A detailed answer to the questions is provided below.
Question 1
A. Definitions:
: This is defined as the product of a
rock’s density and the seismic velocity within it, i.e.,
. It determines how much of the incident seismic
energy is transmitted or reflected at an interface.
: These are elastic waves that propagate
through the Earth. They include various types such as body
waves (P-waves and S-waves) and surface waves, each
carrying information about subsurface properties.
: For a boundary between two
layers, the reflection coefficient is given by ,
indicating the fraction of the energy that is reflected at the
boundary. A large contrast in acoustic impedance results in a
higher reflection coefficient.
B. Layered Formation:
For the shale layers: velocity is and density is
(i.e., ). Thus, the acoustic impedance is
For the sand layer: velocity is and density is
(i.e., ). Its impedance is
I.
Reflection Coefficient (RC):
Interface from layer 1 to 2 (shale to shale): The impedance
contrast is zero since both layers have .
Thus,
Interface from layer 2 to 3 (shale to sand):
II.
Significance of the RC values:
An RC of zero at the first interface implies no contrast in
acoustic properties, and thus no seismic reflection is
expected there.
The relatively small positive RC (∼0.035) at the second
interface indicates a weak reflection that signifies a subtle
change in lithology, possibly marking the transition to a
different reservoir property.
III.
Seismic Trace Development:
A synthetic seismic trace can be generated by convolving the
reflectivity series (which includes an impulse at each interface
weighted by the RC) with a seismic wavelet (often a Ricker
wavelet). In this case, the reflectivity series would have a zero
(or negligible) spike at the first interface and a small positive
spike at the second. The resulting trace would mainly show a
weak event corresponding to the sand layer. The graph below
illustrates a simplified synthetic seismic trace for this
formation.
Synthetic seismic trace
C.
In seismic data acquisition, if an interval is too thin such that the
response from the top layer (primary reflection) has not decayed
completely before the response from the base interface begins, the
two responses interfere with one another. This interference (or
"tuning") effect can make it difficult to resolve thin beds, as the
overlapping wavelets may lead to constructive or destructive
interference, distorting the true amplitude and phase information.
Question 2
A.
The Vibroseis method in seismic acquisition uses a controlled
seismic source that emits a continuous sweep of frequencies. As
the sweep is recorded, the received signal is cross-correlated with
the known sweep signature to extract the Earth's impulse response.
This technique enhances the signal-to-noise ratio and improves
resolution, especially under challenging near-surface conditions.
B.
Marine and land acquisitions differ in several aspects:
Source and Receiver Deployment: Marine acquisitions typically
use air guns and streamers deployed behind a vessel, while
land surveys may use vibroseis trucks or other impulsive
sources along with geophones.
Acquisition Environment: Marine environments allow for
continuous acquisition over water, whereas land acquisition
must deal with varying topography and accessibility issues.
Noise Considerations: Land data are often affected by cultural
noise and complex near-surface conditions, while marine data,
although affected by water column effects, generally have a
smoother near-surface target.
C.
2D acquisition involves collecting seismic data along a single line,
producing a two-dimensional cross-sectional image of the
subsurface. In contrast, 3D acquisition collects data over an area,
enabling the creation of a volumetric image that provides more
detailed spatial resolution and a better understanding of complex
geological structures.
SECTION B
Q.1.
Seismic data processing in industrial exploration involves the
application of advanced algorithms and techniques to raw seismic
signals. The goal of processing is to enhance the signal-to-noise
ratio, restore the true amplitude and phase information, and
accurately image subsurface geological features. By deconvolving
the effects of the source wavelet and near-surface anomalies,
processing preserves key indicators—such as lithology contrasts,
reservoir properties, and oil saturation levels—making the data
interpretable for exploration and decision-making.
Synthetic seismic trace
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