to
commemorate his performance of many Vedic sacrifices.
13. Nedunchezhiyan is praised for his victory over the combined army of
the Chera, the Chola and five Velir chieftains (Thithiyan, Elini,
Erumaiyuran, Irungovenman, and Porunan) at Talayalanganam.
14. He is also given credit for capturing Milalai and Mutthuru
(Pudukottai district) two important places from a Vel chief.
15. He is praised as the lord of Korkai, and as the overlord of the southern
Paratavar, a martial and fishing community of the Tirunelveli coast.

Social formation in tamil eco zones

1) Sangam poems help us understand the social formation of the time.
According to the thinai concept, Tamilagam was divided into five
landscapes or eco-regions namely

46
2) Kurinji, Marutam, Mullai, Neytal and Palai. Each region had distinct
characteristics – a presiding deity, people and cultural life according
to the environmental conditions, as follows:
3) Kurinji: hilly region: hunting and gathering
4) Marutham: riverine tract: agriculture using plough and irrigation.
5) Mullai: forested region: pastoralism combined with shifting
cultivation
6) Neythal: coastal land: fishing and salt making.
7) Palai: parched land. Unsuitable for cultivation and hence people took
to cattle lifting and robbery

Tamil society
 In a way this thinai classification is said to reflect the uneven
socio-economic developments of the different localities.
 That is seen in the political forms too.
 Three levels of rulers are found:1) Kizhar, 2) Velir, 3) Vendar. Kizhar
were the heads of the villages or a small territory, later known as nadu.
They were the chiefs of tribal communities living in specific areas.
 The Vendar were kings controlling larger, fertile territories.
 The Velir, who were many in number, controlled the territories of
varied geographical nature, mainly hilly and forest areas, that were in
between the muvendar’s fertile territories.
 Chiefs like Athiyaman, Pari, Ay, Evvi and Irungo each commanded a
big area, rich in natural resources.
 They were generous patrons of the poets and bards.
 They had military power and there were frequent wars among these
chiefs on account of capture of cattle.
 On many occasions they seem to have united and confronted one or
other of the three kings.
 There are differing views among scholars, with regard to the political
organization of the three kingdoms.
 The earlier and dominant view is that the Sangam Age society was a
well-organised state society.
 The other view which is put forward in recent decades is that the
polities of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas were pre-state chiefdoms.

47
 The arguments for the latter view are:
 No social stratification is noticed.
 Proper territorial association is absent.
 Destructive warfare did not allow the
development of agriculture and surplus
production for the emergence of the state.
 No evidence of taxation as in the governments of
North India
 The following counter arguments are presented in response:
 A closer look at the Sangam literature reveals that social
differentiation is evident in the Marutham region.
 The territorial associations are very clear in the case of the
Muvendar, and their important position is corroborated by the
Greco-Roman texts from the first century CE.
 Warfare for territorial expansion was a major theme of
Puratthinai
 Evidence for taxation at the highways and in the port of
Kaviripattinam is cited. The Chera king is spoken as receiving
the resources from the hills and the port of Musiri.
 Trade played an important role between the late first century
BCE and third century CE.

Political Ascendancy of the Vendar

 From the chiefs of the Iron Age (c. 1100-300 BCE) emerged the
Vendar of the early historic period.
 While certain chiefs attained higher status (vendar) through the larger
and effective control of pastoral and agricultural regions, others in the
marginal regions remained as chieftains (velir).
 For example, Athiyamans, mentioned as Satiyaputra in the Ashoka
inscriptions, became weak and did not attain the status of kings like
the Chola, Pandya and Chera vendar.
 The Vendar subjugated the chieftains and fought with the other two
Vendars.
 For this they mobilized their own warriors, besides seeking the
support of some Velir chiefs.

48
 The adoption of titles was one of the measures adopted by the
Sangam Age Vendar to display their power.
 Titles such as Kadungo, Imayavaramban and Vanavaramban and Peru
Vazhuthi distinguished themselves from the ordinary people and the
Velirs.
 The patronization of bards and poets and entertaining them in their
courts (avaiyam) was probably a step undertaken by the kings to
glorify their name and fame and also their territories and towns.
 For example, the Chola king Karikalan is said to have offered a huge
amount of gold coins to Uruttirankannanar who composed
Pattinappalai.

Society and economy

 In the Sangam Age the wars waged by the Vendar were involved in
expanding their territorial base by annexing the enemy’s territories.
 Endemic warfare presumably created conditions for social disparities.
War captives serving in some cult centres are mentioned.
 Some references to slaves are also found there.Women were actively
engaged in economic production and there were a significant number
of women poets in the Sangam Age.
 There is evidence of craft production such as bronze vessels, beads
and gold works, textiles, shell bangles and ornaments, glass, iron
smithy, pottery making.
 Craft production was common in the major urban centres such as
Arikamedu, Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kaviripattinam, Madurai, Korkai,
and Pattanam in Kerala.
 Maduraikanchi speaks about day markets as well as and night markets
selling several craft goods.
 Raw materials for the production of various objects and ornaments
were not available everywhere.
 Precious and semi-precious stones were collected, which were
exchanged for other commodities.
 Such raw materials reached the industrial centres, where various
objects were made, and they were again exchanged for some other
produce.

49
 The names of persons mentioned in inscriptions on pottery reveal the
presence of non-Tamil speakers, mostly traders, in certain craft
centres and towns.
 Traders from faraway regions were present in the Tamil country.
 Manimegalai refers to Magadha artisans, Maratha mechanics, Malva
smiths and Yavana carpenters working in co- operation with Tamil
craftsmen.
 Trade- related terms such as vanikan, chattan and nigama appear in
the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.
 Salt merchants called umanar, travelled in bullock carts along with
their families for trade activities.
 Chattu referred to the itinerary or mobile merchants.
 In trade, barter system was much in vogue, though coins were also in
use. Roman coins circulated as bullion.
 Long distance trade existed and the connections with the Roman
empire and southeast Asia are in evidence at many archaeological
sites.
 The southern part of India, because of its easy access to the coast and
location in the maritime trade route connecting the East and the West,
played an important role in the overseas contacts.
 The major early historic ports have evidence of Roman amphora,
glassware and other materials suggesting active maritime activities.
 The wealth brought by the Romans and the arrival of foreign
merchants is evidenced in archaeology as well as literature.
 Roman gold and silver coins have been found in many hoards in the
Coimbatore region and in many other places in south India.

Ideology and religion

1. The earliest evidence of the appearance of formal religious activities
appears in the time of the Asoka, when Buddhism reached south India
and Sri Lanka.
2. Asoka’s daughter is considered to have taken the Bodhi tree to Sri
Lanka. There is a legend associated with the movement of
Chandragupta Maurya to Karnataka region before the time of Ashoka.
3. The Satavahanas, Sangam kings and Ikshvahus supported Vedic
sacrifices.

50
4. The evidence for the movement of Brahmins and the performance of
Vedic ritual practices is found in the Sangam texts.
5. But the varnasrama ideology was yet to take root in the Tamil region.
6. Evidence of Buddhism is widely found in south India.The Krishna
and Godavari delta of Andhra had many important Buddhist centres.
Archaeological excavations conducted in Amaravathi,
Nagarjunakonda, etc. show how deep-rooted was Buddhism.
7. In Tamil Nadu, Kaviripattinam and Kanchipuram have evidence of
Buddhist Stupas.
8. But compared to Jainism, the evidence for Buddhism is restricted to a
few sites in Tamil Nadu.
9. The numerous cave shelters with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found in
Tamil Nadu show that Jainism was more influential in the Tamil
country.
10. Their influence on the common people is not known but we have
evidence for the merchants and lay devotees supporting Jain monks
by providing rock shelters and offerings.
11. In the post-Sangam centuries Jains contributed substantially to Tamil
literature.

Age of kalabras -post sangam period

 The period between the Sangam Age and the Pallava-Pandya period,
roughly between c. 300 CE and 600 CE, is known as the age of
Kalabhras in the history of Tamizhagam.
 As the three traditional kingdoms disappeared in this interval due to
the occupation of their territory by a warlike group called the
Kalabhras, this period was called an interregnum or 'dark age' by
earlier historians.
 It was also supposed that many good traits of earlier Tamil culture
disappeared in this interval.
 This idea of the Kalabhra interregnum is no more accepted as correct.
 Rather this is the time when the greatest Tamil work Tirukkural was
written along with many other works grouped as the eighteen minor
works.
 The epics Silappathikaram and Manimekalai also belong to this
period.

51
 As this was the time when the non-orthodox religions, Jainism and
Buddhism became more influential, the scholars of the orthodox
Vedic- Puranic school seem to have created the impression that the
ruling Kalabhras of the time were evil in nature.
 The recent interpretation of the period takes it as a period of transition
leading to enlarged state societies under the Pallavas ruling over
northern Tamilnadu and the Pandyas in the south from the sixth
century onwards.
 To start with, the rulers of these new states were patrons of the Jain
and Buddhist religions and gradually they came under the spell of the
orthodox Vedic- Puranic religion emerging in the form of the Bhakti
cults of Saivism and Vaishnavism.
 But the influence of Jain and Buddhist religions on the general society
was so strong as to evoke much aversion from the Bhakti saints.
Note
 A group of inscriptions found at Pulangurichi in Sivagangai district
datable to about the middle of the fifth century, name two kings. They
are Chendan and Kurran.
 Though there is no mention about their family or dynasty name, some
scholars identify them as Kalabhra rulers.
 The Kalabhra kingdom seems to have been uprooted by Pandyas
around the third quarters of sixth century CE.

52
 IMPERIAL CHOLAS
1. After the decline of the Sangam period, the Cholas became
feudatories in Uraiyur.
2. They became prominent in the ninth century and established an
empire comprising the major portion of South India.
3. Their capital was Tanjore.
4. They also extended their sway in Sri Lanka and the Malay Peninsula.
Therefore, they are called as the Imperial Cholas.
5. Thousands of inscriptions found in the temples provide detailed
information regarding the administration, society, economy and
culture of the Chola period.
6. The founder of the Imperial Chola line was Vijayalaya.
7. He captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars in 815 A.D. and built a
temple for Durga.
8. His son Aditya put an end to the Pallava kingdom by defeating
Aparajita and annexed Tondaimandalam.
9. Parantaka I was one of the important early Chola rulers. He defeated
the Pandyas and the ruler of Ceylon.
10. But he suffered a defeat at the hands of the Rashtrakutas in the
famous battle of Takkolam.
11. Parantaka I was a great builder of temples. He also provided the
vimana of the famous Nataraja temple at Chidambaram with a golden
roof.
12. The two famous Uttiramerur inscriptions that give a detailed account
of the village administration under the Cholas belong to his reign.
13. After a gap of thirty years, the Cholas regained their supremacy under
Rajaraja I.
Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)
It was under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I that the Chola power
reached its highest point of glory.
His military conquests were:
i. The defeat of the Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in the
naval battle of Kandalursalai and the destruction of the
Chera navy.

53
 ii. The defeat of the Pandya ruler, Amarabhujanga and
establishment of Chola authority in the Pandya country.
iii. The conquest of Gangavadi, Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi
located in the Mysore region.
iv. The invasion of Sri Lanka which was entrusted to his son
Rajendra I. As the Sri Lankan king Mahinda V fled away
from his country, the Cholas annexed the northern Sri
Lanka. The capital was shifted from Anuradhapura to
Polanaruva where a Shiva temple was built
v. The Chola victory over the growing power of the Western
Chalukyas of Kalyani.
vi. Satyasraya was defeated and Rajaraja I captured the
Raichur Doab, Banavasi and other places. Hence the Chola
power extended up to the river Tungabadhra.
vii. The restoration of Vengi throne to its rulers Saktivarman
and Vimaladitya by defeating the Telugu Chodas.
viii. Rajaraja gave his daughter Kundavai in marriage to
Vimaladitya.
ix. Rajaraja’s last military achievement was a naval expedition
against the Maldive Islands which were conquered.
1. By these conquests, the extent of the Chola empire under Rajaraja I
included the Pandya, Chera and the Tondaimandalam regions of
Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi, Nolambapadi and the Telugu Choda
territories in the Deccan and the northern part of Ceylon and the
Maldive Islands beyond India.
2. Rajaraja assumed a number of titles like,
 Mummidi Chola,
 Jayankonda and
 Sivapadasekara.
3. He was a devout follower of Saivism.
4. He completed the construction of the famous Rajarajeswara temple or
Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore in 1010 A.D.
5. He also helped in the construction of a Buddhist monastery at
Nagapattinam

54
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
1) Rajendra had demonstrated his military ability by participating in his
father’s campaigns.
2) He continued his father’s policy of aggressive conquests and
expansion. His important wars were:
3) Mahinda V, the king of Sri Lanka attempted to recover from the
Cholas the northern part of Ceylon.
4) Rajendra defeated him and seized the southern Sri Lanka. Thus the
whole of Sri Lanka was made part of the Chola Empire.
5) He reasserted the Chola authority over the Chera and Pandya
countries.
6) He defeated Jayasimha II, the Western Chalukya king and the river
Tungabadhra was recognised as the boundary between the Cholas and
Chalukyas.
7) His most famous military enterprise was his expedition to north India.
8) The Chola army crossed the Ganges by defeating a number of rulers
on its way. Rajendra defeated Mahipala I of Bengal.
9) To commemorate this successful north-Indian campaign Rajendra
founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and constructed the
famous Rajesvaram temple in that city.
10) He also excavated a large irrigation tank called Cholagangam on the
western side of the city.
11) Another famous venture of Rajendra was his naval expedition to
Kadaram or Sri Vijaya.
12) It is difficult to pin point the real object of the expedition. Whatever
its objects were, the naval expedition was a complete success.
13) A number of places were occupied by Chola forces. But it was only
temporary and no permanent annexation of these places was
contemplated.
14) He assumed the title Kadaramkondan.
15) Rajendra I had put down all rebellions and kept his empire in tact.
16) At the death of Rajendra I the extent of the Chola Empire was at its
peak.
17) The river Tungabadhra was the northern boundary.
18) The Pandya, Kerala and Mysore regions and also Sri Lanka formed
part of the empire.

55
19) He gave his daughter Ammangadevi to the Vengi Chalukya prince
and further continued the matrimonial alliance initiated by his father.
20) Rajendra I assumed a number of titles, the most famous being
Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaram Kondan and Pandita Cholan.
21) Like his father he was also a devout Saiva and built a temple for that
god at the new capital Gangaikondacholapuram.
22) He made liberal endowments to this temple and to the Lord Nataraja
temple at Chidambaram.
23) He was also tolerant towards the Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
24) After Rajendra I, the greatness of the Chola power was preserved by
rulers like Kulottunga I and Kulottunga III.
25) Kulottunga I was the grandson of Rajendra I through his daughter
Ammangadevi.
26) He succeeded the Chola throne and thus united the Vengi kingdom
with the Chola Empire.
27) During his reign Sri Lanka became independent.
28) Subsequently, Vengi and the Mysore region were captured by the
western Chalukyas.
29) Kulottunga I sent a large embassy of 72 merchants to China and
maintained cordial relations with the kingdom of Sri Vijaya.
30) Under Kulottunga III the central authority became weak. The rise of
the feudatories like the Kadavarayas and the emergence of the Pandya
power as a challenge to Chola supremacy contributed to the ultimate
downfall of the Chola Empire.
31) Rajendra III was the last Chola king who was defeated by Jatavarman
Sundarapandya II.
The Chola country was absorbed into the Pandya Empire.
Chola Administration
a)Central Government
1. The Cholas had an excellent system of administration.
2. The emperor or king was at the top of the administration.
3. The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the power
and prestige of monarchy.

56
4. The big capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the
large royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the
authority of the king.
5. They undertook royal tours to increase the efficiency of the
administration.
6. There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various
officials called perundanam and sirudanam.
B)Revenue
1) The land revenue department was well organized. It was called as
puravuvarithinaikkalam.
2) All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of
revenue. The residential portion of the village was called ur nattam.
3) These and other lands such as the lands belonging to temples were
exempted from tax.
4) Besides land revenue, there were tolls and customs on goods taken
from one place to another, various kinds of professional taxes, dues
levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages and judicial fines.
5) During the hard times, there were remission of taxes and Kulottunga I
became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam
Tavirtta Cholan.
6) The main items of government expenditure were the king and his
court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks and canals.
Military Administration
1) The Cholas maintained a regular standing army consisting of
elephants, cavalry, infantry and navy.
2) About seventy regiments were mentioned in the inscriptions. The
royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai.
3) Within this there was a personal troop to defend the king known as
Velaikkarar. Attention was given to the training of the army and
military cantonments called kadagams existed.
4) The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
5) The naval achievements of the Tamils reached its climax under the
Cholas.
6) They controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay
of Bengal became a Chola lake for sometime.

57
Provincial Administration
1) The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and each mandalam
into valanadus and nadus.
2) In each nadu there were a number of autonomous villages. The royal
princes or officers were in charge of mandalams.
3) The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar.
4) The town was known as nagaram and it was under the administration
of a council called nagarattar.
Village Assemblies
1. The system of village autonomy with sabhas and their committees
developed through the ages and reached its culmination during the
Chola rule.
2. Two inscriptions belonging to the period of Parantaka I found at
Uttiramerur provide details of the formation and functions of village
councils.
3. That village was divided into thirty wards and each was to nominate
its members to the village council.
4. The qualifications to become a ward member were:
a) Ownership of at least one fourth veli of land.
b) Own residence.
c) Above thirty years and below seventy years of age.
d) Knowledge of Vedas.
5. However, certain norms of disqualification were also mentioned in
the inscriptions.
They were:
 Those who had been members of the committees for the past
three years.
 Those who had failed to submit accounts as committee
members.
 Those who had committed sins.
 Those who had stolen the property of others.
6. From the persons duly nominated, one was to be chosen for each
ward by kudavolai system for a year.

58
7. The names of eligible persons were written on palm-leaves and put
into a pot. A young boy or girl would take out thirty names each for
one ward.
8. They were divided into six variyams such as samvatsaravariyam,
erivariyam, thotta variyam, pancha variyam, pon variyam and
puravuvari variyam to take up six different functions of the village
administration.
9. The committee members were called variyapperumakkal.
10. They usually met in the temple or under a tree and passed resolutions.
The number of committees and ward members varied from village to
village
Socio-economic Life
1) Caste system was widely prevalent during the Chola period.
Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed special privileges.
2) The inscriptions of the later period of the Chola rule mention about
two major divisions among the castes – Valangai and Idangai castes.
3) However, there was cooperation among various castes and sub-castes
in social and religious life.
4) The position of women did not improve. The practice of ‘sati’ was
prevalent among the royal families.
5) The devadasi system or dancing girls attached to temples emerged
during this period.
6) Both Saivism and Vaishnavism continued to flourish during the Chola
period.
7) A number of temples were built with the patronage of Chola kings
and queens. The temples remained centres of economic activity
during this period.
8) The mathas had great influence during this period. Both agriculture
and industry flourished.
9) Reclamation of forest lands and the construction and maintenance of
irrigation tanks led to agricultural prosperity
10) The weaving industry, particularly the silk-weaving at Kanchi
flourished.
11) The metal works developed owing to great demand of images for
temples and utensils.
12) Commerce and trade were brisk with trunk roads or peruvazhis and
merchant guilds.

59
13) Gold, silver and copper coins were issued in plenty at various
denominations. Commercial contacts between the Chola Empire and
China, Sumatra, Java and Arabia were extensively prevalent.
14) Arabian horses were imported in large numbers to strengthen the
cavalry.
Education and Literature
1. Education was also given importance. Besides the temples and
mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions also
flourished.
2. The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and Thirubhuvanai
provide details of the colleges existed in these places.
3. Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and
medicine were taught in these institutions. Endowment of lands was
made to run these institutions.
4. The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the
Chola period.
 Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and
 Kundalakesi belonged to 10th century.
 The Ramayana composed by Kamban and
 Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the two
master-pieces of this age.
 Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war
fought by Kulotunga I.
 The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the life of three
Chola kings.
 The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi.
The works on Tamil grammar like,
 Kalladam by Kalladanar,
 Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain,
 Nannul by Pavanandhi and
 Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.

Art and Architecture

1. The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection
under the Cholas.

60
2. They built enormous temples. The chief feature of the Chola temple is
the vimana.
3. The early Chola templeswere found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur
in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district.
4. The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a master-piece of
South ndian art and architecture.
5. It consists of the vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa and a large
pavilion in the front known as the Nandimandapa.
6. Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple
architecture is the,
 Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.
 The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District
 Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later
Chola temples
7. The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture.
8. The walls of the Chola temples such as the Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large
size with fine execution.
9. The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous.The bronze statues
of Nataraja or dancing Siva are master pieces.
The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore
temples.

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 Emergence of New Kingdoms in South India: Later
Cholas and Pandyas

The Later Cholas

Introduction
 The Cholas are one among the popular and well-known Tamil
monarchs in the history of South India.
 The elaborate state structure, the extensive irrigation network, the vast
number of temples they built, their great contributions to art and
architecture and their overseas exploits have given them a
pre-eminent position in history.

Revival of the Chola Rule

1. The ancient Chola kingdom reigned supreme with the Kaveri delta
forming the core area of its rule and with Uraiyur (present- day
Tiruchirappalli) as its capital.
2. It rose to prominence during the reign of Karikala but gradually
declined under his successors.
3. In the 9th century Vijayalaya, ruling over a small territory lying north
of the Kaveri, revived the Chola Dynasty.
4. He conquered Thanjavur and made it his capital.
5. Later Rajendra I and his successors ruled the empire from
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the newly built capital.
6. Rajaraja I (A.D. (CE) 985 - 1016) was the most powerful ruler of
Chola empire and also grew popular beyond his times.
7. He established Chola authority over large parts of South India. His
much-acclaimed naval expeditions led to the expansion of Cholas into
the West Coast and Sri Lanka.
8. He built the famous Rajarajeswaram (Brihadeshwara) Temple in
Thanjavur.
9. His son and successor, Rajendra Chola I (A.D. (CE) 1016 - 1044,
matched his father in his ability to expand the empire.
10. The Chola empire remained a powerful force in South India during
his reign.
11. After his accession in A.D. (CE) 1023, his striking military expedition
was to northern India, capturing much territory there.

62
12. He proclaimed himself the Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Gangai
region).
13. The Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple was built to commemorate his
victories in North India.
14. The navy of Rajendra Chola enabled him to conquer the kingdom of
Srivijaya (southern Sumatra).
15. Cholas’ control over the seas facilitated a flourishing overseas trade.

Decline of the Chola Empire

1) Rajendra Chola’s three successors were not capable rulers.
2) The third successor Veerarajendra’s son Athirajendra was killed in
civil unrest.
3) With his death ended the Vijayalaya line of Chola rule.
4) On hearing the death of Athirajendra, the Eastern Chalukya prince
Rajendra Chalukya seized the Chola throne and began the rule of
Chalukya-Chola dynasty as Kulothunga I.
5) Kulothunga established himself firmly on the Chola throne soon
eliminating all the threats to the Chola Empire.
6) He avoided unnecessary wars and earned the goodwill of his subjects.
But Kulothunga lost the territories in Ceylon.
7) The Pandya territory also began to slip out of Chola control.
Kanchipuram was lost to the Telugu Cholas.
8) The year 1279 marks the end of Chola dynasty when King
Maravarman Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king Rajendra
Chola III and established the rule of the Pandyas in present-day Tamil
Nadu.

note
 Matrimonial alliances between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas
began during the reign of Rajaraja I.
 His daughter Kundavai was married to Chalukya prince Vimaladitya.
 Their son was Rajaraja Narendra who married the daughter of
Rajendra Chola named Ammangadevi.
 Their son was Kulothunga I.

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Administration
1. The central administration was in the hands of king. As the head of
the state, the king enjoyed enormous powers.
2. The king’s orders were written down in palm leaves by his officials or
inscribed on the temple walls.
3. The kingship was hereditary in nature. The ruler selected his eldest
son as the heir apparent.
4. He was known as Yuvaraja.
5. The Yuvarajas were appointed as Governors in the provinces mainly
for administrative training.
6. The Chola rulers established a well- organised system of
administration. The empire, for administrative convenience, was
divided into provinces or mandalams.
7. Each mandalam was sub-divided into naadus. Within each naadu,
there were many kurrams (groups of villages).
8. The lowest unit was the gramam (village).

Local Governance
1) Local administration worked through various bodies such as Urar,
Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar.
2) With the expansion of agriculture, numerous peasant settlements
came up on the countryside.
3) They were known as Ur. The Urar, who were landholders acted as
spokesmen in the Ur. Sabhaiyar in Brahman villages also functioned
in carrying out administrative, financial and judicial functions.
4) Nagarattar administered the settlement of traders. However, skilled
artisans like masons, blacksmiths, goldsmiths, weavers and potters
also lived in Nagaram.
5) Nattar functioned as an assembly of Nadu and decided all the disputes
and issues pertaining to Nadu.
6) The assemblies in Ur, Sabha, Nagaram and Nadu worked through
various committees.
7) The committees took care of irrigation, roads, temples, gardens,
collection of revenue and conduct of religious festivals

64
Uttiramerur Inscriptions
1. Uttiramerur presently in Kanchipuram district was a Brahmadeya
village (land grants given to Brahmins).
2. There is a detailed description of how members were elected to the
committees of the village sabha in the inscriptions found there.
3. One member was to be elected from each ward. There were 30 wards
in total.
4. The eligibility to contest was to men in the age group of 35–70,
well-versed in vedic texts and scriptures, and also owned land and
house.
5. The process of election was as follows: The names of qualified
candidates from each ward were written on the palm-leaf slips and put
into a pot.
6. The eldest of the assembly would engage a boy to pull out one slip
and declare his name.
7. Various committees were decided in this way.

Revenue
1) The revenue of the Chola state came mainly from the land. The land
tax was known as Kanikadan.
2) The Chola rulers carried out an elaborate survey of land in order to fix
the government’s share of the land revenue.
3) One-third of produce was collected as land tax. It was collected
mostly in kind.
4) In addition to land tax, there were taxes on profession and tolls on
trade.

Social Structure Based on Land Relations

1. The Chola rulers gifted tax-free lands to royal officials, Brahmins,
temples (devadana villages) and religious institutions.
2. Land granted to Jain institutions was called pallichchandam. There
were also of vellanvagai land and the holders of this land were called
Vellalars.
3. Ulu-kudi, a sub-section of Vellalar, could not own land but had to
cultivate Brahmadeya and vellanvagai lands.

65
4. The holders of vellanvagai land retained melvaram (major share in
harvest).
5. The ulu-kudi got kil-varam (lower share). Adimai (slaves) and
panicey-makkal (labourers) occupied the lowest rung of society.
6. In the intermediate section came the armed men and traders.

Irrigation
1) Cholas gave importance to irrigation.
2) The 16- mile long embankment built by Rajendra Chola in
Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an illustrious example.
3) Vati-vaykkal, a criss-cross channel, is a traditional type of harnessing
rain water in the Cauvery delta.
4) Vati is a drainage channel and a vaykkal is the supply channel. The
commonly owned village channel was called ur- vaykkal.
5) The nadu level vaykkal is referred to as nadu-vaykkal. The
turn-system was in practice in distributing the water.

Religion
 Chola rulers were ardent Saivites.
 Hymns, in praise of the deeds of Lord Siva, were composed by the
Saiva saints, the Nayanmars.
 NambiyandarNambi codified them, which came to be known as the
Thirumurai.

Temples
1. The Chola period witnessed an extensive construction of temples.
2. The temples in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Darasuram
are the repository of architecture, sculpture, paintings and
iconography of the Chola art.
3. Temples during the Chola period were not merely places of worship.
They were the largest landholders.
4. Temples promoted education, and devotional forms of art such as
dance, music and drama.
5. The staff of the temples included temple officials, dancing girls,
musicians, singers, players of musical instruments and the priests.

66
Cholas as Patrons of Learning
1) Chola kings were great patrons of learning. Rajendra I established a
Vedic college at Ennayiram (now in Villupuram District).
2) There were 340 students learning the Vedas, grammar and
Upanishads under 14 teachers.
3) This example was later followed by his successors and as a result two
more such colleges had been founded, at Tirubuvanai near
present-day Puducherry and Tirumukkoodal in present-day
Chengalpattu district, in 1048 and 1067 respectively.
4) The great literary works Periyapuranam and Kamba Ramayanam
belong to this period.

Trade
1. There was a flourishing trade during the Chola period. Trade was
carried out by two guild-like groups: anju-vannattar and mani-
gramattar. Anju-vannattar comprised West Asians, Arabs, Jews,
Christians and Muslims.
2. They were maritime traders and settled on the port towns all along the
West Coast.
3. It is said that mani-gramattar were the traders engaged in inland trade.
4. In due course, both groups merged under the banner of ai-nutruvar
and disai-ayirattu-ai-nutruvar functioning through the head guild in
Ayyavole, Karnataka.
5. This ai-nutruvar guild operated the maritime trade covering
South-East Asian countries.
6. Through overseas trade with South-East Asian countries elephant
tusks, coral, transparent glass, betel nuts, cardamom, opaque glass,
cotton stuff with coloured silk threads were imported.
7. The items exported from here were sandalwood, ebony, condiments,
precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt.

67
 The Later Pandyas
Introduction
1) Pandyas were one of the three ancient Tamil dynasties that ruled
southern India since the 4th century B.C. (BCE) but intermittently.
2) Korkai, associated with pearl fisheries, is believed to have been their
early capital and port.
3) They moved to Madurai later, as many early Tamil inscriptions of
Pandyas have been unearthed in Madurai and its surroundings.
4) Under the Pandya kings of the Sangam Age, Madurai was a great
centre of culture.
5) Poets and writers of Tamil language gathered there and contributed to
the development of Tamil Classics.
6) The Pandyas had re-established their strong position in south Tamil
Nadu by the end of the 6th century A.D. (CE), after eliminating the
rule of Kalabhras.
7) But they could not resist the rising power of the later Cholas who
ruled South India from 9th to 13th century.
8) Thereafter taking advantage of the decline of Chola power the later
Pandyas re-established their authority.
9) Their rule continued until 16th century.

Revival of Pandya Kingdom (A.D. (CE) 600 - 920)

1. Kadunkon recovered Pandya territory from the Kalabhras towards the
close of 6th century.
2. He was succeeded by two others. Arikesari Maravarman was the first
strong Pandya ruler who ascended the throne in A.D. (CE) 642.
3. He was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I and Narsimahvarman I.
4. Inscriptions and copper plates praise his victory over his counterparts:
Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
5. Arikesari Maravarman is identified with the Kun Pandian, the
persecutor of Jains.
6. After Arikesari, the greatest of the dynasty was Jatila Parantaka
Nedunjadayan (Varaguna I) (756-815), the donor of the Velvikkudi
plates.

68
7. Nedunjadayan expanded the Pandya territory to include Thanjavur,
Tiruchirappalli, Salem and Coimbatore districts.
8. Nedunjadayan’s successors Srimara Srivallabha and Varaguna II,
were successively defeated by Pallavas.
9. Later they could not face the rising Chola dynasty under Parantaka I.
10. Parantaka I defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the
country in 920. Thus ended the Pandya rule revived by Kadungon.

Note
 Saivite saint Thirugnanasambandar converted Arikesari from Jainism
to Saivism.
 On his conversion, Arikesari is alleged to have impaled around 8000
Jains on stakes.
 Though the number is an exaggerated one, the anti-Jain attitude of
Arikesari after his conversion to Saivism cannot be doubted.

Rise of Later Pandyas (1190 - 1310)

1. The Chola viceroyalty became weak in Pandya country after the death
of Adhirajendra (the last king of Vijayalaya line).
2. Eventually the Pandya kingdom could emerge as the only leading
Tamil dynasty in the 13th century.
3. Madurai continued to be their capital. Now Kayal was their great port.
Marco Polo, a famous traveller from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in
1288 and 1293.
4. He tells us that this port town was full of ships from Arabia and China
and bustling with business activities

Note
 Marco Polo hailed the Pandyan Kingdom as ‘the richest and the most
splendid province in the world’.
 Together with Ceylon, he added, it ‘produced most of the gems and
pearls that are found in the world’.
 In his travel account he recorded the incidents of sati and the
polygamy practiced by the kings.

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Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
1) The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya Kingdom was
Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman) Sundarapandyan (1251 to 1268).
2) He brought the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, which extended up
to Nellore in Andhra.
3) He held the Hoysalas in check.
4) The Chera ruler, the chief of Malanadu, accepted his feudatory
position and paid tribute to Sundarapandyan.
5) Emboldened by the decline of the Chola state, the Boja King of
Malwa region Vira Someswara challenged Sundarapandyan.
6) In a war at Kannanur, Sundarapandyan defeated Someswara.
7) Sundarapandyan succeeded in establishing his authority over the
chieftains of Cuddalore,Kanchipuram in northern Tamil Nadu, Arcot
and Salem in the western region.
8) There were two or threeco-regentswhoruled simultaneously along
with Sundarapandyan: VikramaPandyan and ViraPandyan.
9) After Sundarapandyan, MaravarmanKulasekaran ruled successfully
for a period of 40 years , giving the country peace and prosperity.
10) He had two sons. The king’s appointment of ViraPandyan as a
co-regent provoked the other son Sundara Pandyan who killed his
father Maravarman Kulasekaran.
11) In the civil war that ensued, ViraPandyan won and became firmly
established in his kingdom.
12) The defeated SundaraPandyan fled to Delhi and took refuge under the
protection of Ala-ud-din Khalji.
13) This provided the opening for the invasion of Malik Kafur.
14) After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan Kingdom came to be
divided among a number of kings from the main ruling Pandya’s
family.
15) In Madurai, a Muslim State subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came to
be established.

Polity and Society

State
1. Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their capital. Madurai has been
popularly venerated as Koodal.

70
2. The kings are traditionally revered as Koodal-kon, Koodal Nagar
Kavalan. The Pandyas derived military advantage over their
neighbours by means of their horses.
3. They imported these horses through Arabs with whom they had
commercial and cultural contact.
4. The king claimed that he was ruling according to Manu Sastra.
5. This doctrine supported the social hierarchy in the society.
6. Kings and local chiefs created Brahmin settlements called Mangalam
or Chatur-vedi-mangalam with irrigation facilities.
7. The actual landowning groups are described as the Bumiputtirar,
otherwise called the vellalar.
8. Historically they were locals and hence they were referred to as
nattu-makkal.
9. The communal assembly of this group is Cittira Meli Periyanattar.

Royal Officials
 A band of officials executed the royal orders. The prime minister was
uttara-mantri.
 The historical personalities like Manickavasagar, Kulaciraiyar and
Marankari worked as ministers.
 The royal secretariat was known as eluttu-mandapam. The most
respected officials were maran-eyinan, sattan-ganapathy, enathi-sattan,
tira-tiran, murthi-eyinan and others.
 The titles of military commanders were palli-velan,
parantakan-palli-velan, maran-adittan and tennavan-tamilveli

Administrative Divisions
 Pandy nadu, as in Chola state, consisted of many provinces known as
vala-nadus, which, in turn, were divided into many nadus and
kurrams.
 The administrative authorities of nadus were the nattars. Nadu and
Kurram contained settlements, viz. mangalam, nagaram, ur and kudi,
where different social groups inhabited.

Village Administration

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 An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli district) dated A.D. (CE) 800
provides an account of village administration.
 It looks similar to Chola’s local governance that included village
assemblies and committees.
 Both civil and military powers seem to have been vested in the same
person.

Irrigation
 The Pandya rulers created a number of irrigation sources. On either
side of the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparani, channels leading to the
irrigation tanks were built.
 In southern Tamilnadu, like the Cholas, Pandyas introduced the new
irrigation technology.
 Irrigation works were done by local administrative bodies, local
chiefs and officials.
 Repairs were mostly undertaken by local bodies. Sometimes, traders
also dug out tanks for irrigation.

Religion
1) Pandyas extended patronage to vedic practices.
2) Velvikkudi copper plates as well as inscriptional sources mention the
rituals like Asvameda yaga, Hiranya garbha and Vajapeya yaga,
conducted by every great Pandya king.
3) The impartiality of rulers towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism is
also made known in the invocatory portions of the inscriptions.
4) Temples of both sects were patronised through land grant,
tax-exemption and renovation.
5) The great Saiva and Vaishnava saints (Nayanmaras and Alwars)
combined contributed to the growth of Tamil literature and spiritual
enlightenment.
6) The period was marked by intense religious conflict. The Bhakti
movement of the time prompted the heterodox scholars for a debate.
7) Many instances of the defeat of Buddhists and Jains in such debates
are mentioned in Bhakti literature.
The Pandya kings of the period supported and promoted Tamil and
Sanskrit.

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Temples
 Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build any new temples
but maintained the existing temples, enlarging them with the addition
of gopuras, and mandapas.
 The monolithic mega size ornamented pillars are the unique feature of
the medieval Pandya style.
 The sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa and Subramanyar
are the best specimens in these temples.
 Pandyas specially patronised the historic Meenakshi temple at
Madurai and kept expanding its premises by adding gopuras and
mandapas.

Trade
 Arab settlements on the west coast of southern India, from 7th century,
had led to the expansion of their trade connection to the east coast
because the governments of the east coast pursued a more liberal and
enlightened policy towards overseas traders.
 Their charters exempted traders from various types of port dues and
tolls.
 In Kayal, there was an agency established by an Arab chieftain by
name Malik- ul-Islam Jamal-ud-din.
 This agency facilitated availability of horses to Pandya kings.
 In 13th and 14th centuries, horse trade became brisk. Marco Polo and
Wassaff state that the kings invested in horses as there was a need of
horse for ceremonial purposes as well as for fighting wars.
 Those who were trading in horses were called kudirai chetties. They
were active in maritime trade also.
 The busiest port town under the Pandyas was Kayal Pattinam (now in
Thoothukudi district) on the east coast.
 Gold coins were in circulation as the trade was carried through the
medium of gold.
 It was variously called kasu, kalanchu and pon.
note
 The vast trade in horses of that time has been recorded by Wassaff.

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 He writes: ‘…as many as 10,000 horses were imported into Kayal and
other ports of India of which 1,400 were to be of Jamal- ud-din’s own
breed.
 The average cost of each horse was 220 dinars of “red gold’

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 Later Cholas and Pandyas

Introduction
1. The Cholas belonged to one of the three mighty dynasties that ruled
the Tamizh country in the early historical period.
2. Described as the Muvendhar in the Sangam literature, they were
known for the valour and for their patronage of the Tamil language.
3. Many songs were composed in high praise of their glories. However,
after the Sangam period until about the ninth century CE, there are no
records about them.
4. Changes that overtook Tamizhagam in the intervening period brought
about a major transformation of the region and enabled the emergence
of big, long-lasting monarchical states.
5. The Cholas were one among them.
6. The river valleys facilitated the expansion of agriculture
leading to the emergence of powerful kingdoms.
7. The agricultural boom resulted in the production of considerable
surplus of predominantly food grains.
8. But this surplus in production resulted in unequal distribution of
wealth. Society gradually became highly differentiated unlike in the
earlier period.
9. Institutions and ideas from the north of India, such as the temple and
the religion it represented, emerged as a new force.
10. The Bhakti movement led by the Nayanmars and Azhwars
popularised the ideology and the faith they represented.
11. Similarly, political ideas and institutions that originated in northern
India soon found their way to the south as well.
12. The cumulative result of all the new developments was the formation
of a state, which in this case was a monarchy presided over by the
descendants of the old Chola lineage.
13. After the eclipse of the Chola kingdom, Pandyas, who began their
rule in the Vaigai river basin at Madurai, wielded tremendous power
during the 14th century.
14. Like the Cholas, the Pandyas also realised substantial revenue from
agriculture as well as from trade.
15. Trade expansion overseas continued in the Pandya rule.

75
16. Tirunelveli region, which was part of the Pandyan kingdom, exported
grain, cotton, cotton cloth and bullocks to the Malabar coast and had
trade contacts with West and Southeast Asia.
17. Pandya kings produced a cultural heritage by synthesising the
religious, cultural and political elements, and it differed totally with
the assumed homogeneity of classical age of Guptas.

I CHOLAS
Origin of the Dynasty
1) Records available to us after the Sangam Age show that the Cholas
remained as subordinates to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region.
2) The re-emergence of Cholas began with Vijayalaya (850–871 CE)
conquering the Kaveri delta from Muttaraiyar.
3) He built the city of Thanjavur and established the Chola kingdom in
850. Historians, therefore, refer to them as the Later Cholas or
Imperial Cholas.
4) In the copper plate documents of his successors that are available, the
Cholas trace their ancestry to the Karikala, the most well-known of
the Cholas of the Sangam age.
5) In their genealogy an eponymous king ‘Chola’ is mentioned as the
progenitor.
6) The names of Killi, Koc-cengannan and Karikalan are mentioned as
members of the line in these copper plates.
7) Vijayalaya’s illustrious successors starting from Parantaka I (907–955)
to Kulothunga III (1163–1216) brought glory and fame to the Cholas.
8) Parantaka Chola set the tone for expansion of the territory and
broadened the base of its governance, and
9) Rajaraja I (985–1014), the builder of the most beautiful
Brihadishvarar temple at Thanjavur,
10) and his son Rajendra I (1012–1044),whose naval operation extended
as far as Sri Vijaya, consolidated the advances made by their
predecessors and went on to establish Chola hegemony in peninsular
India.

Sources
1. More than 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone form the
primary sources for the study of Chola history.

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2. The inscriptions mainly record the endowments and donations to
temples made by rulers and other individuals.
3. Land transactions and taxes (both collections and exemptions) form
an important part of their content.
4. Later-day inscriptions make a mention of the differentiation in society,
giving an account of the castes and sub- castes and thus providing us
information on the social structure.
5. Besides stone inscriptions, copper plates contain the royal orders.
They also contain details of genealogy, wars, conquests,
administrative divisions, local governance, land rights and various
taxes levied.
6. Literature also flourished under the Cholas.
7. The important religious works in Tamil include codification of the
Saivite and Vaishnavite canons.
8. The quasi-historical literary works Kalingattupparani and
Kulotungancholan Pillai Tamizh were composed during their reign.
9. Muvarula, and Kamba Ramayanam, the great epic, belong to this
period.
10. Neminatam, Viracholiyam and Nannul are noted grammatical works.
11. Pandikkovai and Takkayagapparani are other important literary works
composed during this period.

Territory
1) Traditionally, the area under the Chola dynasty in the Tamizh country
is known as Chonadu or Cholanadu.
2) Their core kingdom was concentrated in the Kaveri-fed delta called
Cholamandalam.
3) This term came to be corrupted as “Coromandel” in the European
languages, which often referred to the entire eastern coast of South
India. The Chola kingdom expanded through military conquests to
include present-day Pudukkottai– Ramanathapuram districts and the
Kongu country of the present-day western Tamil Nadu.
4) By the 11th century, through invasions, Cholas extended their
territory to Tondainadu or the northern portion of the Tamizh country,
Pandinadu or the southern portions of the Tamizh country,
Gangaivadi or portions of southern Karnataka and Malaimandalam,
the Kerala territory.

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5) The Cholas ventured overseas conquering the north-eastern parts of
Sri Lanka, bringing it under their control and they called it
Mummudi-Cholamandalam.

Empire building
1. Rajaraja I is the most celebrated of the Chola kings.
2. He engaged in naval expeditions and emerged victorious in the West
Coast, Sri Lanka and conquered the Maldives in the Indian Ocean.
3. The military victory of Raja Raja I over Sri Lanka led to its northern
and eastern portions coming under the direct control of the Chola
authority. Rajaraja I appointed a Tamil chief to govern the annexed
regions and ordered a temple to be built.
4. It is locally called Siva Devale (shrine of Siva).
5. The Chola official appointed in Sri Lanka built a temple in a place
called Mahatitta. The temple is called Rajarajesvara.
6. Even as he was alive, Rajaraja I appointed his son, Rajendra I, as his
heir apparent.
7. For two years, they jointly ruled the Chola kingdom. Rajendra I took
part in the military campaigns of his father, attacking the Western
Chalukyas. Consequently, the boundary of the Chola Empire
extended up to Tungabhadra river.
8. When Rajaraja I attacked Madurai, the Pandyas escaped with their
crown and royal jewels and took shelter in Sri Lanka.
9. Thereupon, Rajendra I conquered Sri Lanka and confiscated the
Pandya crown and other royal belongings.
10. Rajendra I conducted the most striking military exploit after his
accession in 1023 by his expedition to northern India.
11. He led the expedition up to the Godavari river and asked his general
to continue beyond that place.
12. The Gangaikonda Chozhapuram temple was built to commemorate
his victories in North India.
13. During the Chola reign, the naval achievements of the Tamils reached
its peak.
14. The Cholas controlled both the Coromandel and Malabar coasts. The
Chola navy often ventured into Bay of Bengal for some decades.
Rajendra’s naval operation was directed against Sri Vijaya.

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15. Sri Vijaya kingdom (southern Sumatra) was one of the prominent
maritime and commercial states that flourished from c. 700 to c. 1300
in South-east Asia.
16. Similarly, Kheda (Kadaram), feudatory kingdom under Sri Vijaya,
was also conquered by Rajendra.
17. The Chola invasions of Western Chalukya Empire, undertaken in
1003 by Rajaraja I and 1009 by Rajendra I, were also successful.
18. Rajendra sent his son to ransack and ravage its capital Kalayani.
19. The dwarapala (door keeper) image he brought from Kalayani was
installed at the Darasuram temple near Kumbhakonam, which can be
seen even today.
20. Rajendra I assumed the titles such as Mudikonda Cholan (the
crowned Chola),Gangaikondan (conqueror of the Ganges),
Kadaramkondan (conqueror of Kadaram) and Pandita Cholan
(scholarly Cholan)

Chola adminstration
King
1) Historians have debated the nature of the Chola state. Clearly, it was
presided over by a hereditary monarchy.
2) The king is presented in glowing terms in the literature and
inscriptions of the period.
3) Venerated on par with god. The kings were invariably addressed as
peruman or perumagan (big man), ulagudaiyaperumal (the lord of the
world) and ulagudaiyanayanar (the lord of the world).
4) Later, they adopted the titles such as Chakkaravarti (emperor) and
Tiribhuvana Chakkaravarti (emperor of three worlds).
5) At the time of coronation, it was a practice to add the suffix deva to
the name of the crowned kings.
6) The kings drew legitimacy by claiming that they were a comrade of
god (thambiran thozhar).
7) Chola rulers appointed Brahmins as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus
(the kingdom’s guide).
8) Rajaraja I and Rajendra I mention the names of rajagurus and
Sarva-sivas in their inscriptions.
9) Patronising Brahmins was seen to enhance their prestige and
legitimacy. Chola kings therefore granted huge estates of land to

79
 Brahmins as brahmadeyams and caturvedimangalams (pronounced
chatur-vedi-mangalam).
Provinces
1. As mentioned earlier, the territories of the Chola state had been
expanding steadily even from the time of Vijayalaya.
2. At the time of conquest, these areas were under the control of minor
chiefs described by historians as “feudatories”.
3. Rajaraja I integrated these territories and appointed “viceroys” in
these regions: Chola-Pandya in Pandinadu,
4. Chola-Lankeswara in Sri Lanka, which was renamed as Mummudi-
cholamandalam, and
5. Chola-Ganga in the Gangavadi region of southern Karnataka.
6. In other less prominent regions, the territories of chiefs such as the
Irukkuvels, Ilangovels or Mazhavas or Banas were made part of the
Chola state and their chiefs were inducted into the state system as its
functionaries.

Army
1) Cholas maintained a well-organised army.
2) The army consisted of three conventional divisions: infantry, cavalry
(kudirai sevagar) and the elephant corps (anaiyatkal).
3) There were also bowmen (villaligal), sword-bearers (valilar) and
spearmen (konduvar).
4) Two type of ranks in the army are also mentioned: the upper and the
lower (perundanam and cirudanam).
5) According to a Chinese geographer of the 13th century, the Chola
army owned “sixty thousand war elephants that, when fighting,
carried on their backs houses, and these houses are full of soldiers
who shoot arrows at long range, and fight with spears at close
quarters”.
6) The overseas exploits of the Cholas are well known and it led
historians to refer to their navy “with numberless ships”.
7) Generally, soldiers enjoyed padaipparru (military holding) rights.
Cantonments, which were established in the capital city, were known
as padaividu.
8) Military outposts in the conquered territory were called nilaipadai.

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9) The captain of a regiment was known as nayagam and later he
assumed the title of padaimudali.
10) The commander- in-chief was senapati and dandanayagam.

Local Organisation
 Various locality groups functioned actively in the Chola period. These
were bodies such as Urar, Sabhaiyar, Nagarattar and Nattar.
 They were relatively autonomous organisations of the respective
groups. They are considered the building blocks using which the
edifice of the Chola state was built.

Urar
 With the expansion of agriculture, numerous peasant settlements
came up in the countryside.
 They were known as ur. The urar, who were landholders in the village,
acted as spokesmen in the ur.
 The urar were entrusted with the upkeep of temples, maintenance of
the tanks and managing the water stored in them.
 They also discharged administrative functions of the state such as
collection of revenue, maintenance of law and order, and obeying the
king’s orders.

Sabhaiyaar
 If the ur was a settlement of land holders, largely consisting of
peasants of vellanvagai, the brahmadeya was a Brahmin settlement.
 The Sabha looked after the affairs of the settlement, including those
of the temples at the core of brahmadeya and its assets.
 It was also responsible for maintaining irrigation tanks attached to the
temple lands.
 Like the ur, the Sabha also functioned as the agents of the state in
carrying out administrative, fiscal and judicial functions.

Nagarattaar
 Nagaram was a settlement of traders.

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 However, skilled artisans engaged in masonry, ironsmithing,
goldsmithing, weaving and pottery also occupied the settlement.
 It was represented by the Nagarattaar, who regulated their association
with temples, which needed their financial assistance.
 In the reign of Rajaraja I, Mamallapuram was administrated by a body
called Maanagaram.
 Local goods were exchanged in nagarams. These goods included
silk,porcelain, camphor, cloves, sandalwood and cardamom according
to Chinese accounts.
 In order to promote trade, inland and sea way, Kulotunga revoked the
collection of toll fee (sungam).
 Hence he was conferred the title Sungam Thavirtha Chozhan.

Nattar
 Nadu was a grouping of several urs, excluding brahmadeyas formed
around irrigation sources such as canals and tanks.
 Nattar (literally those belonging to the nadu) were the assembly of
landholders of vellanvagai villages (urs) in nadu.
 Nattar functioned as pillars of the state structure under the Cholas.
They discharged many of the administrative, fiscal and judicial
responsibilities of the state.
 They held hereditary land rights and were responsible for remitting
the tax from the respective nadu to the state.
 Landholders of the nadu held the honorific titles such as asudaiyan
(possessor of land), araiyan (leader) and kilavan (headman).
 There were functionaries such as the naattukanakku and nattuviyavan,
recording the proceedings of the Nattar.

Local Elections and Uttaramerur Inscriptions

 Two inscriptions (919 and 921) from a Brahmadeya (tax-free land
gifted to Brahamans) called Uttaramerur (historically called
Uttaramallur Caturvedimangalam) give details of the process of
electing members to various committees that administered the affairs
of a Brahmin settlement.
 This village was divided into 30 wards. One member was to be
elected from each ward.

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 These members would become members of different committees:
public works committee, tank committee, garden committee, famine
committee and gold committee.
 The prescribed qualifications for becoming a ward member were
clearly spelt out.
 A male, above 35 but below 75, having a share of property and a
house of his own, with knowledge of Vedas and bhasyas was
considered eligible.
 The names of qualified candidates from each ward were written on
the palm-leaf slips and put into a pot (kudavolai).
 The eldest of the assembly engaged a boy to pull out one slip and
would read the name of the person selected.

Economy

Agriculture
 One of the major developments in this period was the expansion of
agriculture.
 People settled in fertile river valleys, and even in areas where there
were no rivers, and arrangements were made for irrigation by digging
tanks, wells and canals.
 This led to the production of food grain surplus. Society got
differentiated in a big way.
 The Chola state collected land tax out of the agrarian surplus for its
revenue.
 There was an elaborate “department of land revenue” known as
puravuvari-tinaikkalam, with its chief called
puravuvari-tinaikkalanayagam.

Note
 Paddy as tax was collected by a unit called kalam (28 kg).
 Rajaraja I standardised the collection of tax.
 He collected 100 kalam from the land of one veli (about 6.5 acres),
the standard veli being variable according to fertility of the soil and
the number of crops raised.

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Land Revenue and Survey
1. For the purposes of assessing tax, the Cholas undertook extensive
land surveys and revenue settlements.
2. Rajaraja I (1001), Kulotunga I (1086) and Kulotunga III (1226)
appointed people for land survey so that the land could be classified
and assessed for the purposes the state,
3. the surveyors of the land called naduvagaiseykira too hailed from the
landholding communities.
4. Various units of the land measurement such as kuli, ma, veli, patti,
padagam, etc. are known, with local variations.
5. Generally, taxes were collected in different forms.
6. The taxes collected included irai, kanikadan, iraikattina-kanikadan
and kadami.
7. An important category of tax was kudimai.
8. Kudimai was paid by the cultivating tenants to the government and to
the landlords, the bearers of honorific titles such as udaiyan, araiyan
and kilavar.
9. The tax rates were fixed depending on the fertility of the soil and the
status of the landholder.
10. Opati were levied and collected by the king and local chiefs.
11. Temples and Brahmins were exempted from paying the taxes.
12. The tax paid in kind was referred to as iraikattina-nellu.
13. All these were mostly realised from the Kavery delta but not widely
in the outskirts of the kingdom.
14. At the ur (village) level, urar (village assembly) were responsible for
collecting the taxes and remitting them to the government.
15. At the nadu level, the nattar were responsible for remitting taxes

irrigation
1) Cholas undertook measures to improve the irrigation system that was
in practice.
2) As the state was drawing most of its revenue from agriculture, the
Cholas focused their efforts on managing water resources.
3) Vativaykkal, a criss-cross channel, is a traditional way of harnessing
rain water in the Kavery delta.

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4) Vati runs in the north–south direction while vaykkal runs in the
east–west direction.
5) Technically, vati is a drainage channel and a vaykkal is a supply
channel. The water running through vaykkal to the field was to be
drained out to vati and to another vaykkal.
6) Rain water would flow from where the natural canal started.
7) Many irrigation canals are modifications of such natural canals.
8) The harnessed water was utilised alternately through vati and vaykkal.
Here the mechanism designed was such that water was distributed to
the parcelled out lands in sequel.
9) Many canals were named after the kings, queens and gods. Some
examples of the names are
 Uttamachola- vaykkal,
 Panca-vanamadevi-vaykkal and
 Ganavathy-vaykkal.
 Ur-vaykkal was owned jointly by the landowners.
 The nadu level vaykkal was referred to as nattu-vaykkal.
10) The turn system was practiced for distributing the water.
11) Chola inscriptions list some big- size irrigation tanks such as
Cholavaridhi, Kaliyaneri, Vairamegatataka created by the Pallavas,
Bahur big tank and Rajendra Cholaperiyaeri.
12) For the periodical or seasonal maintenance and repair of irrigation
works, conscripted labour was used.

Note
 The irrigation work done by Rajendra Chola I at Gangaikonda
Chozhapuram was an embankment of solid masonry 16 miles long.
 Rajendra described it as his jalamayam jayasthambham, meaning
“pillar of victory in water”.
 The Arab traveller Alberuni visited the place a hundred years later.
 On seeing them he was wonder-struck and said: ‘“Our people, when
they see them, wonder at them, and are unable to describe them, much
less construct anything like them”, records Jawaharlal Nehru in The
Glimpses of World History

85
Water Management
1. Different kinds of water rights were assigned.
2. These rights regulated the share of water from the tanks and wells; it
also entailed the right of deepening and broadening the channels and
repairing the irrigation system.
3. The allotment of water is described as nirkkiintavaru (share of water
as allotted).
4. The water was released through kumizh (sluice) or talaivay
(head-channel).
5. Royal orders warned the people against the violation of water rights
and encroachment of water resources gifted to the brahmadeya
settlements. Commonly owned village tank was called enkalkulam
(our tank).
6. Land transaction in the form of donation and endowment were
accompanied by water rights as well.
7. For the periodical and seasonal maintenance and repair of the
irrigation tanks, rendering free labour was in practice.
8. Vetti and amanji were the forms of free labour related to public works
at the village level.
9. Village assemblies under the Cholas collected a tax called eriayam,
which was utilised for repairing irrigation tanks.
10. Sometimes local leaders like araiyan repaired and renovated irrigation
tanks destroyed in a storm.
11. There were instances of the water from a tank shared by villagers and
the temples.
12. Special groups known as talaivayar, talaivay-chanrar and
eri-araiyarkal were in charge of releasing the water through the head
channel and sluice from the rivers or tanks.
13. A group of people who were in charge of kulam was called kulattar.
14. In later period, temples were entrusted with the upkeep of the
irrigation sources.

Society and culture

1) In the predominantly agrarian society prevailing during the Chola
period, landholding was the prime determinant of social status and
hierarchy.

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2) The Brahmin landholders called brahmadeya-kilavars at the top
brahmadeya settlements with tax exemption were created, displacing
(kudi neekki) the local peasants.
3) Temples were gifted land known as devadana, which were exempted
from tax, as in brahmadeyams.
4) The temples became the hub of several activities during this period.
5) The landholders of vellanvagai villages were placed next in the social
hierarchy.
6) Ulukudi (tenants) could not own land but had to cultivate the lands of
Brahmins and holders of vellanvagai villages.
7) While landholders retained melvaram (major share in harvest), the
ulukudi got kizh varam (lower share).
8) Labourers (paniceymakkal) and slaves (adimaigal) stayed at the
bottom of social hierarchy.
9) Outside the world of agrarian society were the armed men, artisans
and traders.
10) There are documents that make mention of cattle-keepers who
apparently constituted a considerable section of the population.
11) There certainly were tribals and forest-dwellers, about whom our
knowledge is scanty.

Religion
1. Puranic Hinduism, represented by the worship of Siva, Vishnu and
associated deities, had become popular by the time of the Cholas.
2. A large number of temples dedicated to these deities were built.
3. The temples were provided vast areas of land and a considerable
section of population came under their influence.
4. Chola rulers were ardent Saivites. Parantaka I and Uttama Chola
(907–970) made provisions and gifted the lands to promote religion.
5. In a fresco painting in which Rajaraja I is portrayed with his wives
worshiping Lord Siva in Thanjavur Brihadishvarar temple.
6. One of the titles of Rajaraja I is Siva Pada Sekaran, i.e. one who
clutches the foot of Lord Siva.
7. Siva was the preeminent god for the Cholas and he was represented in
two forms.

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8. The iconic form of Siva was Lingodhbhava, and the Nataraja idol was
the human form.
9. A trace of the locations of temple centres in Kavery delta could
provide us the map of an agrarian-political geography spatially and
temporally. The repeated representation of Tripurantaka (the
destroyer of three mythical cities of asura) form of Siva in
sculpture and painting gave him a warrior aspect and helped in
gaining legitimacy for the ruler.
10. The representation of Nataraja or Adal Vallan (king of dance) in the
form of idol was the motif of Tamil music, dance and drama with
hymns composed by Nayanmars, the Saiva saints.
11. These hymns sang the praise of Siva and extolled the deeds of god.
12. They held great appeal to the devotees from different social sections.
13. The Saiva canon, the Thirumurai, was codified after it was recovered
by Nambi Andar Nambi.
14. Oduvars and Padikam Paduvars were appointed to sing in the temples
to recite Thirumurai daily in the temple premises.
15. The singers of hymns were known as vinnappamseivar.
16. The players of percussion instruments also were appointed.
17. Girls were dedicated for the service of god. Musicians and dance
masters also were appointed to train them.
18. A highly evolved philosophical system called Saiva Siddhanta was
founded during this period.
19. The foundational text of this philosophy, Sivagnana Bodham, was
composed by Meikandar.
20. Fourteen texts, collectively called Saiva Siddhantha Sastram, form the
core of this philosophy.
21. In later times, many Saiva monasteries emerged and expounded this
philosophy.
22. The devotion of Chola rulers to Saivism became a strong passion in
due course of time.
23. Kulothunga II, for instance, exhibited such a trait.
24. The theological tussle was fierce between state religion, Saivism, and
Vaishnavism so much so that Vaishnavism was sidelined to the extent
of its apostle Sri Ramanujar leaving the Chola country for Melkote in
Karnataka.

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Builders of Temples
1) The Cholas built and patronised innumerable temples.
2) The royal temples in Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Chozhapuram and
Darasuram are the repositories of architecture, sculpture, paintings
and iconography of the Chola arts.
3) The temples became the hub of social, economic, cultural and
political activities.
4) The paraphernalia of the temples including temple officials, dancers,
musicians, singers, players of musical instruments and their masers
headed by the priests worshipping the gods reflect the royal court.
5) In the initial stages, architecturally, the Chola temples are simple and
modest.
6) Sepulchral temples (pallip-padai) also were built where the kings
were buried.

Temple as a Social Institution

1. Chola temples became the arena of social celebrations and functioned
as social institutions.
2. They became the hub of societal space in organising social, political,
economic and cultural activities.
3. The prime temple officials were koyirramar, koyilkanakku (temple
accountant), deva- kanmi (agent of god), srivaisnavar, cantesar
(temple manager) and others.
4. They promoted the development of learning, dance, music, painting
and drama.
5. A play called Rajarajanatakam, based on the life of Rajaraja I, was
performed in the Thanjavur temple.
6. The festivals of Chithirai Tiruvizha, Kartigai and Aippasivizha were
celebrated.
7. It is said that singing hymns in temple premises promoted oral
literacy. Traditional dance items like kudak-kuthu and sakkaik-kuthu
were portrayed in the form of sculptures and paintings in the temples
in Kilapalivur, Tiruvorriyur.
8. Nirutya and karna poses are shown in sculptural forms in the
Thanjavur big temple.
9. Traditional Tamil musical instruments also were portrayed in this
way.

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10. The pastoral group, as a mark of devotion, donated livestock of
specified number to the temples so as to maintain the perpetual lamp
to be lit in the temple.
11. To record their gift, their names were engraved in the inscriptions of
royal temple.
12. Thus, they earned royal affinity. The oil pressers called
Sankarapadiyar supplied oil to the temple and became part of the
functionaries of the temples.
13. In times of famine, some of them sold themselves to the temple as
servants.
14. Temples functioned as banks by advancing loans and by purchasing
and receiving endowments and donations.
15. They also became educational centres as training was imparted in
Vedas, music and the arts.
16. Sculpture and metal work too were promoted. Temple accounts were
audited and the auditor was called koyilkanakku.
Gangaikonda Chozhapuram
 In commemoration of his victory in North India, Rajendra I built
Gangaikonda Chozhapuram on the model of Brihadisvarar temple in
Thanjavur.
 He built an irrigation tank called Chola- gangamnearthe capital called
Jala-stambha (water-pillar).
 It became the coronation centre, which was a Chola landmarks. The
sculptures of Ardhanariswarar, Durga, Vishnu, Surya, Cantesa
Anugrahamurty are the best pieces of the idols of gods placed in the
niches of the outer wall of sanctum.
Brihadishvarar Temple
 The Grand Temple of Thanjavur, known as Rajarajisvaram and
Brihadishvarar Temple, stands as an outstanding example of Chola
architecture, painting, sculpture and iconography.
 This temple greatly legitimised Rajaraja’s polity. The sanctum with a
vimana of 190 feet is capped with a stone weighing 80 tons.
 The figures of Lakshmi, Vishnu, Ardhanarisvara and Bikshadana, a
mendicant form of Siva, on the outer walls of the sanctum are some
unique features.

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 The fresco paintings and the miniature sculptures of the scenes from
puranas and epics in the temple walls reveal the religious ideology of
the Chola rulers.
 Dancing girls, musicians and music masters were selected from
different settlements cutting across the nadu divisions and were
attached to this temple.
 Singers had been appointed to recite the bhakti hymns in the temple
premises

Darasuram Temple
 Darasuram Temple, built by Rajaraja II (1146–1172), is yet another
important contribution of the Cholas to temple architecture.
 Incidents from the Periyapuranam, in the form of miniatures, are
depicted on the base of the garbha- griha (sanctum sanctorum) wall of
the temple.

Trade
1. Increased production in agriculture as well as artisanal activities led
to trade and growing exchange of goods for goods.
2. This trade activity involved the notions of price, profit and market,
which were not known in South India in the earlier period.
3. Two guild- like groups are known: anjuvannattar and manigramattar.
Anjuvannattar comprised West Asians, including Jews, Christians and
Muslims.
4. They were maritime traders and were settled all along the port towns
of the west coast.
5. It is said that manigramattar were busy with trade in the hinterland.
They settled in interior towns like Kodumbalur Uraiyur, Kovilpatti,
Piranmalai and others.
6. In due course, both groups merged and got incorporated under the
banner of ainutruvar, disai-ayirattu-ainutruvar and valanciyar
functioning through the head guild in Ayyavole in Karnataka.
7. This ainutruvar guild controlled the maritime trade covering south
east asian countries.
8. Munai-santai (Pudukkottai), Mylapore and Tiruvotriyur (Chennai),
Nagapattinam, Vishakapattinam and Krishnapattinam (south Nellore)
became the centres of the maritime trade groups.

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9. In the interior, goods were carried on pack animals and boat.
10. The items exported from the Chola land were sandalwood, ebony,
condiments, precious gems, pepper, oil, paddy, grains and salt.
11. Imports included camphor, copper, tin, mercury and etc. Traders also
took interest in irrigation affairs.
12. Valanciyar, a group of traders, once dug an irrigation tank called
ainutruvapperari in Pudukottai.

Chola kings were great patrons of learning

1) Chola kings were great patrons of learning who lavished support on
Sanskrit education by instituting charities.
2) From the inscriptions, we see that literacy skills were widespread.
The great literary works Kamba Ramayanam and Periyapuranam
belong to this period.
3) Rajendra I established a Vedic college at Ennayiram (South Arcot
district).
4) There were 340 students in this Vaishnava centre, learning the Vedas,
Grammar and Vedanta under 14 teachers.
5) This example was later followed by his successors and, as a result,
two more such colleges were founded, at Tribuvani near Pondicherry
in 1048 and the other at Tirumukudal, Chengalpattu district, in 1067.
6) In Sanskrit centres, subjects like Vedas, Sanskrit grammar, religion
and philosophies were taught.
7) Remuneration was given to teachers in land as service tenure

The End of Chola Rule

1. The Chola dynasty was paramount in South India from the ninth to
the thirteenth centuries.
2. By the end of the twelfth century, local chiefs began to grow in
prominence, which weakened the centre.
3. With frequent invasions of Pandyas, the once mighty empire, was
reduced to the status of a dependent on the far stronger Hoysalas.
4. In 1264, the Pandyan ruler, Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I, sacked
the Chola’s capital of Gangaikonda Chozhapuram.
5. With Kanchipuram lost earlier to the Telugu Cholas, the remaining
Chola territories passed into the hands of the Pandyan king.

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6. 1279 marks the end of Chola dynasty when King Maravarman
Kulasekara Pandyan I defeated the last king Rajendra Chola III and
established the rule by Pandyas.

Sambuvarayars
1) Sambuvarayars were chieftains in the North Arcot and Chengalpattu
regions during the reign of Chola kings, Rajathiraja and Kulothunga
III.
2) Though they were feudatories, they were found fighting sometimes
on the side of their overlords and occasionally against them also.
3) From the late 13th century to the end of Pandya ascendency, they
wielded power along the Palar river region.
4) The kingdom was called Raja Ghambira Rajyam and the capital was
in Padaividu.
5) Inscriptions of Vira Chola Sambavarayan (1314–1315CE) have been
found.
6) Sambuvarayars assumed high titles such as Sakalaloka Chakravartin
Venru Mankonda Sambuvarayan (1322–1323 CE) and Sakalaloka
Chakravartin Rajanarayan Sambuvarayan (1337–1338 CE).
7) The latter who ruled for 20 years was overthrown by
Kumarakampana of Vijayanagar.
8) It is after this campaign that Kumarakampana went further south, as
far as Madurai, where he vanquished the Sultan of Madurai in a battle

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 II PANDYAS
1. Pandyas were one of the muvendars that ruled the southern part of
India, though intermittently, until the pre-modern times.
2. Ashoka, in his inscriptions, refers to Cholas, Cheras, Pandyas and
Satyaputras as peoples of South India.
3. Korkai, a town historically associated with pearl fisheries, is believed
to have been their early capital and port.
4. They moved to Madurai later.
5. Many early Tamil inscriptions of Pandyas have been found in
Madurai and its surroundings.
6. Madurai is mentioned as Matirai in these Tamil inscriptions, whereas
Tamil classics refer to the city as Kudal, which means assemblage.
7. In one of the recently discovered Tamil inscriptions from Puliman
Kompai, a village in Pandya territory, Kudal is mentioned.
8. In Pattinappalai and Maduraikkanchi, Koodal is mentioned as the
capital city of Pandyas.
9. It finds mention in Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies) also.
So,historically Madurai and Kudal have been concurrently used.

Sources
1) The history of the Pandyas of the Sangam period, circa third century
BCE to third century CE, has been reconstructed from various sources
such as megalithic burials, inscriptions in Tamil brahmi, and the
Tamil poems of the Sangam literature.
2) The Pandyas established their supremacy in South Tamil Nadubythe
end of the sixth century CE.
3) A few copper plates form the source of our definite knowledge of the
Pandyas from the seventh to the ninth century.
4) The Velvikkudi grant of Nedunjadayan is the most important among
them. Copper plates inform the essence of royal orders, genealogical
list of the kings, their victory over the enemies, endowments and
donations they made to the temples and the Brahmins.
5) Rock inscriptions give information about the authors of rock-cut cave
temples, irrigation tanks and canals.

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6) Accounts of travellers such as Marco Polo, Wassaff and Ibn-Batuta
are useful to know about political and socio-cultural developments of
this period.
7) Madurai Tala Varalaru, Pandik Kovai and Madurai Tiruppanimalai
provide information about the Pandyas of Madurai of later period.
8) Though pre-Pallavan literary works do not speak of Sangam as an
academy, the term Sangam occurs in Iraiyanar Akapporul of late
seventh or eighth century CE.
9) The term Sangam, which means an academy, is used in late medieval
literary works like Periya Puranam and Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam.
10) Seethalai Saththanar, the author of epic Manimekalai, hailed from
Madurai.

Territory
 The territory of Pandyas is called Pandymandalam, Thenmandalam or
Pandynadu, which lay in the rocky, hilly regions and mountain ranges
except the areas fed by the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni.
 River Vellar running across Pudukkottai region had been demarcated
as the northern border of the Pandya country, while Indian Ocean was
its southern border.
 The Western Ghats remained the border of the west while the Bay of
Bengal formed the eastern border.

REVIVAL OF PANDYA
1. The revival of the Pandyas seems to have taken place after the
disappearance of the Kalabhras.
2. Once hill tribes, the Kalabhras had soon taken to a settled life,
extending their patronage to Buddhists and Jains.
3. Kadunkon, who recovered Pandya territory from the Kalabhras
according to copper plates, was succeeded by two others.
4. Of them, Sendan possessed warlike qualities and his title Vanavan is
suggestive of his conquest of Cheras.
5. The next one, Arikesari Maravarman (624–674), an illustrious early
Pandya, ascended the throne in 642, according to a Vaigai river bed
inscription. He was a contemporary of Mahendravarman I and
NarsimahvarmanI.

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6. Inscriptions and copper plates praise his victory over his counterparts
such as Cheras, Cholas, Pallavas and Sinhalese.
7. Arikesari is identified with Kun Pandian, the persecutor of Jains.
8. After his two successors, Kochadayan Ranadhira (700–730) and
Maravarman Rajasimha I(730–765), came Jatila Parantaka
Nedunjadayn (Varaguna I) (756–815), the donor of the Velvikkudi
plates.
9. He was also known as the greatest of his dynasty and successfully
handled the Pallavas and the Cheras.
10. He expanded the Pandya territory into Thanjavur, Tiruchirappalli,
Salem and Coimbatore districts.
11. He is also credited with building several Siva and Vishnu temples.
The next king Srimara Srivallabha (815–862) invaded Ceylon and
maintained his authority.
12. However, he was subsequently defeated by Pallava Nandivarman III
(846–869).
13. He was followed by Varaguna II who was defeated by Aparajita
Pallava (885–903) at Sripurmbiyam.
14. His successors, Parantaka Viranarayana and Rajasimha II, could not
stand up to the rising Chola dynasty under Parantaka I.
15. Parantaka I defeated the Pandya king Rajasimha II who fled the
country in 920CE

NOTE
SaivitesaintThirugnanasambandar converted Arikesari from Jainism to
Saivism.

Rise of Pandyas Again (1190–1310)

1) In the wake of the vacuum in Chola state in the last quarter of 12th
century after the demise of Adhi Rajendra, Chola viceroyalty became
weak in the Pandya country.
2) Taking advantage of this development, Pandya chieftains tried to
assert and rule independently.
3) Sri Vallaba Pandyan fought Rajaraja II and lost his son in the battle.
Using this situation, the five Pandyas waged a war against Kulotunga
I (1070–1120) and were defeated.

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4) In 1190, Sadayavarman Srivallabhan, at the behest of Kulotunga I,
started ruling the Pandya territory.
5) He was anointed in Madurai with sceptre and throne.
6) To commemorate his coronation, he converted a peasant settlement
Sundaracholapuram as Sundarachola Chaturvedimangalam, a tax-
exempted village for Brahmins.
7) After the decline of the Cholas, Pandya kingdom became the leading
Tamil dynasty in the thirteenth century.
8) Madurai was their capital. Kayal was their great port.
9) Marco Polo, the famous traveller from Venice, visited Kayal twice, in
1288 and in 1293.
10) He tells us that this port town was full of ships from Arabia and China
and bustling with business activities.

Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan
1. The illustrious ruler of the second Pandya kingdom was
Sadaiyavarman (Jatavarman) Sundarapandyan (1251– 1268), who not
only brought the entire Tamil Nadu under his rule, but also exercised
his authority up to Nellore in Andhra.
2. Under his reign, the Pandya state reached its zenith, keeping the
Hoysalas in check.
3. Under many of his inscriptions, he is eulogized.
4. Sundarapandyan conquered the Chera ruler, the chief of Malanadu,
and extracted a tribute from him.
5. The decline of the Chola state emboldened the Boja king of Malwa
region Vira Someshwara to challenge Sundarapandyan, who in a war
at Kannanur defeated him.
6. Sundarapandian plundered his territory. He put Sendamangalam
under siege.
7. After defeating the Kadava chief, who ruled from Cuddalore and
wielded power in northern Tamil Nadu, Sundarapandyan demanded
tribute.
8. He captured the western region and the area that lay between present-
day Arcot and Salem.
9. After killing the king of Kanchipuram in a battle, Pandyas took his
territory.

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10. But, by submitting to the Pandyas, the brother of the slain king got
back Kanchipuram and agreed to pay tribute.
11. Along with him, there were two or three co-regents who ruled
simultaneously: Vikrama Pandyan and Vira Pandyan.
12. A record of Vira Pandyan (1253–1256) states that he took Eelam
(Ceylon), Kongu and the Cholamandalam (Chola country).

Maravarman Kulasekharan
1) After Sundarapandyan, Maravarman Kulasekharan ruled successfully
for a period of 40 years, giving the country peace and prosperity.
2) We have authentic records about the last phase of his reign. He
ascended the throne in 1268 and ruled till 1312.
3) He had two sons, and in 1302, the accession of the elder son,
Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan III, as co-regent took place.
4) The king’s appointment of Sundarapandyan as a co-regent provoked
the other son Vira Pandyan and so he killed his father Maravarman
Kulasekharan.
5) In the civil war that ensued, Vira Pandyan won and became firmly
established in his kingdom.
6) The other son, Sundara Pandyan, fled to Delhi and took refuge under
the protection of Alauddin Khalji.
7) This turn of events provided an opening for the invasion of Malik
Kafur

Invasion of Malik Kafur

1. When Malik Kafur arrived in Madurai in 1311, he found the city
empty and Vira Pandyan had already fled.
2. In Amir Khusru’s estimate, 512 elephants, 5,000 horses along with
500 mounds of jewel of diamonds, pearls, emeralds and rubies are
said to have been taken by Malik Kafur.
3. The Madurai temple was desecrated and an enormous amount of
wealth was looted.
4. The wealth hecarried was later used in Delhi by Alauddin Khalji, who
had then taken over the throne, to wean away the notables in the court
to his side against other claimants.

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5. After Malik Kafur’s invasion, the Pandyan kingdom came to be
divided among a number of the main rulers in the Pandya’s family.
6. In Madurai, a Muslim state subordinate to the Delhi Sultan came to be
established and continued until 1335 CE when the Muslim Governor
of Madurai Jalaluddin Asan Shah threw off his allegiance and
declared himself independent.
NOTE
 Marco Polo, a Venetian (Italy) traveller who visited Pandya country
lauded the king for fair administration and generous hospitality for
foreign merchants.
 In his travel account, he also records the incidents of sati and the
polygamy practiced by the kings

State
1. Pandya kings preferred Madurai as their capital.
2. Madurai has been popularly venerated as Kudal and Tamil Kelukudal.
The kings are traditionally revered as Kudalkon, Kudal Nagar
Kavalan, Madurapura Paramesvaran.
3. The titles of the early Pandyas are: Pandiyatirasan, Pandiya
Maharasan, Mannar Mannan, Avaniba Sekaran, Eka Viran,
Sakalapuvana Chakkaravarti and others.
4. Titles of the later Pandyas in Sanskrit include Kodanda Raman,
Kolakalan, Puvanekaviran, and Kaliyuga Raman.
5. Titles in chaste Tamil are Sembian, Vanavan, Thennavan and others.
6. The Pandyas derived military advantage over their neighbours by
means of their horses, which they imported through their connection
to a wider Arab commercial and cultural world

Palace and Couch

1) Royal palaces were called Tirumaligai and Manaparanan Tirumaligai.
Kings, seated on a royal couch, exercised the power.
2) The naming of couches after the local chiefs attests to the legitimacy
of overlordship of the kings.
3) The prominent names of such couches are Munaiya Daraiyan,
Pandiya Daraiyan and Kalinkat Traiyan.

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4) The king issued royal order orally while majestically seated on the
couches. It was documented by royal scribe called Tirumantira Olai
Royal officals
A band of officials executed the royal orders.
5) The prime minister was called uttaramantri.
6) The historical personalities like Manickavasagar, Kulaciraiyar and
Marankari worked as ministers.
7) The royal secretariat was known as Eluttu Mandapam. Akapparivara
Mudalikal were the personal attendants of the kings.
8) The most respected officials were Maran Eyinan, Sattan Ganapathy,
Enathi Sattan, Tira Tiran, Murthi Eyinan and others.
9) The titles of military commanders were Palli Velan, Parantakan
Pallivelan, Maran Adittan and Tennavan Tamizhavel.

Political Divisions
1. Pandy Mandalam or Pandy Nadu consisted of many valanadus, which,
in turn, were divided into many nadus and kurrams.
2. The administrative authorities of nadus were the nattars.
3. Nadu and kurram contained settlements, viz., mangalam, nagaram, ur
and kudi, which were inhabited by different social groups.
4. A unique political division in Pandy Mandalam is Kulakkil,i.e. area
under irrigation tank.
5. For instance, Madurai is described in an inscription as Madakkulakkil
Madurai.
6. The duty of the nattar was to assess the qualities of land under
cultivation and levy taxes.
7. In surveying the lands, the officials used rods of 14 and 24 feet.
8. After the measurement, the authorities donated the lands. Salabogam
land was assigned to Brahmins.
9. The land assigned to ironsmiths was called tattarkani; for carpenters,
it was known as taccu-maniyam.
10. Bhattavriutti is the land donated for Brahmin group for imparting
education.

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Administration and Religion: Seventh to Ninth Centuries
 An inscription from Manur (Tirunelveli district), dating to 800,
provides an account of village administration.
 It looks similar to Chola’s local governance, which included village
assemblies and committees.
 Both civil and military powers were vested in the same person. The
Pandya kings of the period supported and promoted Tamil and
Sanskrit.
 The great Saiva and Vaishnava saints contributed to the growth of
Tamil literature.
 The period was marked by intense religious tussles. The rise of the
Bhakti movement invited heterodox scholars for debate.
 Many instances of the defeat of Buddhism and Jainism in such
debates are mentioned in Bhakti literature

ECONOMY
Society
 Kings and local chiefs created Brahmin settlements called Mangalam
or Chaturvedimangalam with irrigation facilities.
 These settlements were given royal names and names of the deities.
Influential Brahmins had honorific titles such as Brahmmadhi Rajan
and Brahmmaraiyan
Trade
 It was not the Khalji’s invasion from the north that brought the
Muslims into Tamil country for the first time.
 Arab settlements on the west coast of southern India, from the seventh
century, led to the expansion of their trade connection to the east
coast of Tamizh country.
 This was because the governments of the east coast pursued a more
liberal and enlightened policy towards the overseas traders.
 Their charters exempted traders from various kinds of port dues and
tolls. In Kayal, there was an agency established by an Arab chieftain
by name Maliku-l-Islam Jamaluddin.
 This agency facilitated the availability of horses to Pandya kings In
the inscriptions, the traders are referred to as nikamattor, nanadesi,
ticai-ayiratu-ainutruvar, ainutruvar, manikiramattar and
patinen-vishyattar.

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 They founded the trade guilds in Kodumpalur and Periyakulam. The
goods traded were spices, pearls, precious stones, horses, elephants
and birds.
 In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, horse trade was brisk.
 Marco Polo and Wassaff state that the kings invested in horses as
there was a need of horses for ceremonial purposes and for fighting
wars.
 Those who were trading in horses were called kudirai-chetti. They
were active in maritime trade also.
 The busiest port town under the Pandyas was Kayalpattinam (now in
Thoothukudi district) on the east coast.
 Gold coins were in circulation as the trade was carried through the
medium of gold.
 It was variously called kasu, palankasu, anradunarpalankasu, kanam,
kalancu and pon.
 The titular gods of the traders are Ayirattu Aynurruvaar Udaiyar and
Sokka Nayaki Amman.
 The periodically held fairs were called Tavalamin settlements called
teru where the traders lived
NOTE
 Horse trade of that time has been recorded by Wassaff.
 He writes: "…as many as 10,000 horses were imported into Kayal
and other ports of India of which 1,400 were to be of Jamaluddin’s
own breed. The average cost of each horse was 220 dinars of ‘red
gold’

Irrigation
 The Pandya rulers created a number of irrigation sources and they
were named after the members of the royal family.
 Some of them were Vasudeva Peraru, Virapandya Peraru, Srivallaba
Peraru and Parakirama Pandya Peraru.
 The tanks were named Tirumaleri, Maraneri, Kaliyaneri and Kadaneri.
On either side of the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparni, canals leading to
the tanks for irrigation were built.
 The Sendan Maran inscription of Vaigai river bed speaks of a sluice
installed by him to distribute the water from the river.

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 Sri Maran Srivallabhan created a big tank, which is till now in use.
 Like Pallavas in northern districts, Pandyas introduced the irrigation
technology in the southern districts of Tamil country.
 In building the banks of the tanks, the ancient architect used the
thread to maintain the level.
 Revetment of the inner side of the banks with stone slabs is one of the
features of irrigation technique in Pandya country.
 In the time of the later Pandyas (around 1212), an official constructed
a canal leading from river Pennai to the lands of Tiruvannamalai
temple.
 In dry-zone Ramanathupuram also, tanks were created. In these areas,
such irrigation works were done by local administrative bodies, local
chiefs and officials.
 Repairs were mostly undertaken by local bodies. Sometimes, traders
also dug out tanks for irrigation.
 Iruppaikkuti-kilavan, a local chief, built many tanks and repaired the
tanks in disrepair.
 The actual landowning groups are described as the Pumipittirar.
Historically they were locals and hence they were referred to as
nattumakkal.
 The communal assembly of this group is Cittirameli-periyanattar

Literacy
 The mission of promoting literacy was carried on through many ways.
Appointment of singers to recite the Bhakti hymns in temple has been
seen as the attempt of promoting literacy.
 In theatres, plays were staged for a similar purpose.
 Bhattavirutti and salabogam were endowments provided for
promoting Sanskrit education.
 Brahmins studied the Sanskrit treatises in educational centres
kadigai, salai and vidyastanam.
 From 12th century, monasteries came up and they were attached to
the temples to promote education with religious thrust.
 A copper inscription says that an academy was set up to promote
Tamil and to translate Mahabharatam.

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 The important Tamil literary texts composed in the reign of the
Pandyas were Tiruppavai, Tirvempavai, Tiruvasagam, Tirukkovai and
Tirumantiram.

Religion
It is said that Pandyas were Jains initially and later adopted Saivism.
 Inscriptions and the sculptures in the temples attest to this belief.
 The early rock-cut cave temples were the outcrop of transitional stage
in religion and architecture.
 Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas repaired many temples and
endowed them with gold and land.
 The vimanam over the sanctum of Srirangam and Chidambaram
temples were covered with golden leaves.
 Sadaiyavarman Sundarapandyan was anointed in Srirangam temple,
and to commemorate it, he donated an idol of Vishnu to the temple.
 The inner walls of this temple and three other gopurams were plated
with gold.
 Pandyas extended patronage to Vedic practices.
 Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaluthi, who performed many Vedic
rituals, is identified with Pandyas of the Sangam period.
 Velvikkudi copper plates as well as inscriptional sources mention the
rituals like Ashvamedayaga, Hiranyagarbha and Vajapeya yagna,
conducted by every great Pandya king.
 The impartiality of rulers towards both Saivism and Vaishnavism is
also made known in the invocatory portions of the inscriptions.
 Some kings were ardent Saivite; some were ardent Vaishnvavites.
 Temples of both sects were patronised through land grant, tax
exemption, renovation and addition of gopuras and spacious
mandapas.

Temples
1. Pandyas built different models of temples.
2. They are sepulchral temple (e.g sundarapandisvaram), rock-cut cave
temples and structural temples.

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3. Medieval Pandyas and later Pandyas did not build any new temples
but maintained the existing temples, enlarging them with the addition
of gopuras, mandapas and circumbulations.
4. The monolithic mega-sized ornamented pillars are the unique feature
of the medieval Pandya style.
5. The early Pandya temples are modest and simple. In these temples of
the Pandya country, the sculptures of Siva, Vishnu, Kotravai, Ganesa,
Subramanya, Surya and Brahma are best specimens.
6. Pandyas specially patronised Meenakshi temple and kept expanding
its premises by adding gopuras and mandapas.
7. The prominent rock-cut cave temples created by the early Pandyas are
found in Pillayarpatti, Tirumeyyam, Kuntrakkudi, Tiruchendur,
Kalugumalai, Kanyakumari and Sittannavasal.
8. Paintings are found in the temples in Sittannavasal, Arittaapatti,
Tirumalaipuram and Tirunedunkarai.
9. A 9th century inscription from Sittannavasal cave temple informs that
the cave was authored by Ilam Kautamar.
10. Another inscription of the same period tells us that Sri Maran
Srivallaban renovated this temple.
11. The fresco paintings on the walls, ceilings and pillars are great works
of art.
12. These paintings portray the figures of dancing girls, the king and the
queen.
13. The painting of water pool depicts some aquatic creatures, flowers
and birds and some mammals.
14. The maritime history of India would be incomplete if the history of
the Pandyas of Tamil country is skipped.
15. The busiest port-towns were located all along the east coast of the
Tamizh country.
16. By establishing matrimonial link with Southeast Asian dynasties,
Pandyas left an imprint in maritime trade activities.

note
Cintamani,Mylapore, Tiruvotriyur,Tiruvadanai and Mahabalipuram are
busy coastal trading centres recorded in inscriptions

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 Art and Architecture of Tamilnadu

Introduction
 Dravidian architecture is of indigenous origin. It advanced over time
by a process of evolution.
 The earliest examples of the Tamil Dravidian architectural tradition
were the 7th century rock-cut shrines at Mahabalipuram.
 The absence of monuments in South India prior to the 7th century is
attributed by scholars to temples ought to have been built in wood,
which were eventually destroyed by forces of nature.
 In Tamil Nadu, the evolution of temple architecture took place in five
stages:
The Pallava Epoch (A.D. 600 to 850);
Early Chola Epoch (A.D. 850 to 1100);
Later Chola Epoch (A.D. 1100 to 1350);
Vijayanagara/Nayak Epoch (A.D. 1350 to 1600); and
Modern Epoch (After A.D. 1600).

Pallava Epoch
1. The Pallava epoch witnessed a transition from rock-cut to
free-standing temples.
2. Rock-cut temples were initially built by carving a rock to the required
design and then rocks were cut to build temples.
3. The Pallava king Mahendravarman was a pioneer in rock-cut
architecture. Mandagapattu temple was the first rock-cut temple built
by him.
4. The rock-cut cave structure has two pillars in the front that hold it. All
the cave temples have simple sanctum cut on the rear side of the wall
with a frontage-projecting mandapa (pavilion).
5. On either side are two dwarapalas (gatekeepers).
6. This cave architecture reached its decadent phase after A.D.700 and
gave way to the large structural temples probably because the
structural temples provided a wider scope to the sculptor to use his
skill.

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7. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, also called the Seven Pagodas,
was built by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman II.
8. It is the oldest structural temple in South India.
9. The structural temples were built using blocks of rock instead of a
whole block as earlier.
10. Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha, built the Kanchi
Kailasanatha temple.
11. The Vaikuntha Perumal temple at Kanchipuram was built by
Nandivarman II.
12. Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram) is built of cut stones rather than
carved out of caves.
13. It has two shrines, one dedicated to Siva and the other to Vishnu
especially of Arjuna, Bhima and Dharmaraja, are decorated with
niches and motifs.
14. The niches have the sculptures of gods, goddesses, monarchs and
scenes from mythology.
15. The Arjuna’s Penance, carved on the face of a granite boulder, is a
magnificent relief, measuring approximately 100 ft long by 45 ft high

Pandya Temples in the Pallava Epoch

1) Early Pandyas were the contemporaries of the Pallavas.
2) Unlike the Pallavas, Pandyas installed deities in the sanctums in their
cave temples.
3) More than fifty cave temples have been found in different parts of the
Pandyan Empire.
4) The most important of them are found in Malaiyadikurichi, Anaimalai,
Tiruparankundram and Trichirappali.
5) These caves were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu and Brahma. In the Siva
temple of Pandyas, the linga is carved out of the mother rock.
6) The figure of Nandhi is also carved out of the rock.
7) The Siva lingam in the sanctum is installed in the centre with enough
space all around it.
8) The sanctum also has a drainage canal. The pillars are divided into
three parts and are of different sizes.
9) The pillars have no uniform ornamentation. The back side walls are
divided into four niches on which the bas- relief images of Siva,

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 Vishnu, Durga, Ganapathy, Subramanya, Surya, Brahma and
Saraswathi are carved out.
10) The dwarapalas figure on either side of sanctum.
11) Rock-cut and structural temples are significant part of the Pandya
architecture.
12) The illustrious example for rock-cut style is unfinished Kazhugumalai
Vettuvankoil temple.
13) The Vettuvankoil, a monolithic temple at Kazhugumalai, is hewn out
of a huge boulder on four sides.
14) At the top of the temple, sculptures of Uma Maheswarar,
Dakshinamoorthy, Vishnu and Brahma are found.
15) Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai and Nellaiappar Temple in
Tirunelveli represent examples of Pandyas’ architectural style
Sculptures
16) The walls of the caves are decorated with the bas relief of the gods
and goddesses.
17) In the case of structural temples, the walls of the sanctums are free
from image decorations.
18) Instead the superstructures and the pillars have the sculptures.
19) The sculptures look majestic, having elaborate shoulders, slim bodies,
beautiful ornaments and high crowns.
20) Tiruparankundram,Anaimalai and Kazhugumalai have the bas relief
of many deities: Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, Parvathi, Subramanya,
Ganapathi and Dakshinamoorthy.
21) These are some remarkable images of the cave temples.
22) Many early Pandya images unearthed from Madurai and its
surrounding areas are now in Tirumalai Nayakkar museum at
Madurai

Paintings
1. Caves at Sittanavasal,15 kilometres away from Pudukkottai, and at
Tirumalapuram in Sankarankovil taluk, Tirunelveli district,have
outstanding early Pandya paintings.
2. Sittanavasal was a residential cave of the Jain monks. They painted
the walls with fresco painting.

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3. Unfortunately, we have lost many of those paintings. Among the
surviving ones, the lotus pond is notable for its excellent execution of
colours and exposition of the scene.
4. The image of lotus flowers, leaves spread all over the pond, animals,
elephants, buffalos, swans and a man who plucks the flowers look
brilliant.
5. The Sittanavasal paintings have similarities with the Ajantha
paintings. Tirumalaipuram, from where we get early
Pandya paintings, are in a damaged condition.

The Early Chola Epoch

1) The Cholas came to limelight in A.D. 850 under Vijaylaya Chola and
continued to govern the region for about four hundred years.
2) For the Early Chola epoch, the temple at Dadapuram, near
Tindivanam in TamilNadu, is worth mentioning.
3) The early Chola architecture followed the style of Sembian Mahadevi.
Temples with the increased number of devakoshta (niche) figures can
be classified as belonging to the Sembiyan style.
4) Tiruppurambiyam is an illustrious example of early temple that was
re-fashioned in the days of Sembiyan Mahadevi.

Later Chola Epoch

1. The maturity attained by Chola architecture is reflected in the two
magnificent temples of Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
2. Cholapuram. The magnificent Thanjavur Big Temple dedicated to
Siva, completed around A.D.1009, is a fitting memorial to the
material achievements of the time of Rajaraja.

Thanjavur Big Temple

1) At the time the Big Temple of Thanjavur was constructed, it was a
huge temple complex.
2) The 216 feet vimana (structure over the garbhagriha) is notable as it is
one among the tallest man-made shikaras of the world.
3) Due to its massive height, the shikara is called the Dakshina Meru.
4) The huge bull statue (Nandi) measures about 16 feet long and 13 feet
height and is carved out of a single rock

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Gangaikonda Cholapuram
5) Gangaikonda Cholapuram served as the Chola capital for about 250
years, until the decline of the Cholas and the rise of the Pandyas.
6) The Brihadeeshwara temple of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, built by
Rajendra Chola, is undoubtedly as worthy a successor to the
Brihadeeshwara temple of Thanjavur.
7) The height of the temple is 55 metres.
8) The sanctum has two storeys as in the big temple at Thanjavur.
9) The outer wall has many projections with niches and recesses on three
sides.
10) In the niches there are the images of Siva, Vishnu and other gods
11) This temple complex has the shrines of Chandeeswarar, Ganesa and
Mahishasura Mardhini.

Dharasuram
1. Dharasuram, near Kumbakonam, is a Later Chola period temple, rich
in architectural splendour, dedicated to Iravatheswara (Siva as god of
lord Indira’s elephant).
2. Rajaraja II constructed this temple. This temple is another landmark
of the Chola architecture.
3. The Mahamandapam is an elaborate structure. The entire structure
looks like a ratha because it has four wheels at the Mahamandapam.
4. The sanctum and pillars have many sculptures, which are miniatures
of various mythological figures.
5. A compound wall runs round the temple with a gopuram.

Later Pandyas
1) The contribution of Later Pandyas to South Indian art was significant.
A case in point is the cave temple at Pillayarpatti (near Karaikudi,
TamilNadu) belonging to 13th century.
2) This temple is important both for its sculptures and for an inscription.
A beautiful Ganesha is carved facing the entrance.
3) The importance of the figure, referred to Desivinayaga in the cave
inscription, is that there are two arms with the trunk turning to the
right

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Vijayanagara Epoch
1. During the Vijayanagara epoch, a new form of construction emerged.
It is the mandapam (pavilion) to where the gods are carried
every year.
2. Pillared outdoor mandapams are meant for public rituals with the
ones in the east serving as the waiting room for devotees, which adorn
the large temples.
3. These mandapams attract attention for its monolithic pillars. On these
pillars are sculptured horses, lions and the gods.
4. The kalyana mandapam at Kanchipuram (Varadaraja Perumal temple)
and at Vellore (Jalagandeshwar temple) are notable examples.
5. The most celebrated of these mandapams in temple of Madurai is the
Pudumandapam.
6. The main features of the Vijayanagar and Nayak architecture are
decorated mandapas, ornamental pillars, life-size images, gopuras,
prakaras, music pillars, floral works and stone windows during the
15th to 17th centuries.
7. Tanks are attached to the temples. Gateways to temple are constructed
from four directions with massive gopurams.
8. The practice of fitting the niches with sculptures continued during the
Nayak period.
9. There was an increased useofmajorsculpted figures (relief sculpture)
as found at the Alakiya Nambi temple at Tirukkurungudi (Tirunelveli
district) and the Gopalakrishna temple in the Ranganatha temple
complex at Srirangam.
10. The southern festival mandapam of Adinatha temple at Azhwar
Tirunagari and the porch of the Nellaiyappar temple at Tirunelveli are
other notable examples.
11. In TamilNadu, the image of deities attached to composite columns
gradually freed themselves from the core column.
12. The 1000-pillar mandapam of the Meenakshi- Sundareswarar
temple, Pudumandapam at Madurai, Rathi Mandapam at
Tirukkurungudi and Vanamamalai Temple at Nanguneri are
illustrious examples for the mandapam architecture of this
period.
13. The pillars of this period are more decorative than the previous period.
Monolithic gigantic yazhi pillars, horse pillars with life-size portraits

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 of mythological and royal family members, common folk, animals
and floral works were made.
14. Musical pillars were the peculiar feature of this time.
15. A sitting lion at the top of the pillars is a common feature in the
mandapams.
16. The windows are carved out on the walls of the sanctum and
mandapams.
17. The Jalagandeshwara temple at Vellore, the temples at Thadikompu
near Dindugal and Krishnapuram near Tirunelveli and the
Subramanya shrine in the Big Temple Thanjavur are most remarkable
edifices of this time. Vijayanagar and Nayak paintings are seen at
Varadharaja Perumal temple at Kanchipuram,
18. Kudalazhagar Temple at Madurai and the
19. temples of Srivilliputhur, Tiruvellarai, Azhaharkoil, Tiruvannamalai
and Srirangam.
20. The paintings mostly have the stories from Ramayana, palace scenes
and mythological stories.

Modern Period (After A.D. 1600)

1) The Sethupathis, as the feudatories of Madurai Nayaks, ruled
Ramanathapuram and contributed to the Ramanathaswamy temple
architecture.
2) In the temple of Rameswaram, the predominance of corridors is
striking. It is claimed that this temple has the longest set of corridors
in the world.
3) The temple has three sets of corridors. The outer set of the temple’s
corridors has a height of almost 7 metres and stretches for about 120
metres in both the eastern and western directions.
4) The corridors to the north and to the south, on the other hand, are
about 195 metres in length.
5) The outer corridor is also remarkable for the number of pillars that
support it, which is over 1200 in number.
6) Moreover, many of these pillars are decorated by ornate carvings. The
innermost set of corridors is the oldest of the three.
NOTE
The mamallapuram monuments and temples including the shore temple
complex,we are notified as a UNESCO world heritage sitein 1984.

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