UNIT-II

OP-AMP APPLICATIONS-I

OPEN LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS

In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection exists between
input and output terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not fed back in any
form as part of the input signal.

In open loop configuration, The Op-Amp functions as a high gain amplifier. There are
three open loop Op-Amp configurations namely

1).The Inverting Amplifier

2).The non-inverting amplifier

3).The Differential Amplifier

THE INVERTING AMPLIFIER

If the input is applied to only inverting input terminal and non-inverting input terminal is
grounded then it is called inverting amplifier. This configuration is as shown in fig.

V1=Voltage at non-inverting input terminal= 0 V

Fig V2 = Voltage at non-inverting input terminal= Vin V

Vo = Ad (V1- V2)= -Ad Vin

Where Ad = Differential Voltage Gain.

The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input
by 180 °. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.
 THE NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER

If the input is applied to only non-inverting input terminal and inverting input terminal is
grounded then it is called non-inverting amplifier. This configuration is as shown in fig.

V1=Voltage at non-inverting input terminal= Vin V

Fig V2 = Voltage at non-inverting input terminal= 0 V

Vo = Ad (V1- V2)= Ad Vin

Where Ad = Differential Voltage Gain.

This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at
the output.

THE DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

Fig shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals Vin1 and Vin2 are
applied to the non-inverting and inverting input terminals.

Fig.
Since the Op-Amp amplifies the difference between the two input signals, this
configuration is called the differential amplifier. The Op-Amp amplifies both ac and dc
input signals. The source resistance Rin1 and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the
input resistance Ri. Therefore voltage drop across these resistances can be assumed to
be zero.

Therefore

V1 = Vin1 and V2 = Vin2.

Vo = Ad (V1 – V2) = Ad (Vin1 – Vin2)

Where, Ad = Differential Voltage Gain.

In all three configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to
saturation level. This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the
output of the Op-Amp is either negative or positive saturation or switches between
positive and negative saturation levels. Therefore open loop Op-Amp is not used in
linear applications.

CLOSED LOOP OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS

 The gain of the Op-Amp can be controlled if feedback is introduced in the

circuit, i.e an output signal is fedback to the input either directly or via another
network. If the signal fedback is of opposite or out phase by 180° with respect to
the input signal, the feedback is called negative feedback.

 An amplifier with negative fedback has a self-correcting ability of change in

output voltage caused by changes in environmental conditions. It is also known
as degenerative feedback because it reduces the output voltage and in turn
reduces the voltage gain.

 If the signal is fedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called
positive feedback. In positive feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal.
It is also known as regenerative feedback. Positive feedback is necessary in
oscillator circuits.
Advantages Of negative feedback:

1. The negative fedback stabilizes the gain.

2. Increases the bandwidth.
3. Changes the input and output resistances.
4. Reduces harmonic or non-linear distortions.
5. Reduces the effect of input offset voltage at the output.
6. It also reduces the effect of temperature and supply voltage variation on the
output of an Op-Amp.

 A closed loop amplifier can be represented by two blocks one for an Op-Amp
and other for a feedback circuit. There are four ways to connect these blocks.
These connections are shown in fig.
 These connections are classified according to whether the voltage or current is
fedback to the input in series or in parallel as

1. Voltage – series feedback

2. Voltage – shunt feedback
3. Current – series feedback
4. Current – shunt feedback
 Fig

 In all these circuits the signal direction is from input to output for Op-Amp and
output to input for feedback circuit.

 Only first two, feedback circuits are important.

Voltage series feedback:

 The schematic diagram of the Voltage series feedback amplifier is as shown in

fig. The Op-Amp is represented by its schematic symbol, including its large
signal voltage gain Ad or A, and the feedback circuit is composed of two resistors
R1 and Rf.
 The circuit is commonly known as a non-inverting amplifier with feedback or a
closed loop non-inverting amplifier because it uses feedback, and the input signal
is applied to the non-inverting input terminal of the Op-amp.

 Before proceeding, it is necessary to define some important terms for

the voltage series feedback amplifier. Especially the voltage gain of
the Op-Amp with feedback and voltage gain of the feedback circuit as
below.

Negative Feedback:
 The feedback voltage always opposes the input voltage, (or is out of phase by 180° with
respect to input voltage), hence the feedback is said to be negative.

Closed Loop Voltage Gain:

Closed loop voltage gain is defined as

The product A and B is called loop gain. The gain loop gain is very large such that AB >> 1

 This shows that overall voltage gain of the circuit equals the reciprocal of B, the
feedback gain. It means that closed loop gain is no longer dependent on the gain
of the Op-Amp, but depends on the feedback of the voltage divider. The feedback
gain B can be precisely controlled and it is independent of the amplifier.

 Physically, what is happening in the circuit? The gain is approximately constant,

even though differential voltage gain may change. Suppose A increases for some
reasons (temperature change). Then the output voltage will try to increase. This
means that more voltage is fedback to the inverting input, causing Vd voltage to
decrease. This almost completely offset the attempted increases in output voltage.
  Similarly, if A decreases, The output voltage decreases. It reduces the feedback
voltage Vf and hence, Vd voltage increases. Thus the output voltage increases
almost to same level.

Block Diagram representation of non-inverting amplifier with feedback

Difference Input voltage Ideally zero:

Again considering the voltage equation,

V O = Ad V d

or Vd = V O / A d

Since Ad is very large (ideally infinite)

Vd = ͌ 0.

and V1 = V2 (ideal).

This says that the voltage at non-inverting input terminal of an Op-Amp is approximately
equal to that at the inverting input terminal provided that Ad is very large. This concept
is useful in the analysis of closed loop Op-Amp circuits. For example, ideal closed loop
voltage again can be obtained using the results.
Input Resistance with Feedback:

Fig shows a voltage series feedback with the Op-Amp equivalent circuit.

Fig. 1

In this circuit Ri is the input resistance (open loop) of the Op-Amp and Rif is the input
resistance of the feedback amplifier. The input resistance with feedback is defined as
Since AB is much larger than 1, which means that Rif is much larger that Ri. Thus
Rif approaches infinity and therefore, this amplifier approximates an ideal voltage
amplifier.

Output Resistance with Feedback:

Output resistance is the resistance determined looking back into the feedback amplifier
from the output terminal. To find output resistance with feedback Rof , input Vin is
reduced to zero, an external voltage Vo is applied as shown in fig.

The output resistance (Rof ) is defined as

This shows that the output resistance of the voltage series feedback amplifier is
( 1 / 1+AB ) times the output resistance Ro of the Op-Amp . It is very small because
(1+AB) is very large. It approaches to zero for an ideal voltage amplifier.

Reduced Non-linear Distortion:

The final stage of an Op-Amp has non-linear distortion when the signal swings over
most of the ac load line. Large swings in current cause the r'e of a transistor to change
during the cycle. In other words, the open loop gain varies throughout the cycle of when
a large signal is being applied. It is this changing voltage gain that is a source of the non-
linear distortion.

Non-inverting voltage feedback reduces non-linear distortion because the feedback

stabilizes the closed loop voltage gain, making it almost independent of the changes in
open loop voltage gain. As long as loop gain, is much greater than 1, the output voltage
equals 1/B times the input voltage. This implies that output will be a more faithful
reproduction of the input.

Consider, under large signal conditions, the open loop Op-Amp circuit produces a
distortion voltage, designated Vdist. It can be represented by connecting a source Vdist in
series with Avd. Without negative feedback all the distortion voltage Vdist appears at the
output. But with negative feedback, a fraction of Vdist is feedback to inverting input. This
is amplified and arrives at the output with inverted phase almost completely canceling
the original distortion produced by the output stage.
The first term is the amplified output voltage. The second term in the distortion that
appears at the final output. The distortion voltage is very much, reduced because AB>>1

Bandwidth with Feedback:

The bandwidth of an amplifier is defined as the band of frequencies for which the gain
remains constant. Fig shows the open loop gain vs frequency curve of µA741C Op-Amp.
From this curve for a gain of 2 x 105 the bandwidth is approximately 5Hz. On the other
hand, the bandwidth is approximately 1MHz when the gain is unity.
 Fig. 3

 The frequency at which gain equals 1 is known as the unity gain bandwidth.

 It is the maximum frequency the Op-Amp can be used for.

 Furthermore, the gain bandwidth product obtained from the open loop gain vs
frequency curve is equal to the unity gain bandwidth of the Op-Amp .
Since the gain bandwidth product is constant obviously the higher the gain the
smaller the bandwidth and vice versa.

 If negative feedback is used gain decrease from A to A / (1+AB). Therefore the

closed loop bandwidth increases by (1+AB).

Bandwidth with feedback = (1+ A B) x (B.W. without feedback)

ff= fo (1+A B)

Total output Offset Voltage with Feedback:

 In an Op-Amp when the input is zero the out is also expected to be zero.
However because of the effect of input offset voltage and current the output is
significantly large, resulting in high open loop gain i.e the high gain aggravates
the effect of input offset and current at the output.
 We call this enhanced output voltage the total output offset voltage (VOOT). In
an open loop op-amp the total output offset voltage is equal to either the positive
or negative saturation voltage. The saturation voltage is equal to output voltage
swing.
 Since with feedback the gain of the non-inverting amplifier changes from A to
A /1+AB the total output offset voltage with feedback must also be 1/1+AB times
the voltage without feedback i.e

(Total output offset voltage ) = Total output offset voltage without feedback
with feed back 1+AB

VOOT = ± Vsat / 1+AB

Where 1/1+AB is always less than 1 and ± Vsat= saturation voltages.

Voltage Follower:

The lowest gain that can be obtained from a non-inverting amplifier with feedback is 1.
When the non-inverting amplifier gives unity gain, it is called voltage follower because
the output voltage is equal to the input voltage and in phase with the input voltage. In
other words the output voltage follows the input voltage.

To obtain voltage follower, R1 is open circuited and Rf is shorted in a negative feedback

amplifier. The resultant circuit is shown in fig
 Vout = AVd= A (V1 – V2)

V1 = Vin

V2 =Vout

V1 = V2 if A >> 1

Vout = Vin.

The gain of the feedback circuit (B) is 1. Therefore

Fig.
Af = 1 / B = 1

Voltage shunt Feedback:

Fig. Shows the voltage shunt feedback amplifier using Op-Amp .

Fig.

The input voltage drives the inverting terminal, and the amplified as well as inverted
output signal is also applied to the inverting input via the feedback resistor R f. This
arrangement forms a negative feedback because any increase in the output signal
results in a feedback signal into the inverting input signal causing a decrease in the
output signal. The non-inverting terminal is grounded. Resistor R1 is connected in series
with the source.

The closed loop voltage gain can be obtained by, writing Kirchhoff’s current equation at
the input node V2.
The negative sign in equation indicates that the input and output signals are out of
phase by 180. Therefore it is called inverting amplifier. The gain can be selected by
selecting Rf and R1 (even < 1).

Inverting Input at Virtual Ground:

In the fig shown earlier, the non-inverting terminal is grounded and the- input signal is
applied to the inverting terminal via resistor R1. The difference input voltage vd is ideally
zero, (vd= vO/ A) is the voltage at the inverting terminals (v2) is approximately equal to
that of the no inverting terminal (V1). In other words, the inverting terminal voltage (V1)
is approximately at ground potential. Therefore, it is said to be at virtual ground.
Input Resistance with Feedback:

To find the input resistance Miller

equivalent of the feedback
resistor Rf, is obtained, i.e. Rf is
splitted into its two Miller
components as shown in fig. .
Therefore, input resistance with
feedback Rif is then

Fig.

Output Resistance with Feedback:

The output resistance with
feedback Rof is the
resistance measured at the
output terminal of the
feedback amplifier. The
output resistance can be
obtained using Thevenin's
equivalent circuit,shown
in fig.

iO = i a + i b

Since RO is very small as

compared to Rf +(R1 || R2 )

Therefore,i.e. iO= ia

vO = RO iO + A vd.

vd= vi – v2 = 0 - B vO

Fig.

Similarly, the bandwidth

increases by (1+ AB) and
total output offset voltage
reduces by (1+AB).

Example - 1
(a).An inverting amplifier is implemented with R1 = 1K and Rf = 100 K. Find the percentge
change in the closed loop gain A is the open loop gain a changes from 2 x 105 V / V to
5 x 104 V/V.
(b) Repeat, but for a non-inverting amplifier with R1 = 1K at Rf = 99 K.

Solution: (a). Inverting amplifier

Here Rf = 100 K
R1 = 1K

When,

(b) Non-inverting amplifier

Here Rf =99K and R1 = 1K

Example - 2
An inverting amplifier with R1 = 10Ω and R2 = 1MΩ is driven by a source V1 = 0.1 V. Find
the closed loop gain A, the percentage division of A from the ideal value - R2 / R1, and
the inverting input voltage VN for the cases A = 100 V/V, 105 and 105 V/V.

Solution:

we have
when A =

103,

Fig. 4

Example - 3

Find VN, V1 and VO for the circuit shown in fig.

Solution:

Applying KCL at N

or 2VN + VN = VO.

Now VO - Vi = 6 as point A and N are virtually

shorted.
VO - VN = 6 V
Therefore, VO = VN + 6 V
Fig.

Therefore, VN = Vi = 3 V.

SUMMING AMPLIFIER

Analog Inverter and Scale Changer:

The circuit of analog inverter is shown in fig. It is same as inverting voltage amplifier.

Assuming OP-AMP to be an ideal

one, the differential input voltage is
zero.

i.e. Vd = 0
Therefore, V1 = V2 = 0

Since input impedance is very high,

therefore, input current is zero.
OP-AMP do not sink any current.

Therefore iin= if

Vin / R = - VO / Rf
Vo = - (Rf / R) Vin
Fig.
If R = Rf then VO = -Vin the
circuit behaves like an inverter.

If Rf / R = K (a constant) then the

circuit is called inverting amplifier or
scale changer voltages.

Inverting summer:

The configuration is shown in fig. With three input voltages Va, Vb & Vc. Depending upon
the value of Rf and the input resistors Ra, Rb, Rc the circuit can be used as a summing
amplifier, scaling amplifier, or averaging amplifier.
Applying KCL at V2 node

This means that the output voltage

is equal to the negative sum of all
the inputs times the gain of the
circuit Rf/ R; hence the circuit is
called a summing amplifier. When Fig.
Rf= R then the output voltage is
equal to the negative sum of all
inputs.
Vo= -(Va+ Vb+ Vc)

If each input voltage is amplified by a different factor in other words weighted

differently at the output, the circuit is called then scaling amplifier.

The circuit can be used as an averaging circuit, in which the output voltage is equal to
the average of all the input voltages.

In this case, Ra= Rb= Rc = R and Rf / R = 1 / n where n is the number of inputs.

Here Rf / R = 1 / 3.
Vo = -(Va+ Vb + Vc) / 3

In all these applications input could be either ac or dc.

Non-inverting configuration:

If the input voltages are connected to non-inverting input through resistors, then the
circuit can be used as a summing or averaging amplifier through proper selection of R1,
R2, R3 and Rf. as shown in fig.
To find the output voltage expression,
V1 is required. Applying superposition
theorem, the voltage V1 at the non-
inverting terminal is given by

Hence the output voltage is

Fig.

This shows that the output is equal to the average of all input voltages times the gain of
the circuit (1+ Rf / R1), hence the name averaging amplifier.

If (1+Rf/ R1) is made equal to 3 then the output voltage becomes sum of all three input
voltages.

Vo =V a + Vb+ Vc

Hence, the circuit is called summer

Example - 1

Find the gain of VO / Vi of the circuit of fig.

Solution:
Current entering at the inveting

terminal is

Applying KCL to node 1,

Applying KCL to node 2,

Fig.

Thus the gain A = -8 V / VO

Example – 2

Find a relationship between VO and V1 through V6 in the circuit of fig.

 Fig.

Solution:

Let's consider of V1 (singly) by shorting the others i.e. the circuit then looks like as shown
in fig.

The current flowing through the

resistor R into the i/e.

The current when passes through R,

output an operational value of

Fig.
Let as now consider the case of V2 with
other inputs shorted, circuit looks like
as shown in fig.
Now VO is given by

same thing to V4 and V6

net output V" = V2 + V4 + V6 (3)

From (2) & (3)

V' + V" = (V2 + V4 + V6 ) - (V1 + V3 + V5) Fig.

So VO = V2 + V4 + V6 - V1 - V3 - V5.

Example - 3

1. Show that the circuit of fig. has A = VO / Vi = - K (R2 / R1) with

K = 1 + R4 / R2 + R4 / R3, and Ri = R1.
2. Specify resistance not larger than 100 K to achieve A = -200 V / V and
Ri = 100 K.

Fig.

Solution:
Differential Amplifier(Subtractor):

The basic differential amplifier is shown in fig.

 Fig.

Since there are two inputs superposition theorem can be used to find the output
voltage. When Vb= 0, then the circuit becomes inverting amplifier, hence the output due
to Va only is

Vo(a) = -(Rf / R1) Va

Similarly when, Va = 0, the configuration is a inverting amplifier having a voltage divided

network at the non-inverting input

INTEGRATOR
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input voltage
waveform is called integrator. Fig. , shows an integrator circuit using OP-AMP.

Fig.

Here, the feedback element is a capacitor. The current drawn by OP-AMP is zero and
also the V2 is virtually grounded.

Therefore, i1 = if and V2 = V1 = 0

Integrating both sides with respect to time from 0 to t, we get

The output voltage is directly proportional to the negative integral of the input voltage
and inversely proportional to the time constant RC.

If the input is a sine wave the output will be cosine wave. If the input is a square wave,
the output will be a triangular wave. For accurate integration, the time period of the
input signal T must be longer than or equal to RC.
Fig. Shows the output of integrator for square and sinusoidal inputs.

Fig.
Example

Prove that the network shown in fig. is a non-inverting integrator with .

Solution:

The voltage at point A is VO / 2 and it is also

the voltage at point B because different input
voltage is negligible.

VB = V O / 2

Therefore, applying Node current equation at

point B,

Fig.

DIFFERENTIATOR

Ideal Differentiator:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the differentiation of input voltage is
called differentiator. As shown in fig.

Fig. (Ideal Differentiator)

The expression for the output voltage can be obtained from the Kirchhoff’s current
equation written at node V2.

Thus the output Vo is equal to the RC times the negative instantaneous rate of change of
the input voltage Vin with time. A cosine wave input produces sine wave output and
a Square wave input produces Spikes as output.

Practical Differentiator:

The input signal will be differentiated properly if the time period T of the input signal is
larger than or equal to Rf C, i.e T ≥ Rf C.
As the frequency changes, the gain changes. Also at higher frequencies the circuit is
highly susceptible at high frequency noise and noise gets amplified. Both the high
frequency noise and problem can be corrected by adding, few components. As shown
in fig.

Fig. (Practical Differentiator)

VOLTAGE TO CURRENT CONVERTER

Floating Load:
Fig. shows a voltage to current converter in which load resistor RL is floating (not
connected to ground).

The input voltage is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the feedback
voltage across R drives the inverting input terminal. This circuit is also called a current
series negative feedback, amplifier because the feedback voltage across R depends on
the output current iL and is in series with the input difference voltage vd.

Writing the voltage equation for the

input loop.

Vin = Vd + Vf

But Vd =͌ 0 since A is very large,

therefore,

Vin = Vf
Vin = R iin
iin = V in / R.

and since input current is zero.

iL = iin = Vin / R

The value of load resistance does not

appear in this equation. Therefore,
the output current is independent of Fig.
the value of load resistance. Thus the
input voltage is converted into
current ,the source must be capable
of supplying this load current.

Grounded Load:

If the load has to be grounded, then the above circuit cannot be used. The modified
circuit is shown in fig.
Since the collector and emitter currents are
equal to a close approximation and the input
impedance of OP-AMP is very high, the load
current also flows through the feedback
resistor R. On account of this, there is still
current feedback, which means that the load
current is stabilized.

Since Vd= 0
V2 = V1 = Vin
iout = (VCC – Vin ) / R

Thus the load current becomes nearly equal

to iout. There is a limit to the output current
that the circuit can supply. The base current
in the transistor equals iout /βdc. Since the
Op-Amp has to supply this base current
iout /βdc must be less than Iout (max) of the Op-
Amp , typically 10 to 15mA.

There is also a limit on the output voltage, as Fig.

the load resistance increases, the load
voltage increases and then the transistor
goes into saturation. Since the emitter is at
Vin w. r. t. ground, the maximum load voltage
is slightly less than Vin.

In this circuit, because of negative feedback VBE is automatically adjusted. For instance, if
the load resistance decreases the load current tries to increase. This means that more
voltage is feedback to the inverting input, which decreases VBE just enough to almost
completely nullify the attempted increase in load current. From the output current
expression it is clear that as Vin increases the load current decreases.

Another circuit in which load current increases as Vin increases is shown in fig.
The current through the
first transistor is

i = Vin / R

This current produces a

collector voltage of

VC = VCC– i R = VCC – Vin

Since this voltage drives the

non-inverting input of the
second Op-Amp. The
inverting voltage is
VCC - Vin to a close
approximation. This implies
that the voltage across the
final R is Fig.

VCC - (VCC - Vin ) = Vin

and the output current .

iout = Vin / R

As before, this output

current must satisfy the
condition, that
Iout/ βdc must be less than
the Iout(max) of the OP-AMP
. Furthermore, the load
voltage cannot exceed VCC-
Vin because of transistor
saturation, therefore Iout R
must be less than VCC- Vin.
This current source
produces unidirectional
load current. fig. shows a
Howland current source,
that can produce a bi-
directional load current.

Fig.

The maximum load current is VCC/ R. In this circuit v in

may be positive or negative.

CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER

 The circuit shown in fig. is a current to voltage converter.

Fig.

Due to virtual ground the current through R is zero and the input current flows through
Rf. Therefore,

Vout =-Rf * iin

The lower limit on current measure with this circuit is set by the bias current of the
inverting input.

Example –1:
For the current to current converter shown in fig. , prove that

Fig.

Solution:

The current through R1 can be obtained from the current divider circuit.

Since, the input impedance of OP-AMP is very large, the input current of OP-AMP is
negligible.

Thus,

PRECISION RECTIFIERS
Half Wave Rectifiers:

If a sinusoid whose peak value is less than the threshold or cut in voltage Vd (0.6V) is
applied to the conventional half-wave rectifier circuit, output will remain zero. In order
to be able to rectify small signals (mV), it is necessary to reduce Vd. By placing a diode in
the feedback loop of an OP-AMP, the cut in voltage is divided by the open loop gain A of
the amplifier. Fig. shows an active diode circuit.

Fig. (Positive Half Wave Rectifier)

Hence VD is virtually eliminated and the diode approaches the ideal rectifying element. If
the input Vin goes positive by at least VD/A, then the output voltage Vo=A Vd exceeds
VD and D conducts and thus, provides a negative feedback. Because of the virtual
connection between the two inputs VO= Vin-Vd=Vin- VD / A =͌ Vin.

Therefore, the circuit acts as voltage follower for positive (above 60µV=0.6 / 1*10 5)
when Vin swing negatively, D is OFF and no current is delivered to the external load.

Note: By reversing the diode, the negative half wave rectifier can be made.
Another negative half wave rectifier is shown in fig.

Fig

 If Vin is positive then output of the OPAMP becomes negative inverting .Thus
diode D2 conducts and provides a negative feedback.
 Because of the feedback through D2 a virtual ground exists at the input. Thus
diode D1 acts as open circuit. The output voltage under this condition is given
by
Vo = 0.

If Vin goes negative, then output of the OPAMP becomes positive. Thus D1 is
conducting and D2 is off. Thus, the circuit behaves as an inverting amplifier. The
output of the circuit is given by

The resultant output voltage will be positive. If Vin is a sinusoid, the circuit performs half
wave rectification. The output does not depend upon the diode forward voltage (Vd).
Thus, because of the high open loop gain of the OP-AMP, the feedback acts to cancel
the diode turn-on (forward) voltage. This leads to improved performance since the
diode more closely approximates the ideal device.

Full Wave Rectifier:

The full wave rectifier makes use of two OP-AMPs, as shown in fig.It rectifies the input
with a gain of R / R1, controllable by one resistor R1.

Fig.

When Vin is positive then V' = negative, D1 is ON and D2 is virtual ground at the input
to (Op-Amp1). Because D2 is non-conducting, and since there is no current in the R
which is connected to the non-inverting input to (Op-Amp2), therefore, V1 =0.

Hence, the system consists of two OP-AMPs in cascade with the gain of A1 equal to
(-R / R1) and the gain of A2 equal to (-R / R) = -1.

The resultant voltage at output is

Vo = (R / R1 ) Vin > 0 (for Vin > 0 voltage output of (Op-Amp1) )

Consider now next half cycle when Vin is negative. The V' is positive D1 is OFF and D2 is
ON. Because of the virtually ground at the input to (Op-Amp2)

V2 = V 1 = V

Since the input terminals of (Op-Amp2) are at the same (ground) potential, the current
coming to the inverting terminal of (Op-Amp1) is as indicated in fig.
The output voltage is

Vo = i R + V

where

i = V / 2R (because input impedance of OP-AMP is very high).

The sign of Vo is again positive because Vin is negative in this half cycle. Therefore,
outputs during two half cycles are same and full wave rectified output voltage is
obtained also shown in fig

LOG AMPLIFIER

Log amplifier is a linear circuit in which the output voltage will be a constant times the
natural logarithm of the input. The basic output equation of a log amplifier is v Vout = K ln
(Vin/Vref); where Vref is the constant of normalization and K is the scale factor. Log
amplifier finds a lot of application in electronic fields like multiplication or division (they
can be performed by the addition and subtraction of the logs of the operand), signal
processing, computerized process control, compression, decompression, RMS value
detection etc. Basically there are two log amp configurations: Op-Amp-diode log
amplifier and Op-Amp-transistor log.

Op-Amp-diode log amplifier:

The schematic of a simple Op-amp-diode log amplifier is shown above. This is nothing
but an op-amp wired in closed loop inverting configuration with a diode in the feedback
path. The voltage across the diode will be always proportional to the log of the current
through it and when a diode is placed in the feedback path of an op-amp in inverting
mode, the output voltage will be proportional to the negative log of the input current.
Since the input current is proportional to the input voltage, we can say that the output
voltage will be proportional to the negative log of the input voltage.
According to the PN junction diode equation, the relationship between current and
voltage for a diode is

Id=Is(e(Vd/Vt)-1)…………(1)

Where Id is the diode current, Is is the saturation current, Vd is the voltage across the
diode and Vt is the thermal voltage.
Since Vd the voltage across the diode is positive here and Vt the thermal voltage is a
small quantity, the equation (1) can be approximated as

Id = Is e(Vd/Vt)…………………(2)

Since an ideal op-amp has infinite input resistance, the input current Ir has only one path
that is through the diode. That means the input current is equal to the diode current
(Id).
i.e Ir = Id ………………….(3)

Since the inverting input pin of the op-amp is virtually grounded, we can say that
Ir = Vin/R

Since Ir=Id from equation (3)

Vin/R = Id ………………….. (4)

Comparing equation (4) and (2) we have

Vin/R = Is e (Vd/Vt)

i.e. Vin = Is R e(Vd/Vt)……………(5)

Considering that the negative of the voltage across diode is the output voltage Vout

Vout = -Vt In(Vin/IsR)

Op-amp transistor log amplifier:

In this configuration a transistor is placed in the feedback path of an op-amp wired in
inverting mode. Collector of the transistor is connected to the inverting input of the op-
amp, emitter to output and base is grounded. The necessary condition for a log amp to
work is that the input voltage must be always positive. Circuit diagram of an Op-amp
transistor log amplifier is shown below.
From Fig 2 it is clear that base-emitter voltage of the transistor

Vbe = -Vout ………(1)

We know that
Ic=Iso(e(Vbe/Vt)-1) ………….(2)

Where Ic is the collector current of the transistor, Iso the saturation current, Vbe the
base emitter voltage and Vt the thermal voltage.
Equation (1) can be approximated as

Ic=Isoe(Vbe/Vt) ………….(3)

i.e, Vbe = Vt In (Ic/Iso) …………….(4)

Since input pin of an ideal op-amp has infinite input impedance, the only path for the
input current Ir is through the transistor and that means Ir = Ic.
Since the inverting input of the op-amp is virtually grounded
Ir = Vin/R
That means Ic = Vin/R ……………(5)
From equations (5) , (4) and (1) it is clear that

Vout = -Vt ln (Vin/IsoR)………….(6)

 SAMPLE AND HOLD CIRCUIT USING OP-AMP

As the name indicates, a sample and hold circuit is a circuit which samples an input
signal and holds onto its last sampled value until the input is sampled again. Sample and
hold circuits are commonly used in analog to digital converts, communication circuits,
PWM circuits etc. The circuit shown below is of a sample and hold circuit using µA741
op-amp , n-channel E- MOSFET and few passive components.

Description:
In the circuit E-MOSFET works as a switch that is controlled by the sample and hold
control voltage Vs .While op-amp µA741 is wired as a voltage follower. The signal to be
sampled (Vin) is applied to the drain of E-MOSFET while the sample and hold control
voltage (Vs) is applied to the source of the E-MOSFET. The source pin of the E-MOSFET is
connected to the non-inverting input of the op-amp through the resistor R3. C1 which is
a polyester capacitor serves as the charge storing device. Resistor R2 serves as the load
resistor while preset R1 is used for adjusting the offset voltage.
During the positive half cycle of the Vs , the E-MOSFET is ON which acts like a closed
switch and the capacitor C1 is charged by the Vin and the same voltage (Vin) appears at
the output of the op-amp. When Vs is zero E-MOSFET is switched off and the only
discharge path for C1 is through the inverting input of the op-amp. Since the input
impedance of the op-amp is too high the voltage Vin is retained and it appears at the
output of the op-amp.
The time periods of the Vs during which the voltage across the capacitor (Vc) is equal to
Vin are called sample periods (Ts) and the time periods of Vs during which the voltage
across the capacitor C1 (Vc) is held constant are called hold periods (Th). Taking a close
look at the input and output wave forms of the circuit will make it easier to understand
the working of the circuit.
Circuit diagram:

Input and output waveforms:

 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER

In many industrial and consumer applications the measurement and control of physical
conditions are very important. For example, measurements of temperature and
humidity inside a diary or meat plant permit the operator to make necessary
adjustments to maintain product quality. Similarly, precise temperature control of a
plastic furnace is needed to produce a particular type of plastic.

Generally, a transducer is used at the measuring site to obtain the required information
easily and safely. The transducer is a device that converts one form of Energy into
another. For example, a strain gage when subjected to pressure or force undergoes a
change in its resistance.

An Instrumentation system is used to measure the output signal produced by a

transducer and often to control the physical signal producing it.

The Block Diagram of an Instrumentation system.


The input stage is composed of a pre-amplifier and some sort of transducers,
depending on the physical quantity to be measured. The output stage may use
devices such as meters, oscilloscopes, charts or magnetic recorders.

 The connecting lines between the blocks represent transmission lines, used
especially when the transducer is at a remote test site monitoring hazardous
conditions such as High temperatures or liquid levels of flammable chemicals.
These transmission lines permit signal transfer from unit to unit.

 The signal source of the Instrumentation amplifier is the output of the

transducer. Although some transducers produce outputs with sufficient strength
to permit their use directly, many do not. To amplify the low level output signal
of the transducer so that it can drive the indicator or display is the major
function of an Instrumentation amplifier. In short, Instrumentation amplifier is
intended for precise, low level signal amplification where low noise, low thermal
and time drifts, high input resistance, and accurate closed loop gain are required.
Besides, low power consumption, high common mode rejection ratio, and high
 slew rate are desirable for superior performance.

INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIER USING TRANSDUCER BRIDGE

Following figure shows a simplified instrumentation amplifier using a transducer bridge.

A resistive transducer whose resistance changes as a function of some physical energy is
connected in one arm of the bridge with a small circle around it and is denoted
by where RT is the resistance of the transducer and ∆R is the change in
resistance RT.

The bridge in circuit is dc excited .For the balanced bridge at some reference condition,

 Generally, resistors RA, RB, and Rc are selected so that they are equal in value to
the transducer resistance RT at some reference condition.
  The bridge is balanced initially at a desired reference condition. However, as the
physical quantity to be measured changes, the resistance of the transducer also
changes, which causes the bridge to unbalance (Va≠Vb). The output voltage of
the bridge can be expressed as a function of the change in resistance of the
transducer, as described next.
 Let the change in the resistance of the transducer be ∆R. since RB and Rc are
fixed resistors, the voltage Vb is constant. However, voltage Va, varies as a
function of the change in transducer resistance.
 Therefore, according to the voltage-divider rule,

The negative sign in this equation indicated that Va<Vb because of the increase in the
value of ∆R.

The output voltage Vab of the bridge is then applied to the differential instrumentation
amplifier composed of three op-amps. The voltage followers preceding the basic
differential amplifier help to eliminate loading of the bridge circuit. The gain of the basic
differential amplifier is (-Rf/R1); therefore, the output Vo of the circuit is,

Generally, the change in resistance of the transducer ∆R is very small. Therefore, we can
approximate (2R+∆R) ≈2R. Thus, the output voltage is,
The equation indicates that Vo is directly proportional to the change in resistance ∆R of
the transducer. Since the change in resistance is caused by a change in physical energy,
a meter connected at the output can be calibrated in terms of the units of that physical
energy.

 Before proceeding with specific bridge applications, let us briefly consider the
important characteristics of some resistive types of transducers. In these
resistive types of transducers the resistance of the transducer changes as a
function of some physical quantity.
 Thermistor, photoconductive cells, and strain gages are some of the most
commonly used resistive transducers hence they will be further discussed here.
 Thermistors are essentially semiconductors that behave as resistors, usually with
a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. That is, as the temperature of a
thermistor increase, its resistance decreases. The temperature coefficient of the
resistance is expressed in ohms per unit change in degrees Celsius. Thermistors
with a high temperature coefficient of resistance are more sensitive to
temperature change and are therefore well suited to temperature measurement
and control. Thermistors are available in a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
However, thermistor beads sealed in the tips of glass rods are most commonly
used because they are relatively easy to mount.
 The photoconductive cell belongs to the family of photo-detectors
(photosensitive devices) whose resistance varies with an incident radiant energy
or with light. As the intensity of incident light increases, the resistance of the cell
decreases. The resistance of the photoconductive cell in darkness is typically on
the order of I00 KΩ. Generally, the resistance of the cell in darkness and at
particular light intensities is listed on the data sheet. The intensity of light is
expressed in meter candles (lux).
 Materials such as cadmium sulfide and silicon, whose conductivity is a function
of incident radiant energy, are used for photoconductive cells. Some cells are
extremely sensitive to light and hence can be used into the ultraviolet and
infrared regions. The photoconductive cell is typically composed of a ceramic
base, a layer of photoconductive material. A moisture-proof enclosure, and
 metallic leads. Photoconductive cells are also known as photocells or light
dependent resistors (LDRs).
 Another important resistive transducer is the strain gage, whose resistance
changes due to elongation or compression when an external stress is applied.
The stress is defined as force per unit area (newtons/meter^2) and can be
related to I pressure, torque, and displacement. Therefore, a strain gage may be
used to monitor change in applied pressure, torque, and displacement by
measuring the corresponding change in the gage’s resistance.
 Two basic types of strain gages are wire and semiconductor. Semiconductor
strain gages are much more sensitive than the wire type and therefore provide
better accuracy and resolution. The sensitivity of a strain gage is defined as unit
change in resistance per unit change in length and is a dimensionless quantity.
 The thermistor, photocell, and strain gage are all passive transducers, meaning
that they require external voltage (ac or dc) for their operation.