Wireless communication Systems (BEC703 )

Module: 1, Wireless Channel Characteristics and Modeling

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References

Aditya K Jagannatham, ”Principles of Modern Wireless

Communication systems, Theory and Practice”, Mc Graw Hill
Education (India), 2017
Theodore Rappaport, ”Wireless Communications: Principles and
Practice”, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, 2002
Arunabha Ghosh et al., ”Fundamentals of LTE”, Pearson India, 2018
T L Singal, ”Wireless Communications”, Mc Graw Hill Education
(India), 2016
Gary Mullet, ”Introduction to Wireless Telecommunications Systems
and Networks”, Cengage Learning, 2006

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The Wireless Communication Environment

Wireless systems operate in complex propagation environments

Key challenges:
Multipath propagation
Path loss and shadowing
Fading effects
Interference
Requires sophisticated modeling for system design

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Cont...

Figure: Multipath propagation components

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Conti...

Figure: Schematic of the wireless-propagation environment

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Cont..

at the receiver, there is a superposition of multiple copies of the

transmitted signal. These signal copies experience different
attenuations, delays, and phase shifts arising from the varied
propagation distances and properties of the scattering media. Hence,
at the wireless receiver, there is interference of signals received from
these multiple propagation paths, which is termed multipath
interference.
The multipath interference, in turn, results in an amplification or
attenuation of the net received signal power observed at the receiver,
and this variation in the received signal strength arising from the
multipath propagation phenomenon is termed multipath fading or
simply fading.

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Multipath Propagation
Signal reaches receiver through multiple paths due to:
Reflection (buildings, walls)
Diffraction (edges and corners)
Scattering (rough surfaces, small objects)
Mathematical representation:
N−1
X
h(t) = ak e jϕk δ(t − τk )
k=0

where:
ak : Amplitude of k th path
ϕk : Phase shift
τk : Time delay
Effects:
Constructive/Destructive interference
Time dispersion (delay spread)
Frequency-selective fading
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Figure: Path loss and shadowing effects

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Classification of Fading Phenomena

Fading Types

Large Scale Fading Small Scale Fading

Path Loss Shadowing

Multipath Fading

Fast Fading Slow Fading

Frequency
Flat Fading
Selective Fading

Figure: Hierarchical classification of fading types

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Modelling of Wireless Systems

Develop accurate analytical models to characterize them.

Analytical tools and techniques used extensively to model and assess
wireless systems

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let s(t) considering the transmitted passband wireless signal. which is
transmitted across a wireless channel. described analytically as
n o
s(t) = ℜ sb (t)e j2πfc t (1)

The quantity sb (t) is the complex baseband representation of the

transmitted signal, and fc is simply the carrier frequency employed for
transmission.
Let us consider a channel with L multipath components. Observe that
each path of the wireless channel basically has two characteristic
properties. Firstly, it delays the signal because of the propagation distance.
Secondly, there is an attenuation of the signal arising because of the
scattering effect. Let the signal attenuation and delay of the i th channel
be denoted by the quantities ai and τi , respectively. Linear Time-Invariant
(LTI) systems, impulse response of an LTI system which attenuates a
signal by ai and delays it by τi is given as

hi (τ ) = ai δ(τ − τi ) (2)

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Therefore, a typical Channel Impulse Response (CIR) of a
multipath-scattering based wireless channel is given by the sum of the
above impulse responses corresponding to the individual model,
L−1
X
h(τ ) = ai δ(τ − τi ) (3)
i=0

The above impulse response is also termed the tapped delay-line model
because of the nature of the arrival of several progressively delayed
components of the signal.
Since the wireless channel is a LTI system, the received signal y (t) can be
expressed as the convolution of the transmitted signal s(t) with the CIR
h(t). Therefore, the received wireless signal y (t) is given as
Z ∞
y (t) = s(t) ∗ h(t) = h(τ ) s(t − τ ) dτ (4)
−∞

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By inserting the expression for the tapped delay-line channel in Eq. (2)
into the above convolution, the expression for the received wireless signal
y (t) across this tapped delay-line channel can be derived as
L−1
X Z ∞ L−1
X
y (t) = ai δ(τ − τi ) s(t − τ ) dτ = ai s(t − τi ) (5)
i=0 −∞ i=0

Further, this expression for the received signal can be written in terms of
the transmitted baseband signal sb (t) by substituting the relation between
s(t) and sb (t) from Eq (1) into the above expression and simplifying it as

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 (L−1 )
X
j2πfc (t−τi )
y (t) = ℜ ai sb (t − τi ) e
i=0
(L−1 ) (6)
X
=ℜ ai e −j2πfc τi sb (t − τi ) e j2πfc t
i=0

It can be seen that yb (t), the complex baseband signal equivalent of the
received signal y (t).
L−1
X
yb (t) = ai e −j2πfc τi sb (t − τi ) (7)
i=0

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 L−1
X
yb (t) = ai e −j2πfc τi sb (t − τi ) (8)
i=0

The received baseband signal consists of multiple delayed copies sb (t − τi )

of the transmitted signal sb (t). Each such ith signal copy arising from the
ith multipath component is associated with the following three parameters:
1 The attenuation factor ai
2 The path delay τi
3 The phase factor e −j2πfc τi

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Figure: Multipath signal components at the receiver

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The different signal copies for a typical baseband BPSK information
signal sb (t). The quantity T denotes the symbol time, while Tm ,
which is the delay between the first and last arriving copies of the
signal, is termed the delay spread.

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Example

Consider a wireless signal with a carrier frequency of fc = 850 MHz, which

is transmitted over a wireless channel that results in L = 4 multipath
components at delays of 201, 513, 819, and 1223 ns, corresponding to
received signal amplitudes of 1, 0.6, 0.3, and 0.2 respectively. Derive the
expression for the received baseband signal yb (t) if the transmitted
baseband signal is sb (t).

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Solution:

Consider a wireless signal with a carrier frequency

fc = 850 MHz,

transmitted over a wireless channel with L = 4 multipath components:

τ = {201, 513, 819, 1223} ns, a = {1, 0.6, 0.3, 0.2}.

The received baseband signal is

3
X
ai e −j2πfc τi sb t − τi ,


yb (t) =
i=0

where sb (t) is the transmitted baseband signal.

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 6 ·201×10−9
a0 e −j2πfc τ0 = 1 × e −j2π·850×10

= 0.59 + j0.81
After computing ai e −j2πfc τi for each path:

yb (t) = (0.59 + j 0.81) sb (t − 201 ns)

+ (0.57 − j 0.19) sb (t − 513 ns)

+ (0.18 − j 0.24) sb (t − 819 ns)

+ (−0.19 + j 0.06) sb (t − 1223 ns)

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System Model for Narrowband Signals
For simplistic approximation a narrowband signal sb (t), the different
delayed components sb (t − τi ) are approximately equal to each other, i.e.,

sb (t − τi ) ≈ sb (t)

For a narrowband transmit signal sb (t), the expression for the received
baseband signal yb (t) is given by:
L−1
X
yb (t) = ai e −j2πfc τi sb (t) = h sb (t) (9)
i=0

L−1
X
h = ae jϕ
= ai e −j2πfc τi
i=0

is termed the complex fading channel coefficient. Hence, the output

baseband signal yb (t) is related to the input baseband signal sb (t) by a
complex attenuation factor ae jϕ is also called fading coefficient.
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With reference to the previous example for the wireless channel given,
derive the corresponding received signal with the narrowband assumption.
3
X
y (t) = ai e −j2πfc τi sb (t)
i=0
(10)
= (1.14 + j 0.44) sb (t)

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Rayleigh Fading Wireless Channel
The complex fading coefficient h can be expressed in terms of its real and
imaginary parts components as,
L−1
X
jϕ
h = ae = (xi + jyi ) = X + jY (11)
i=0

X and Y , the real and imaginary components of the fading coefficient

ae jϕ , are derived from the summation of a large number of random
multipath components xi , yi .
In a rich urban setting, the presence of a large number of scatterers
contributes to these multipath components.
Hence, it is reasonable to assume that X and Y are random in nature.
X , Y would be to assume that they are Gaussian and un-correlated
In simple terms ”states that a normalized random variable derived
from the sum of a large number of independent identically distributed
random components, converges to a Gaussian random variable.”
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Mean and Variance

Figure: Samples from Zero-Mean Normal Distributions with Different Variances

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The above assumption is valid as L → ∞, i.e., the number of multipath
components is fairly large. Hence, X , Y are distributed as

X , Y ∼ N 0, 21

(assuming zero-mean and variance 12 ).

Further, since X , Y are Gaussian in nature and uncorrelated, it directly
follows that they are independent. The joint distribution of X , Y is given
by the standard multivariate Gaussian as
1 −(x 2 +y 2 )
fX ,Y (x, y ) = e . (12)
π
Now derive the statistics of the fading coefficient ae jϕ in terms of its
amplitude and phase factors a, ϕ.
It can be seen through elementary trigonometric properties that

x = a cos ϕ, y = a sin ϕ.

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The joint distribution fA,Φ (a, ϕ) can be derived from fX ,Y (x, y ) using the
relation for multivariate PDF transformation as
1 −a2
fA,Φ (a, ϕ) = e JX ,Y ,
π
where we have used the property that x 2 + y 2 = a2 in the above
expression.
The quantity JX ,Y is termed the Jacobian of (X , Y ) and is given by the
expression
cos ϕ sin ϕ
JX ,Y = = a.
−a sin ϕ a cos ϕ

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note

In 2D, converting (x, y ) → (r , θ):

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
Jacobian determinant:

∂x ∂x
∂r ∂θ cos θ −r sin θ
J = ∂y ∂y = sin θ r cos θ
∂r ∂θ
= (r cos2 θ + r sin2 θ) = r

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Joint PDF of A, Φ

Where |A| denotes the determinant of the matrix A.

Substituting the Jacobian in the expression for the multivariate PDF
transformation above, the joint PDF with respect to the random variables
A, Φ can be derived as
a 2
fA,Φ (a, ϕ) = e −a . (13)
π

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Marginal Distributions

The marginal distributions fA (a) and fΦ (ϕ) can be derived from the joint
PDF:
Z π
2
fA (a) = fA,Φ (a, ϕ) dϕ = 2ae −a , 0 ≤ a < ∞ (14)
−π
Z ∞
1
fΦ (ϕ) = fA,Φ (a, ϕ) da = , −π < ϕ ≤ π (15)
0 2π
We have now derived one of the most popular and frequently employed
models for the wireless channel, termed a Rayleigh fading wireless
channel.
This nomenclature arises from the distribution fA of the amplitude factor
a, which is the well-known Rayleigh density :
2
fA (a) = 2ae −a , 0 ≤ a < ∞. (16)

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Rayleigh density for amplitude factor

Figure: Rayleigh density for amplitude factor a

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Observe that the average power in the amplitude a of the Rayleigh
fading channel coefficient h is given as

E[|h|2 ] = E[a2 ] = E[X 2 + Y 2 ] = 1

The term Rayleigh refers to the distribution of the amplitude factor.

The Rayleigh fading wireless channel characterizes both the amplitude
factor as a Rayleigh fading random variable and the phase factor as
uniformly distributed in (−π, π).
Finally, the joint distribution fA,Φ (a, ϕ) is related to the marginals
fA (a), fΦ (ϕ) as:
fA,Φ (a, ϕ) = fA (a)fΦ (ϕ)
essentially implying that the random variables A and Φ are
independent.
it suggests that the random varying nature of the phase factor of the
arriving signal is independent of that of the amplitude, i.e., for a given
amplitude a,
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Scatter plot of the Rayleigh fading channel coefficient h

Figure: Scatter plot of the Rayleigh fading channel coefficient

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EXAMPLE 3.3
EXAMPLE 3.4

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Basics of Wireless Channel Modelling

Figure: Schematic of an L = 4 tap wireless channel profile

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the impulse response of the standard multipath wireless channel can be
modeled as,
L−1
X
h(t) = ai δ(t − τi ) (17)
i=0

The multipath power profile of the multipath channel can be expressed as

L−1
X L−1
X
ϕ(t) = |ai |2 δ(t − τi ) = gi δ(t − τi ) (18)
i=0 i=0

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delay spread
The total power received in a multipath wireless channel occurs over a
spread of time referred to as the delay spread.

Figure: typical wireless channel power profile and delay spread

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Maximum Delay Spread στmax

The time interval between the arrival of the first and last signal copies at
the receiver is called Maximum Delay Spread .

στmax = τL−1 − τ0 (19)

Example :Consider an L = 4 multipath channel with the delays τ0 , τL−1

corresponding to the first and last arriving paths, given as τ0 = 0 µs and
τL−1 = 5 µs. Such a wireless-channel power profile, What is the maximum
delay spread στmax corresponding to this wireless channel?
Solution:

[στmax = τL−1 − τ0 = 5 µs − 0 µs = 5 µs

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RMS Delay Spread στRMS
In wireless channels, later arriving paths usually have much lower power
due to longer propagation distances and weaker reflections. This can lead
to a large maximum delay spread στmax , even though the later paths carry
negligible power. Hence, στmax is not always a reliable measure of the true
power spread, as it does not weight delays according to the signal power of
the multipath components.

Figure: Power profile with weak trailing paths of very low power

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Consider an L-path power profile , with gi = |ai |2 for 0 ≤ i ≤ L − 1. Define
gi
bi = PL−1 ,
j=0 gj

where
PL−1 bi is the power fraction of the i-th path. Clearly, bi > 0 and
i=0 bi = 1. Hence, the average delay τ̄ is the mean of this power
distribution.
τ̄ = b0 τ0 + b1 τ1 + · · · + bL−1 τL−1
PL−1
gi τi
τ̄ = Pi=0
L−1
(20)
j=0 gj
v
u PL−1
gi τi2
− (τ̄ )2
u
στRMS = t Pi=0L−1
(21)
g
j=0 j

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RMS delay spread can be computed as the standard deviation of the power
distribution,

 2 L−1
X
στRMS 2 2
= b0 (τ0 −τ̄ ) +b1 (τ1 −τ̄ ) +· · ·+bL−1 (τL−1 −τ̄ ) = 2
bi (τi −τ̄ )2
i=0
(22)
sP sP
L−1 L−1
i=0 gi (τi − τ̄ )2 2
i=0 |ai | (τi − τ̄ )2
στRMS = PL−1 = PL−1 (23)
2
i=0 gi i=0 |ai |

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Example: Consider a wireless channel with a multipath power profile
comprising L = 4 components. Compute the RMS delay spread στRMS for
this channel.

Figure: Power profile

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Solution: For the first path τ0 = 0 µs, power is g (dB) = −20 dB. Thus,
√
10 log10 g0 = −20 ⇒ g0 = 10−2 = 0.01, a0 = g0 = 0.1

Similarly, gi and ai for 0 ≤ i ≤ 3 are computed and listed in Table.

Table: Multipath Components: Delay, Gain, Power, and Amplitude

√
τ Gain (dB) g a= g
0 µs −20 dB 0.01 0.1
1 µs −10 dB 0.1 0.3162
3 µs 0 dB 1 1
5 µs −10 dB 0.1 0.3162

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Now compute the mean delay τ̄ for this channel as
PL−1
gi τi 0.01 × 0 + 0.1 × 1 + 1 × 3 + 0.1 × 5
τ̄ = Pi=0L−1
= µs = 2.9752 µs
i=0 gi
0.01 + 0.1 + 1 + 0.1
(24)
Now compute the RMS delay spread στRMS as Now compute the RMS
delay spread στRMS as
s
RMS 0.01 × (0 − 2.9752)2 + 0.1 × (1 − 2.9752)2 + 1 × (3 − 2.9752)2 + 0.1 × (5 − 2.9752)2
στ = = 0.8573 µs (25)
0.01 + 0.1 + 1 + 0.1

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RMS Delay Based on Average Power Profile

Consider the instantaneous power |h(τ )|2 corresponding to the delay τ .

The average power associated with this delay can be defined as

ϕ(τ ) = E |h(τ )|2

 
(26)

The quantity ϕ(τ ) represents the average power associated with the delay
τ over different instants of time.
The fractional power associated with the delay τ is defined as

ϕ(τ )
f (τ ) = R ∞ (27)
0 ϕ(τ ) dτ

where f (τ ) denotes the power distribution density for delay τ , i.e.,

f (τ ) ∆τ represents the fraction of power in a delay interval ∆τ around τ .
The average delay τ̄ can therefore be defined as

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The mean delay τ̄ is defined as
∞
R∞
τ ϕ(τ ) dτ
Z
τ̄ = τ f (τ ) dτ = R0 ∞ (28)
0 0 ϕ(τ ) dτ

The RMS delay spread for the above power profile ϕ(τ ) is defined as
sZ sR
∞ ∞
RMS 2 0 (τ − τ̄ )2 ϕ(τ ) dτ
στ = (τ − τ̄ ) f (τ ) dτ = R∞ (29)
0 0 ϕ(τ ) dτ

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Consider the average power profile

ϕ(τ ) = αe −τ /β ,

where α = 3 dB and β = 1 µs. Compute the RMS delay spread στRMS for
this profile, which is schematically shown in Figure

Figure: Power profile

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Solution: Given α(dB) = 3 dB, we have α = 2. Thus,

ϕ(τ ) = 2e −τ /β .

Normalization factor:
Z ∞ Z ∞
ϕ(τ ) dτ = 2e −τ /β dτ = 2β.
0 0

Hence, the fractional power profile is

ϕ(τ ) 1
f (τ ) = R ∞ = e −τ /β .
0 ϕ(τ ) dτ β

The average delay is

Z ∞ Z ∞
τ −τ /β
τ̄ = τ f (τ ) dτ = e dτ = β = 1 µs.
0 0 β

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By integration by parts, the mean delay is

τ̄ = β = 1 µs.

To compute the RMS delay spread, we first evaluate

Z ∞ Z ∞ 2
τ −τ /β
E [τ 2 ] = τ 2 f (τ ) dτ = e dτ = 2β 2 .
0 0 β

Thus, q p
στRMS = E [τ 2 ] − (τ̄ )2 = 2β 2 − β 2 = β = 1 µs.
Therefore, the RMS delay spread is

στRMS = 1 µs.

The RMS delay spread for the above average power profile αe −τ /β can be
computed as
στRMS = 1 µs.

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Average Delay Spread in Outdoor Cellular Channels
In an outdoor cellular wireless scenario, typical cell radii range from 1–5
km. Consider two paths with direct and scatter distances d0 = 2 km and
d1 = 3 km. The propagation delays are
2 km 3 km
τ0 = , τ1 = ,
c c
where c = 3 × 108 m/s. Thus, the maximum delay spread is
στmax = ∆τ = τ1 − τ0 .

Figure: delay spread in outdoor cellular channels

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 ∆d 3000 − 2000
∆τ = = = 3.33 µs.
c 3 × 108
This shows that outdoor cellular delay spreads are typically of the order of
1–3 µs, while indoor scenarios (distances ∼ 10 m) yield delay spreads of
10–50 ns. These are approximate values useful for practical 3G/4G system
design.

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Coherence Bandwidth in Wireless Communications
The coherence bandwidth Bc relates to the delay spread στ . For στ = 0, the delay profile is

h(τ ) = δ(τ ),

and the channel frequency response is Z ∞

−j2πf τ
H(f ) = δ(τ )e dτ = 1.
0

Hence, |H(f )| = 1, i.e., a flat response of infinite bandwidth.

The frequency response is constant, H(f ) = 1, and |H(f )| = 1. This represents a flat frequency response of infinite
bandwidth.
As the delay spread στ increases, the time spread of the response increases, leading to a decrease in the bandwidth of
H(f ).
For infinite time spread, the channel filter becomes δ(f ) with zero bandwidth.
The coherence bandwidth Bc is defined as the frequency range over which H(f ) is flat.
Its significance can be understood from
Y (f ) = H(f )X (f ),

where X (f ) and Y (f ) are the Fourier transforms of the transmitted signal x(t) and received signal y (t), respectively.

Figure: Linear input-output system model for the wireless channel

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Figure: Coherence bandwidth Bc variation with delay spread στ

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Coherence Bandwidth

The coherence bandwidth Bc is defined as the bandwidth of the frequency

response H(f ), i.e., the frequency range over which H(f ) is flat, as shown
in Figure.

Figure: Coherence bandwidth of wireless-channel response

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Relation between Bs and Bc

Figure: Bs > Bc leading to distortion

in received signal spectrum
Figure: Bs < Bc implying no
distortion
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Flat vs Frequency-Selective Fading

If the signal bandwidth Bs is less than the coherence bandwidth Bc , then

X (f ) spans the flat part of H(f ):

Y (f ) = H(f )X (f ) =⇒ Undistorted (Flat Fading)

If Bs > Bc , different parts of X (f ) undergo different attenuations:

Y (f ) ̸= scaled X (f ) =⇒ Distorted (Frequency-Selective Fading)

(
Bs ≤ Bc ⇒ Flat Fading (No distortion)
Bs > Bc ⇒ Frequency-Selective Fading (Distortion)

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Analogy for Flat vs. Frequency-Selective Fading

Analogy with a Music Equalizer (Bass/Treble Controls)

Imagine you are listening to music. The song contains:
Low frequencies (bass)
Mid frequencies (vocals)
High frequencies (treble)
Now suppose the speaker is of poor quality:
If the speaker boosts or reduces all frequencies equally, the song just
becomes louder or softer — no distortion (this is like flat fading,
Bs ≤ Bc ).
If the speaker affects different frequencies differently (e.g., bass is
weak, treble is strong), the song sounds distorted because the balance
of frequencies changes — this is like frequency-selective fading,
Bs > Bc .

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Derive an empirical relationship between the delay spread and coherence bandwidth of a typical wireless channel.
Consider a wireless delay profile
L−1
X
h(τ ) = al δ(τ − τl ).
l=0

The response H(f ) of this channel is given as

Z ∞
−j2πf τ
H(f ) = h(τ )e dτ
0
Z ∞ L−1
−j2πf τ
X
= al δ(τ − τl )e dτ
0 l=0
L−1
XZ ∞ −j2πf τ
= al δ(τ − τl )e dτ
l=0 0

L−1
−j2πf τl
X
= al e .
l=0

Thus, the frequency response of the channel is given as the sum of L harmonics, with the l th component changing at the rate τl .
Consider now the highest frequency harmonic corresponding to

−j2πf τL−1
aL−1 e ,

i.e., with phase varying at the rate τL−1 . Its values at frequencies f = 0 and f = 4τ 1 are given as
L−1
−j2πf τL−1 0
f =0 ⇒ aL−1 e = aL−1 e = aL−1 ,

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−j2π 1 τL−1
1 4τL−1 −jπ/2
f = ⇒ aL−1 e = aL−1 e = −j aL−1 .
4τL−1

Thus, as f changes from 0 to 4τ 1 , the phase changes significantly. This leads to a significant change in the response H(f )
L−1
between these two frequencies. Hence, 4τ 1 is a point of significant change in the frequency response.
L−1

Therefore, the bandwidth of the response H(f ) is approximately

1
fc = .
4τL−1

The coherence bandwidth of the filter H(f ) is approximately

1
Bc ≈ 2 × fc = .
2τL−1

max
Finally, observe that τL−1 is the maximum delay spread στ of the channel. Thus, the coherence bandwidth Bc can be related
to the delay spread στ as
1
Bc ≈
στ

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 Figure: Coherence bandwidth showing point of change of response

The approximate coherence bandwidth corresponding to outdoor channels

with a delay spread of 2 µs can be derived as
1
Bc = = 250 kHz (4.10)
2 × 10−6
Thus, the typical coherence bandwidth of outdoor cellular wireless
channels is
Bc = 250 kHz.
This is useful for characterizing and understanding the behaviour of typical
3G/4G wireless cellular channels.
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Inter-Symbol Interference and Coherence Bandwidth

Consider a PAM signal x(t) with symbol time Ts transmitted over a

wireless channel.
Assume a direct path with delay τ0 = 0 and a scatter component at
τ1 = Td .
The received signal is the sum of these components.
If the delay spread στ = τ1 − τ0 is comparable to Ts , symbols overlap:

s0 from x(t) adds to a previous symbol s−1 from x(t − τ0 )

As the number of interfering paths increases, the severity of ISI

increases.

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Relation Between ISI and Coherence Bandwidth

Figure: Relation
between ISI and delay Figure: Severe ISI Figure: Negligible ISI
spread caused by multiple when στ << Ts
scatter components

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Criterion for ISI

ISI occurs when

1
Td ≥ Ts
2
Symbol time and signal bandwidth are related as Ts = B1s , while delay
spread and coherence bandwidth are related as Bc = 2T1 d . Thus, the ISI
condition can be written in terms of bandwidths:

Bs ≥ Bc

Time and Frequency Domain Interpretation

Time domain: large delay spread =⇒ inter-symbol interference.
Frequency domain: signal bandwidth Bs larger than coherence
bandwidth Bc =⇒ frequency-selective distortion.
Both phenomena are two perspectives of the same channel effect.

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Equalization

To correct ISI, multiply by the inverse of the channel response:

1
Equalized signal = · received signal
H(f )

This converts the frequency-selective channel into a flat-fading system,

equalizing all frequency components. Understanding ISI and coherence
bandwidth is crucial for broadband communication:
Ensures proper signal design for 2G/3G/4G systems.
Guides equalization and other mitigation techniques.

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Doppler Fading in Wireless Systems

Figure: Doppler fading due to user mobility

Wireless channels exhibit Doppler fading due to relative motion between transmitter and receiver.
The Doppler shift is the perceived change in frequency of an electromagnetic wave caused by this relative motion.
If the transmitter moves towards the receiver, the perceived frequency is higher; if moving away, it is lower.
Doppler fading is inherent to wireless systems because mobile transceivers enable mobility.
This contrasts with wired communications, where the fixed medium prevents mobility, and Doppler effects are negligible.

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Doppler Shift Computation

Figure: Doppler scenario

Consider a mobile moving with velocity v at an angle θ relative to the line joining the mobile and base station.
Let the carrier frequency be fc . The Doppler shift is given by:

v
fd = cos θ fc
c

where c = 3 × 108 m/s is the speed of light.

The Doppler shift increases with velocity v .

It depends on the angle θ:

Maximum when θ = 0 or π (motion along the line joining transmitter and receiver).
Zero when θ = π/2 (motion perpendicular to the line of sight).
The Doppler shift is positive for 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2 (higher perceived frequency) and negative for π/2 ≤ θ ≤ π (lower
perceived frequency).

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A vehicle moves at 60 mph at an angle θ = 30◦ with the line joining the
base station. The carrier frequency is fc = 1850 MHz.
Solution: Convert velocity to m/s:

1000
v = 60 × 1.61 × ≈ 26.8 m/s
3600
Doppler shift is
v 26.8
fd = cos θ fc = cos 30◦ × 1850 × 106 ≈ 143 Hz
c 3 × 108
Since the vehicle moves towards the base station, the perceived frequency
is
fr = fc + fd ≈ 1850 MHz + 143 Hz.

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Doppler Impact on a Wireless Channel

Consider the ith component of a multipath channel: ai δ(t − τi ).

A mobile moves with velocity v at an angle θ relative to the line joining the mobile and base station.
Due to motion, the distance to the base station changes, causing the propagation delay to vary:

v cos θ
τi (t) = τi − t
c

The flat-fading channel coefficient is

L−1
−j2πfc τi
X
h= ai e .
i=0

Accounting for mobility, the time-varying channel coefficient becomes

L−1
X −j2πfc τi j2πfd t fc v cos θ
h(t) = ai e e , fd = .
i=0
c

Here, e j2πfd t represents the time-varying phase of the channel; fd is the Doppler frequency.
Mobility leads to a time-selective channel; the channel varies over time.
Channels can be both time- and frequency-selective, termed doubly selective channels.

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Coherence Time of the Wireless Channel

Consider the ith multipath component of a time-varying channel:

−j2πfc τi j2πfd t
ai (t) = ai e e .

 
At t = 0: ai (0) = ai e −j2πfc τi , at t = 1/(4fd ): ai 1
4fd
= jai e −j2πfc τi .

The channel changes significantly over t = 1/(4fd ) due to a phase change of π/2.
This time duration is called the coherence time Tc :

1 v
Tc ≈ , fd = fc .
4fd c

A conservative estimate of Tc uses fmax = vfc /c corresponding to θ = π/2.

Coherence time indicates the approximate duration for which the channel can be assumed constant.
It can also be expressed in terms of Doppler spread Bd = 2fd as:

1
Tc ≈ .
2Bd

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Problem: A mobile user is moving in a vehicle at 60 mph. Compute the
coherence time Tc at the carrier frequency fc = 1.85 GHz.
Solution:
1 Convert velocity to m/s: v ≈ 26.8 m/s.
2 Compute maximum Doppler shift (θ = 0◦ ):

v 26.8
fmax = fc = × 1.85 × 109 ≈ 165 Hz
c 3 × 108
3 Doppler spread:
Bd = 2fmax = 330 Hz
4 Coherence time:
1 1
Tc ≈ = ≈ 1.5 ms
2Bd 2 × 330
5 Interpretation: For vehicular speeds around 60 mph and 2 GHz carrier,
the coherence time is on the order of milliseconds. A larger Doppler
spread corresponds to a smaller Tc , i.e., faster channel variation.
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