CLASS 12 | PHYSICS(Physics) Electric Field on Axial Line of an Electric Dipole Electric Field on Equatorial Line of Dipole Electric Dipole in Uniform Electric Field Electric Field Due toa Line Charge Electric Field Due to Infinite Charged Plane Sheet Electric Field Due to Charged Spherical Shell Electric Potential at any point due to an Electric Dipole Potential Energy of an Flectric Dipole, when Placed in Uniform Electric Field Parallel Plate Capacitor Capacitance of Capacitor, when a Dielectric Slab Completely Fills the Space Between Plates Energy Stored ina Charged Capacitor Drift Velocity Relation between Drift Velocity and Electric Current Electric Current and Current Density Cells in Series Cells in Parallel Wheat Stone Bridge Motion ofa Charged particle inside a Uniform Magnetic Field Magnetic Field at a point on the Axis of a Loop Force between two infinitely Long Parallel Current Carrying Conductors Torque on a Current Loop placed ina Magnetic Field Self-Induction (ofa Long Solenoid ) Mutual Induction (of Two Long Solenoids) Mean or Average Value of A.C. Root Mean Square(rms) or Virtual Value of AC. ‘AC. Through LCR-Series Circuit Power ofan A.C. Circuit Mirror Formula (for Concave spherical mirror) Linear Magnification(for Concave spherical mirror) Refraction at Convex Spherical Surface Lens Maker's Formula Refraction through a Prism ple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D) ple Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity). ‘Compound Microscope Magnifying power (Image is formed at D).. Compound Magnifying power (Image is formed at infinity). ‘Astronomical Telescope (Image is formed at infinity). “APNI axa 0 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) 36. Laws of Reflection on the basis Wave Theory 37. Laws Refraction on the Basis of Wave Theory 38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference 39. Distance of Closest Approach 40. Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom 41. Nuclear Density 42. Mass Defect a3. Binding Energy “APNI axa 0 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES Kw 1. Electric Field on Axial line of an Electric Then, resultant electric field at point P is given by Dipole [3 marks, CBSE 2017, 19, 20,21] Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges —q and +9, separated by a distance 2a and placed in free space. E The electric field E at point P due to the dipole will be the resultant of the electric fields E, (due to —q at point A) and Eg (due to +q at the B) i E=E,+Ep E=E, +E, Let 2MPN = 2PBN = 0 Also, [Ee|>[Eal Also zNPL= PAR = 0 E=(&)-()) So, E = Ea + Ep = (Eq cos + Epcos 0)(—i) = 2 q q E=E,+Ep = (2E,cos0)(-i) 4ney (ay? Ane, +a)? ta 2a 5 1 @ta)?-(-a)? Teg 4a) * A a(tray Eire ape “Caw Now B = q(2a)(i), So, 1 P a FE any (r? — a2)? _t g(a) 1 rEg Now, P = q(2a)(j, then. s 1 2Pr - In vector notation, Ete, way O 1 PB foe trey FP In vector notation, _ For dipole is of small length, a<< al 2Pr a equation a? can be neglected as compared tor? Tre a F| For dipole is of small length, a << r; Therefore, Therefore, 3. Electric Dipole in uniform Electric Field [3 marks, CBSE 19, 20, 21,22] Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges —q and +q and of length 2a placed in a uniform electric 2, Electric Field on Equatorial line of Dipole [3 marks, CBSE 2016, 20] Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges —q and +q separated by a distance 2a, -APNI kaxsia—________| 1 (© scanned wt onENScnner field E making an angle 0 with the direction of the field.(Physics) Force on charge ~q at A= ~qE & force on charge +q at B = qE $0, Fret = Fig +Fq =0 Also both forces are equal and opposite and will produce torque on dipole ‘= either force x perpendicular distance between the two forces GE(AN) = qE(2asin8) = q(2a)Esind Esin@ or t= pEsin® Here, P = q(2a), (electric dipole moment) the dipole rotates in Also since clockwise (-¥) direction so, In vector form pxE 4. Electric Field Due to line charge [3 marks, CBSE 2018, 20] A thin infinitely long straight line charge having a uniform linear charge density 4 placed along YY’ The Gaussian surface for line charge will be cylindrical and from symmetry all the flux will pass from curve surface area. Let E Is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by = radius of cylinder 1= length of cylinder PF GAUSSIAN SURFACE fppeietesorsesfes sles ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES Ke ® =E x curved surface area of cylinder or © =Ex2nrl ...() According to Gauss' theorem, we have © fe (ii) Now, charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q=Al al & = From the equations (i) and (ii), we have al 1a Ex 2nrl == or 5 % 2ney Tr) 5. Blectric Field due to infinite Charged Planesheet. [2 marks, CBSE 2017, 18] Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge having a uniform surface charge density o on both sides of the sheet. The Gaussian surface will be a cylinder as shown in figure IfE is the magnitude of electric field at point P, then electric flux crossing through the gaussian surface, + +4 +a4\ * thet Chussian PLANE SHE} ‘SURFACE (OF CHARGE, Fete ET TT Pee bette +44 © =E x area of the end faces (circular caps) of the cylinder or @ = EX 2A... (i) According to Gauss’ theorem, we have ® a Here, the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, q=oA 2@ (ii) From the equations (i) and (ii), we have -APNI kaxsia—_________| 2 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) ELECTRIC FIELD AND CHARGES Kw Thus, we find that the magnitude of the electric field at a point due to an infinite plane sheet of charge is independent of its distance from the sheet of charge. 6. Blectric Field due to charged Spherical Shell (2 or 3 marks, CBSE 2017, 19, 20,21] Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and centre 0. Let +q be the charge on the spherical shell. For all the three surfaces the Gaussian surface will be a sphere, GAUSSIAN SURFACE (a) When point P lies outside the shell Let E be the electric field at the point P due to the charged spherical shell Consider a small area element dS (shown shaded) around the pointP. ‘Then, the electric flux through area element dS. is given by de Eds cos@ Since dS is normal to the surface so @ = 0, dp = Eas Now total Electric fluxis $d = f,EdS= Ef, ds Now, §,dS = surface area of spherical shell of radius r = 4? = EXx4nr? (i) the charge enclosed by the gaussian surface is q, 1g to the Gauss’ theorem, & From the equations (i) and (fi), we have (b) When point P lies on the surface of spherical shell For this case also we will draw a Gaussian surface of just outside the shell, this will enclose charge 4G of shell completely, ‘Then according to Gauss’ theorem, Ex4nk? =4 org z In a medium of dielectric constant K, the electric feld is given by (©) When point P lies inside the spherical shell In such a case, the gaussian surface will be inside the shell and will not enclose any charge and hence according to the Gauss’ (forr oe * OG hh 1 7 wa) ~@) So, 1 p= (0) (Se Applying the new cartesian sign conventions: CO = —u (object distance) Cl = +v (Final image distance) (CC, = +R, and CC) = —R, (Radii of curvature) 4 14 Bah = 0) (Fa =a) Dividing both sides of the above equation by ji,, we have Since p2/y; =p, we have 11 1 1 progr D(a) (vi) Also if u = CF, = —f, (focal length ), then v = 00 Setting the above condition in the equation (vi), we o1 32. Refraction through a Prism {3 marks, CBSE 2017, 18, 20, 21,22] KTS = 8s called the angle of deviati Since ZTQO ZTQR=i-n Also, 2TRO = ZNSE = e and 2QRO =r. Therefore, ZTRQ=e-1y in triangle TQR by exterior angle property 8 = ZTOR + ZTRQ = (im) + (@~ 2) or 8 = (i+e)- (4 +2). In triangle QRO, the sum of the angles is 180°. Therefore, Fy + rz + ZQOR = 180°... (ii) In quadrilateral AQOR, A+ 2QOR = 180°... (iii) From the equations (ii) and (iii), we have ry try = Aw (iv) In the equation (i), substituting for (r, +2) we have 6 =(i+e)-A..W) Also, when 8=6,; (in minimum deviation position), e=iandr =r, Also, setting we have A+ 8 =itiori=(A+8q)/2 The refractive index of the material (°y1, or simply ZNQP = iand ZRQO = ry, we have = A/2 (say) 5m and e the equation (v), W) of the prism is given by sini -APNI kaxsia—________| 19 (© scanned wth onEN Scanner 70(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS Kw 33. Simple Microscope (Magnifying Glass) [3 marks, CBSE 2018, 22, 23] A convex lens of short focal length can be used to see magnified image of a small object and is called a magnifying glass or a simple microscope. So, Magnifying power of simple microscope Angle made by image on eye ( when kept at D) ~ ‘Angle made by object on eye (when keptat D) Let 2A’CB’ =f be the angle subtended by the image at the eye. Cut A’Q equal to AB(object size) and joinQC Then, 2a’CQ’=a is the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when itis placed at the least distance of distinct vision. By definition, the magnifying power of the simple microscope is given by In practice, the angles a and B are small. Therefore, the angles cand i can be replaced by their tangents ie. w= Seb tana From the right angled 4 CA‘Q, Also, from the right angled A ABC AB tanp= a Substituting for tan cc and tan B in the equation we have AB/CA ca’ Mao May Now, CA=u and CA’ =D Therefore, the equation (ii) becomes D ii May Gi) u=-u or v=-D 33.a- Magnifying power- When image is formed at D (least distance of distinct vision=25em). ‘Therefore, the above equation becomes by lens formula 1 1411 _ TIDE D D ory-1=ZorTa1tz (iv) From the equations (iii) and (iv), we have M=1+5 O) 33.b - Magnifying power (When image is formed at infinity). FROM Bo u=-fand Ca’ =-D (Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen at D only) Therefore, the above equation gives (vit) 34, Compound Microscope [3 marks, CBSE 2018, 20, 21] a APNI Kaxsia—_—_| on 18 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS Kw For a compound microscope two lenses, eyepiece of focal lenght (fe)and objective of focal lenght (fo) are used to achieve greater magnification then simple microscope. First clear Image is formed at D (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm) So, Magnifying power of Compound microscope Angle made by image on eye ( when kept at D) ‘Angle made by object on eye (when kept at D) Let 2AC’B" =8 be the angle subtended by the image at the eye. extend A"Q equal to AB(objectsize) and join QC Then, 2A"C'Q=a is the angle subtended by the object at the eye, when it is placed at the least distance of distinct vision By definition, the magnifying power of the simple microscope is given by 8 ua a Since the angles « and are small, they can be replaced by their tangents i.e. tanB — =) “tana ao = AB oa oar [Link] = 22" iso, tan B = Car Multiplying and dividing by A’B’, we have AB" ABBY ANB XW AB WB mg = magnification of object lens Also tana. (= AYQ= AB) we! Also<@ (vo to = Image & object dist. from object lens)& wey, Ser = 3S = m, = magnification of eye lens (Ve& tle = Image & object distance from eye lens) So, M=mgx me 34a - Magnifying power - When image is formed at D(least distance of distinct vision). Now, for the eye lens, the lens equation may be written as So putting value for me we have, Ve Me = 1 Eo il) Applying the new Cartesian sign conventions: ve = —Dand f, = +f In the above equation, substituting for v, and fe, we have me=14+2 ) fe So, putting values in M = mg X mg we get m= 2(142) vit) 34.b - Magnifying power - When image is formed at infinity. We know, M = mg X me & mp ==2 & me For image at infinity u = —f-& Ve = — Here fy is the focal length of the eye lens, (Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen at Donlyso vp = —D) = == (ix) 35. Astronomical Telescope (Refracting Type) [3 marks, CBSE 2017, 18,21] An astronomical telescope is used to see the heavenly objects. An astronomical telescope consists of two lens systems, The lens system facing the object is called objective. It has large aperture and is of large focal length (f,). The other lens system is called eye- piece. It has small aperture and is of short focal length (f,) . Also the first clear image is formed at D (least distance of distinct vision = 25cm) Magnifying power of refracting telescope Angle made by image on eye (when kept at D) ‘Actual angle of object on eye onjecrVE FROM OBJECTIVE Aten aot ‘Thus, 2A’CB’ = « may be considered as the angle subtended by object at the eye. Let 2A'C'B’ = 8. Then, by definition, Since the angles @ and B are small, APN | 2 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS K a * tanaand B = tanB t wamé tana oO From the right angled 4 CA’B’,tana = Ty, cx In the equation (i), substituting for tana and tanB, we have NBYUCA'_ CA’ M= pyar Ow (il) Magnifying power - When image is formed at infinity. (Note: Remember the first clear image is always seen at D only) Applying the new cartesian sign conventions: CA’ = +f, and C’A’ = -f, Substituting for CA’ and C’A’ in the equation (ii), we have and from the right angled AC’A’B’, tana = -APNI Kaxsia—_________| 22 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) WAVE OPTICS Ke 36. Laws of Reflection on Wave Theory [3 marks, CBSE 2017, 18, 20] Let ML be a beam of light that reflects back from surface XY, Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P’A is wave front for reflected beam. If c is velocity of light, then time taken (t) by light to go from the point P to P’ and by light to go from A to A’ will be same as both lie on wave fronts. (angle of reflection) By using properties of complementary angle PAP’ =i, ZAPYA’ =r We have i.e. the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. (laws of reflection } 37. Refraction on The Basis of Wave Theory [3 marks, CBSE 2017, 19,21] Let ML be a beam of light that refracts to second medium from XY boundary. Here PA is wave front for incident beam and P! wave front for refracted beam. Let time taken (f) by light to go from the point P to P’ and in same time let A reaches to A’ after refraction. ZLAN =i, ZN‘AA’ = r (angle of refraction) By using properties of complementary angle ZPAP' =i, ZAP‘A’=r We have sini =22 @ sinr = Here PP’ = ctand AA’ =c't c= speed of light in air peed of light in denser medium u=<= refractive index of denser medium... so, from equation (1) & (i) sine. Hence, the laws of refraction (Snell's law ) is proved on the basis of the wave theory. 38. Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference [3 marks, CBSE 2017, 20,22] Let a source of monochromatic light S illuminates two narrow slits S, and Sp. The two illuminated slits act as the two coherent sources. At the centre 0 of the screen, the intensity of light is maximum and it is called central maximum. Condition for maximum and minimum, Let the displacements of the waves from the sources S; and S2 at point P on the screen at any time t be given by Va = asinot and yz =a,sin(wt + $), where @ is the constant phase difference between the two waves. -APNI kaxsia—_________| 23 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) So superimposed wave will be ¥ =Vit¥2 =aysinot +a, sin(wot +o) ¥ = (a; +a,Cosd) sinot +a, singcoswt (i) = (ii) = iil) Let a, +a, cos = Acos6 and a sing = Asin® Then, the equation (i) becomes y = AcosOsinast + Asin 0 cos wt or y = Asin(wt + 8) Also Squaring and adding both sides of the equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain A? cos? 0 + A? sin? 0 = (a, + apcos)? + asin? or A? = at +3 (cos? + sin? ) + 2aazcosp or A? = af +3 + 2a,a,0089 ... (iv) For constructive interference the intensity of light will be maximum so , A=max So, cos = 1 SCREEN WAVE OPTICS kK From equation (iv) it follows that the intensity of For Destructive interference. light at point P will be minimum, if cosp=-1 or or 6 =(@n+1)m, where n = 0,1,2, 30,51, Also, from the equations (vi) and (vi 2m x= (n+ In -APNI kaxsia—_________| (© scanned wt onENScnner 24 22(Physics) ATOMS K 39, Distance of Closest Approach The value of the distance of closest approach gives an estimate of the size of the nucleus. Consider that an a-particle of mass m possesses initial velocity u, when itis at a large distance from the nucleus of an atom having atomic number Z. At the distance of closest approach, the kinetic energy of the c-particle is completely converted into potential energy. Mathematically, 1, _ 1 20(Ze) z ane, to 1 220% re Tin ato 2 The equation (i) is the expression for the distance of closest approach. In Geiger-Marsden experiment, a-particles of kinetic energy 5.5 MeV were directed towards the gold nucleus (2 = 79). By calculating the distance of closest approach ro, an estimate of the size of the nucleus can be made. The calculations show that rg comes out to be 4-13 x 10-!4 m. Thus, size of the nucleus is of the order of 10-** m. 40, Bohr's Theory of Hydrogen Atom [3 marks, CBSE 2017, 18, 20,21, 22] Ina hydrogen atom, an electron having charge —e revolves round the nucleus having charge +e in a circular orbit of radius r as shown in Fig. The electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and the electron is given by o@ If m and v are mass and orbital velocity of the electron, then the centripetal force required by the electron to move in circular orbit of radius r is given wd The electrostatic force of attraction (Fe) between the electron and the nucleus provides the necessary centripetal force (F,) to the electron Therefore, from the equations (i) and (ii), we have my? 1 @& : - zz oF mv" i) “Tr Amey According to Bohr's quantization condition, angular momentum of the electron, h nh myr= 157 or v= (iv) In the equation (fii), putting the value of v, we have nh y?_ 1 Zan) ie, ame? m Sincen = 1234... Also Energy of the electron in n*orbit of a hydrogen-like atom is given by 1 \? 2n2zmet En= ~ Ga) neh? where Z is atomic number of the atom, nh (1 4n?me? 2am (rs =) 1 2me? oF Y= ancy oh) 1 Obviously, Ey = ymv? ing the equation (iii), we have Gey-e) | ee 0 ang ane) The total energy of electron revolving round the nucleus in the orbit of radius r is given by bait a2 +(-f ORD Fey Or ae -APNI kaxsia—______| 25 (© scanned wt onENScnner(Physics) NUCLEI K 41. Nuclear Density Let p be the density of the nucleus of an atom, whose mass number is A. mass of the nucleus of the atom of mass number A = Aamu, = Ax 1.660565 x 10-7” kg If Ris the radius of the nucleus, then (Ro ) 4 volume of nucleus = -nR® mR A Taking Ro = 1-1 x 107*5 m, we have 4 volume of the nucleus = =n(1- 1 x 10-1) x Am? mass of nucleus Density of the nucleus, p= eas Ax 1: 660565 x 10777 Tyan xi0-#)9xa 2-97 x10" kg m"3] (Independent of A) 42. Mass Defect [2 marks, CBSE 2017, 18, 20, 22, 23] The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect. It is denoted by Am. Let us calculate the mass defect in case of the nucleus of an atom 2X“. The nucleus of such an atom contains 2 protons and (A-Z) neutrons Therefore, mass of the nucleons = Zm, + (A~Z)my If my(zX4) is mass of the nucleus of the atom 7X4, then the mass defectis given by The mass defect can also be expressed in another form as explained below: ‘Adding and subtracting the mass of Z electrons ic. Ze on the RH.S. of equation (i), we have [zmy + (A ~Z)mmg + Zme] ~ my 2X") ~ Zine = [2(m, + m.) + (A= Z)mg] ~ [my (2X4) + Zm4] Now, my +m, = m( ,H4), mass of hydrogen atom & my (2X4) + Zm, = m( 2X4), mass of the atom ax Therefore, [am = [Zm( 4") + (A—Z)m,] — max") 43, Binding energy. [2 marks, CBSE 2017, 19, 22, 23] Thus, the binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus. If Am is mass defect of a nucleus, then according to Einstein's massenergy relation, binding energy of the nucleus = Ame? (in joule) Binding energy = [{Zm, + (A—Z)m,} = m(aX4)] xe? Am = [Zm, + (A—Z)m,] — my( 7X4)... Here, my(zX*) is mass of the nucleus of the atom 2X4, m, = mass of proton, mg = mass of neutron A= Mass number, Z = Atomic number Jamu x c=931.5 Mev (All masses are kept in amu) The mass defect can also be expressed in another form: ‘Am = [Zm(,H*) + (A= Z)mg] - m( 7X4) Here, my (2X4) is mass of the nucleus of the atom ;X4. m, = mass of proton, m, = mass of neutron, A= Mass number, = Atomic number Binding energy = [{Zm(,H*)+(A-Z)m,} —m(2X4)] xc? Here m(,H*) = mass of hydrogen atom m(zX4) = mass of the atom 7X4 -APNI xaxsia—_________| 26 (© scanned wt onENScnner