Paleontology

03 October 2023 19:34

Mega fossils Definition: Microfossils are tiny fossilized remains

Modes of 1. Unaltered soft parts or exceptional preservation of organisms, typically less than 1 millimeter in size.
preservation of i. In very rare and ideal situations, the whole of the organism including its soft and hard Examples: They often include microscopic
fossils parts may be found to have been preserved. organisms like foraminifera, diatoms, pollen grains,
(Processes of ii. several ways such as fossils preserved in amber, tar or ice.
and small invertebrates such as ostracods and
fossilization) iii. The Vastan lignite mine in Surat District of Gujarat yields fossiliferous amber
with well preserved insects
juvenile stages of larger animals.
iv. Sudden burial of the ecosystems by volcanic ash and sand storms also leads to
excellent preservation of fossils. e.g.-Cretaceous biota of China and Mongolia

2. Unaltered Hard Parts Preservation

COMPOSITION
less stable organic material (soft parts) is removed from their bodies during the process
of fossilisation. Microfossils can be made up of a variety of
materials, including minerals and organic matter,
and are classified based on their composition:
3. Altered Hard Parts Preservation Calcareous: Made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
i. Permineralisation or Petrifaction: organic material is partially or completely replaced by examples include coccoliths, foraminifera, and
the inorganic matter in the water consisting of silica, calcite or pyrite. ostracods
slow process in which replacement occurs molecule by molecule. Phosphatic: Examples include conodonts, shark
e.g.- petrified wood of trees and bones of dinosaurs or tusks of elephants
teeth and spines, and other fish remains
ii. Replacement- underground water slowly fills the pores of organic material and
Siliceous: Examples include diatoms, radiolarians,
completely dissolves the hard parts of the organisms trapped in sediments. and sponge spicules
Organic: Examples include pollen, spores, and
iii. Carbonisation: soft-bodied animals as well as the stems and leaves of plants buried fungal remains
under the sediments are decomposed or pressed and thus losing hydrogen, nitrogen, Chitin
oxygen and other volatile constituents. As a result, a thin carbon film is left behind. Microfossils from certain invertebrates, like
most of the carbonised fossils are in the coal mines. crustaceans and some fungi, may be composed of
chitin, a strong, flexible polysaccharide.
iv. Molds and Casts: involves the natural duplication of the original organisms.
water running through the sediment may dissolve the shell completely, leaving behind an
impression or a void of the shell. Such an impression is known as mold. If the void is filled
with grains of sand or clay, it hardens and produces a replica of the original shell shape, Microfossils can also be classified based on the
which is known as cast composition of their mineral walls, which can be
primary or secondary. Primary mineral walls are
v. Tracks and Trails: While moving on the soft ground such as mud and sand, the organisms produced by the organism itself, while secondary
may leave behind impressions of their movements. These types of fossil impressions are mineral walls replace the original organic or
also described as trace fossils. mineral walls
e.g.- foot prints, burrows

Biostratigraphy
Purpose: Microfossils are used to date and
Different Kinds 1. Mineral-walled microfossils correlate rock layers (strata) based on the
of Micro fossils i. Foraminifers presence of specific fossil types.
ii. Radiolarians Application: They help geologists establish the
iii. Diatoms
relative ages of sediments and create detailed
2. Non-mineral (organic)-walled microfossils geological maps, facilitating the identification of
i. Acritarchs oil and gas reservoirs.
ii. Dinoflagellates
iii. Pollen and spores Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction
Application of 1. Co-relation- covered in stratigraphy Definition: Analysis of microfossils to infer past
Micro- fossils environmental conditions.
2. Petroleum Exploration Purpose: Understand factors like water temperature,
i. Microfossils have many applications to petroleum geology. The two most common uses salinity, and nutrient levels.
are: biostratigraphy and paleoenvironmental analyses Application: Microfossil assemblages indicate whether
ii. Biostratigraphy - differentiation of rock units based upon the fossils which they contain. environments were freshwater or marine.
iii. Paleoenvironmental analysis -interpretation of the depositional environment in which
Objectives of Paleoceanography
the rock unit formed, based upon the fossils found within the unit
iv. Recognition of unconformity in the subsurface is also being done by biostratigraphic
Understand Ocean Circulation: Investigate past ocean
methods
currents and their roles in climate regulation.
v. Also helpful in analysing the sequence of fossils- Reconstruct Past Climates: Analyze how ocean conditions
vi. Suitability of basin for petroleum exploration requires understanding of sediment affected global climate and contributed to events like ice
information and information of habitat. Hence micro fossils play an important role ages.
vii. Additional information about depth, temperature, biogeography etc Study Biogeochemical Cycles: Examine the interactions
viii. e.g.- Pollen assemblage study in Niger Delta for oil exploration; presence of coal based on between oceanic processes and carbon, nitrogen, and
Carbonized fossils other cycles.
Investigate Marine Ecosystems: Understand changes in
marine biodiversity and how ecosystems responded to
3. Paleoclimatic environmental shifts.
4. Paleo-oceanographic studies
Cephalopoda
V.imp • Marine animals; highly organized than other molluscs
• highly developed nervous and visual systems.
• 3 subclasses- Nautiloidea, Ammonoidea (both commonly found as fossils) and Coleoidea
(comprises primarily soft bodied animals) like cuttle-fishes and octopuses, etc
Except coleoids, all other characterised by presence of external shell which is tabular in form. They have internal or no shell at
all. which is made up of 3 parts known as guard or rostrum; phragmocone and pro-ostracum.
Known since beginning of Mesozoic era
1. Morphology: of Nautiloids
i. first appeared in the late Cambrian; considered as the probable ancestral stock from
which all other cephalopods have evolved.
ii. four gills by analogy; range in size from a few centimeters to several meters in
length

Geology 1 Page 1
 length
iii. are characterised by the presence of a chambered external shell and made up of
aragonite, which is a mineral of calcium carbonate.
iv. The shell is tabular in form and may be straight, curved or spirally coiled. It is a
hollow cone with two main parts – body or living chamber and phragmocone
v. Shell consists of a tube, which is open at the larger end (called Aperture)
and closed at the smaller end (called Apex)
vi. The aperture has a small notch cut on its ventral margin, which
provides greater flexibility of movement to hyponome, which is known as
hyponomic sinus
vii. the shell is divided into a number of chambers or camerae by transverse partitions
known as septa
viii. The chambered portion (except last chamber) of the shell is known as
phragmocone. The last chamber, which is the largest and occupied by the animal, is
termed as living or body chamber.
ix. A thin calcareous tube which runs through the centre of each septum and connects
all chambers is known as siphuncle It encloses siphon. Made up of septal necks and connecting rings.
The line where each septum joins the external surface of the shell is termed as
suture line
x. Nautiloids generally have additional skeletal material
on the bottom of chambers called cameral deposits. These deposits help the
animal to keep itself perfectly oriented in marine waters.

2. Geological history of Nautiloids

i. subclass Nautiloidea comprises about 300 genera and 2500 species, all of which are
extinct and the subclass is now represented by a single genus Nautilus
ii. They first appeared in the fossil record during the late Cambrian having a simple
curved shell. - Orthoceras, Cyrtoceras
iii. They rapidly diversified during the Ordovician and most of the groups arose during
this time. Piloceras, Endocerans
iv. Ordovician nautiloids are marked by the presence of straight or curved shells, which
are much larger than the Cambrian nautiloids.
v. the order Nautilida, in which the living genus Nautilus falls, appeared in late Silurian
or early Devonian times.
vi. Nautiloids began to decline during the late Palaeozoic
vii. The competition of nautiloids with their close relatives, like ammonoids and
coleoids, is considered as one of the reasons behind their late Palaeozoic decline.
Most of the Palaeozoic nautiloids became extinct by the end of Permian

3. Morphology of Ammonoids
i. Largest sub-class of Cephalopods
ii. lived in all the oceans of the world from early Devonian to late Cretaceous.
iii. ammonoids can easily be differentiated from nautiloids on the basis of location of
siphuncle, suture patterns and nature of septal necks.
iv. The ammonoid shells are either tightly coiled on a single plane (i.e., planisprial)
called as homomorph ammonoids; or open helical and irregular coiled as well as
straight, called as heteromorph ammonoids
v. had an external chambered shell, which is divisible into three parts, namely,
a) protoconch, b) phragmocone and c) body or living chamber.
vi. The earliest or the first formed chamber, located usually in the centre of the
shell, is termed protoconch
vii. Phragmocone- chambered portion of shell
viii. Body or living chamber- last chamber, which is occupied by animal
ix. Aperture- opening present on body chamber
x. Umbillicus- hollow cone shaped space enclosed on both sides by the last whorl
xi. Each chamber is marked by the successive occupation by the animal and separated
by a septum
xii. A thin calcareous tube running through the ventral margin of septum and connects
all chambers is known as siphuncle
xiii. Septal necks are short funnel-like structures developed around the opening in each
septum
xiv. The line where a septum joins the external surface of the shell is termed as
suture line
xv. The suture pattern is very complex in ammonoids- used as characteristic feature to
differentiate from Nautiloids( have simple suture, without ridges and grooves)
Ammonoid suture-
Ridges pointing upwards- Saddles (convex towards aperture)
Grooves pointing downwards- Lobes (concave towards aperture)
3 imp types of suture-
• Goniatitic suture line- rounded saddles and angular or sharp lobes.
Commonly found in ammonoids of Devonian to Permian age
• Ceratitic suture line- smooth rounded saddles and finely divided to undivided
lobes. Found in ammonoids of triassic age
• Ammonitic suture line- complex and finely subdivided saddles and lobes. Nautloid
Ammonoids of Jurassic and Cretaceous period
xvi. Some shells have single horny plate- is known as anaptychus; and some have
two equal sized calcareous plates- termed as aptychus.

4. Geological history of Ammonoids

i. the first ammonoids evolved during the early Devonian.
ii. During the early Devonian, ammonoids with goniatitic suture appeared and
underwent rapid diversification in the Devonian and Carboniferous
They became nearly extinct at the end of the Permian.
iii. In the Carboniferous, the ammonoids with ceratitic suture appeared and they
became common in Permian. They diversified during the Triassic and reached their
peak during the late Triassic.
Abundance during Abundance during
Paleozoic era and at Upper-Palaeozoic and
present represent only Mesozoic era and
Geology 1 Page 2 one genud, Nautilus become totally extinct
 peak during the late Triassic.
iv. Ammonoids with ammonite suture appeared at the close of Permian or at the
start of Triassic. They were well-established in the Jurassic and Cretaceous
periods. At the end of Cretaceous all ammonoids became extinct along with
the dinosaurs
v. During the Mesozoic, ammonoids developed a variety of shell shapes known
as heteromorph ammonoids.
Conical shell Orthoceracone Bactriticone

5. Stratigraphic utility of Ammonoidae-

i. Ammonoids were very common in the oceans of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. Their
fossil record shows their global distribution. They had a short geological range (i.e.
Devonian to Cretaceous) and rapid rate of evolution. Therefore, they are considered
as excellent index fossils.
ii. Based on Suture-
• Goniatitic suture line- Commonly found in ammonoids of Devonian to
Permian age 1. Cephalopoda are anatomically more advanced than lamellibranchs
• Ceratitic suture line- Found in ammonoids of triassic age and gastropods.
• Ammonitic suture line- Ammonoids of Jurassic and Cretaceous period
iii. Well preserved and widely distributed
iv. During the Mesozoic, ammonoids developed a variety of shell shapes known
as heteromorph ammonoids. Some shapes include uncoiled, partly uncoiled,
U-bends and connected U-bends

6. Functional adaptations in Ammonoids

i. It is believed that the complex sutures were adaptations developed in response to
shell geometry and to adjust the ambient hydrostatic pressure. The complex sutures
also strengthen the shells of ammonoids and provide them efficient buoyancy
control.
ii. planispiral coiling in ammonoids helped them to move through the water
quickly.
iii. Many studies have proposed that the complex ornamentation on ammonoid shells
were developed as a defense mechanism against the predators.

Trilobita 1. Morphology:
i. Trilobites are an extinct group that belongs to marine Palaeozoic arthropods.
ii. exo-skeleton of trilobites has numerous segments and paired appendages
Rigid skeleton. therefore difficult iii. Trilobites had a hard external skeleton composed of organic material chitin which further
growth. strengthened with crystals of calcite
Therefore Ecdysis; they shed iv. It may be noted that the dorsal side (also known as dorsal shield) of a trilobite is the only
old skin part of its exo-skeleton which is commonly preserved as fossils
v. The exo-skeleton of trilobites is divisible into three parts both longitudinally and
transversely
Suture is the line
where exoskeleton vi. In longitudinal position or along the body, the skeleton is divided into one axial lobe
splits during molting (Centrally situated) and two pleural or lateral lobes (left and right)
vii. It is also divided transversely or across the body into following three parts- Cephalon or
head shield; Thorax and Pygidium or tail
viii. cephalon and pygidium have fused segments. On the other hand Thorax has numerous
unfused segments which are attached to each other
ix. Cephalon- due to wide geographical distribution with limited range of
Facial Suture is the line The raised axial (central) area of cephalon is called glabella, whereas the portion of geological time- index fossils; ultimate extinction might be due to
along skeleton is cracked to cephalon that surrounds glabella comprises cheeks rapid evolution of large cephalopods.
allow ecdysis The angle formed by meeting the lateral and posterior margins of cephalon is
Fixed cheek- stays attach to known as genal angle
glabella x. Thorax
made up of a series of nearly identical segments, which are usually two to forty two
in number and not fused together
If the end is rounded then it gives rise to an angle known as pleural angle; on the
other, if it is produced then it is termed as pleural spine
xi. In some forms, the posterior end of pygidium has an extension of an axial spine, which is
termed as telson

3 types of facial sutures-

1. Proparian- suture runs in front of genal angle
2. Opisthoparian - suture runs behind the genal angle; suture runs from middle part gradual extinction
of cephalon and reaches the edge behind the genal angle
3. Gonatoparian - facial suture intersects exactly at genal angle attained
elmination

Evolution of Glabella- Olenellus,

1. Primitive forms- glabella was typically narrow and elongated, reflecting simple ancestral structure. Holmia,
2. Variation in shape and size- beginning of wider glabella. Mesonacis,etc
3. Reduction in lateral species- in some advanced trilobite, it become less prominent
4. Segmental marking- in certain species it shows furrows or lobes hat align with internal segmentation

Brachiopoda 1. Morphology
i. Brachiopoda is a major fossil group of animals.
ii. They are entirely marine animals with bilateral symmetry
iii. Filter feeders- Presence of a soft coiled ciliated feeding and respiratory organ known as
lophophore, which is present within a two-valved shell.
iv. The two valves vary in size and morphology and are joined together in two different ways
either by hinge (teeth and sockets) (Atriculata Brachiopods) or by muscles( Inarticulata
brachiopods) Artemata; Neotremota-
Palaotremata Protremata andTelotremata lingula, Crania
NO HINGE
Geology 1 Page 3
 brachiopods)
v. In typical brachiopods, each valve is bilaterally symmetrical and one valve is always larger
than the other.
vi. The larger valve- pedicle or ventral valve.
It contains an opening known as pedicle opening or foramen at the beak where a fleshy
or muscular stalk called the pedicle emerges and attaches the animal to the
ocean floor or to another animal.
vii. The smaller- brachial or dorsal valve.
It contains the lophophore (a food gathering organ) along with its supports.
viii. Each valve has a pointed end which is known as beak and it marks the
beginning of shell growth.
ix. Shell growth mostly occurs in the forms of concentric lines, radial ribs or corrugations on
the exterior surface of the valves. Shells are made up of mineral calcite
x. The arched part of the valve near the beak is called umbo and it is more pronounced on
the pedicle valve.
xi. Commissure is the line where the two valves meet
xii. muscle scars or markings- places of attachment of muscles inside the valves, which are
used to open or close the valves
xiii. Teeth are knob-like projections that are present on the posterior end of the pedicle valve
and fit into the small depressions known as sockets of the brachial valve.
xiv. The flat or curved surface between the beak and hinge line is called the interarea, which
may be present on both the valves. (the pedical interarea and brachial interarea)
Shells made up of Calcareous and Chitinous material.

2. Geological distribution:
i. very long geological history because they first appeared near the beginning of the
Cambrian period and some of the forms are still alive today on the floor of the modern
oceans
ii. Most of the Cambrian brachiopods were considered to be inarticulates, but
few forms of primitive articulate brachiopods were also present
iii. They diversified in the Ordovician and reached the peak of their diversity during the
Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian.
iv. They remained a dominant community in the marine ecosystem throughout the
Palaeozoic era. At the end of Palaeozoic, many brachiopod families became extinct, and
only a very few of them made the transition to the post-Palaeozoic
v. Only a few orders of brachiopods such as Lingulida, Discinida, Craniida, Rhynchonellida,
Thecideida and Terebratulida have living representatives today.
vi. Because of their great diversity, they have been used as index fossils for dating the
Palaeozoic rocks.
vii. Geological range of some orders of Brachiopods-
Lingulida- Cambrian to recent
Productida- Ordovician to Triassic
Orthida- Cambrian to Permian

Echinoids 1. Morphology Always possess compact and rigid, more or less globular test made up of number of plates
i. Marine animals that belong to class Echinoidae. They include sea urchins, heart urchins
and sand dollars.
x. ambulacral plates ii. The soft parts of the animal are enclosed inside a rigid calcareous skeleton, known as
form ambulacral area Test
which are described as iii. The tests of most of the echinoids are hemispherical in shape and covered with spines.
petaloid. These areas iv. A typical test has two poles, namely, oral (lower side of test, normally flattened) and oral or ventral
can be simple, petaloid aboral( upper side, usually convex)
or sub petaloid v. The mouth of the animal is situated at the oral pole and anus at the aboral pole.
side
xi. Peristome made of vi. A test consists of many interlocking calcitic plates. The plates surrounding the mouth are
plates which may occur
individually or in form of collectively described as peristome, whereas those encircling the anus are termed as
rows. In some periproct.
echinoids, very small vii. A Test of an echinoid is divided in 3 parts- Apical system or Disc; Corona; Peristome
tubercles occur in form viii. Apical system-
of band known as small area lying at the apex or summit of the aboral surface 10 plates- 5 ocular and 5
fascioles. It may be It is composed of ten plates which form a ring around the periproct. genital plates
peripetalous(encircling Out of 10, 5 are genital plates( larger; hexagonal outline; inner part
petalod ambulacral
areas) or sub-
ix. Perisopeningtome 10 pair of
anal(large ring below It lies on the oral side of the test. coloumns- 5
anal) Peristome is an in the test associated with the mouth and is circular to polygonal in ocular plates-
ambulacral Gential
xii. Some tubercles outline
plates; other directly
have spine attacjed to
5 genitals- connecte
them occular
Essentially marine animals; live in all kinds of sea bottoms interambulacr d
2. Geological Range
al plates
i. The earliest echinoids are known from the Ordovician. Eg- Bothriocidaris-Russia(Middle-Ordovician rocks)
ii. They diversified during the Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and Permian periods of the
Palaeozoic era Me
dro
iii. majority of the Palaeozoic echinoids belong to the order Regularia.
pori
iv. During the Carboniferous, they suffered considerable loss in their diversity Apical system c
v. In Mesozoic, echinoids underwent a dramatic diversification and became a dominant
group of the phylum Echinodermata.
vi. most of the Mesozoic echinoids belong to order Irregularia.
vii. During the Cenozoic they became less important but they diversified during the late
Cenozoic.
Echinoids are entirely marine and their fossils are good indicators of
marine environment.
viii. During Cretaceous period, they were still more abundant- Cidaris, Hemiaster, Micraster during upper cretaceous. In India- Discoidea, Conolus,
Holaster, Cidaris have been found to occur within crateceous age rock.
ix. During Tertiary era, they become less important in India. Irregular echinoids became more important during this era. Eg- Hemiaster, Schizaster, which
are found in India too.
Geology 1 Page 4
Classification-

Regular vs Irregular
Feature Anus located at the centre of Anus lies outside apical disc, mouth at centre
apical system and mouth and anus
lie at extremities of vertical axis
through the centre globular test.
Shape Generally symmetrical, spherical Asymmetrical, often elongated or flattened
Symmetry Pentamerous (five-part) symmetry Bilateral symmetry
Oral Surface Located on the underside Often oriented to the side or back
Habitat Mostly found in deeper waters Common in shallow waters, often burrowing
in sediment
Feeding Mechanism Mostly grazers, using tube feet Typically deposit feeders or suspension feeders
Examples Sea urchins, sand dollars Heart urchins, sea biscuits
Cidaroida, Echinothuria Clypeasteroida, Spatangoida
Test Structure More rigid and compact Often softer and more flexible

Evolutionary Trend through sketches-

1. Transition from primitive, soft-bodies echinoids in the Ordovician to the heavily armored regular echinoids of the Mesozoic period
2. Development of regular and irregular form development
3. adaptation to different feeding strategies- early grazer, feeding on algae and detritus. Later deposit feeding
4. Morphological- shift from radial to bilateral symmetry

Anthozoa 1. Exclusively marine, mostly sessile

(Corals) 2. Radial or bilateral symmmetry
3. Flower like upper surface- oral disc
4. Either solitary or colonial
5. Both sexual and asexual reproduction
6. Medusoid stage is absent
7. Dominant in phenerozoic eon
8. Skeletal features- massive calcareous exo-skeleton secreted by ectodermal cell
9. Coral skeleton consists of 3 elements-
Basal plate
Epitheca- outer wall
Septa- help to maintain shape of polyp
10. The interior of corralite consisting of entire space enclosed by epitheca is termed as
Thecarium
11. Septa- chief vertical skeletal element, can be straight, wavy or zig-zag
2 types of septa- major septa- longer ones
minor septa- smaller ones
12. Tabulae- transverse skeletal material found in corals beneath the floor of calyx

Geological history-
Found in middle ordovician to upper permian\
Corals first appeared in the Cambrian about 535 million years ago. Fossils are extremely rare
until the Ordovician period, 100 million years later when rugose and tabulate corals became
widespread. Paleozoic corals often contained numerous endobiotic symbionts. Tabulate corals
occur in limestones and calcareous shales of the Ordovician and Silurian periods, and often
form low cushions or branching masses of calcite alongside rugose corals. Their numbers
began to decline during the middle of the Silurian period, and they became extinct at the end
of the Permian period, 250 million years ago.[48] Rugose or horn corals became dominant by
the middle of the Silurian period, and became extinct early in the Triassic period. The rugose
corals existed in solitary and colonial forms, and were also composed of calcite

Stratigraphic 1. Lived between Cambrian and Carboniferous periods

utility of 2. There are 2 main groups- Dendroids (benthic) and planktonic graptolites (pelagic) From book pdf
Graptolites 3. Earlies Graptolites lived on the sea bed
4. Beginning of Ordovician period, graptolites became free floating
5. Dendritic Graptolites- theses were benthonic marine animals and lived till Carboniferous period
Graptolithiana- these were pelagic graptolites which survived up to the Devonian period
Major The original meaning of "hominid" referred only to humans (Homo) and their closest extinct
evolutionary relatives. However, by the 1990s humans, apes, and their ancestors were considered to be
treds in "hominids"
Hominide 1. Evolutionary trends:
i. Miocene- About 22 mn yrs ago- various species of arboreally adapted
primitive catarrhines (East Africa)
ii. About 20 mn yrs ago- Victoriapithecus- earliest old world monkey
iii. Middle miocene- wide diversity of ancestral ape forms like- Otavipethicus (Namibia),
Dryopithecus (Spain, France)
iv. Most recent of miocene apes (hominoids)- oreopithecus (Itly)- 9mn yrs ago
v. lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae), the "lesser apes", diverged from that of the
great apes some 18–12 million years ago, and that of orangutans (subfamily
Ponginae) diverged from the other great apes at about 12 million years
vi. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may
be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus fossils
found in Greece.
vii. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas
(genus Gorilla), and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading
to human

Geology 1 Page 5
Evolutionary Equidae- Horse
trend in Equide 1. Systematic Paleontology
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Sub-phylum Vertebrata 150

Class Mammalia
Order Perissodactyla
Family Equdae
Genus Equus

In North America, an almost complete sedimentary sequence from the Eocene to the
Recent is present that has yielded well-preserved fossil horses since the early 19th century,
because of which the evolutionary history of horses is well-documented among all
mammals.

2. Major Evolutionary Transitions MIohippas

The horse originated in the Eocene and through time it underwent a number of
changes from a dog-like ancestor to what it is today. The main changes which
are exhibited in the phylogeny of horse are listed below (after Colbert, 1980):
i. Increase in body size
ii. Lengthening of legs and feet
iii. Reduction of lateral toes with emphasis on the middle toe
iv. Straightening and stiffening of the back
v. Widening of the incisor teeth
vi. Molarisation of the premolars (i.e., in order to grind food premolars became 30
like molars) 1 splint 2 splint
vii. Increase in height of the crown of the cheek teeth
viii. Development of crests on molars
ix. Deepening of the front portion of the skull and of the lower jaw to accommodate the
high crowned teeth
x. Lengthening of the face in front of eyes also to accommodate the high crowned teeth Ek Or Mereliya Mayonnaise Packet
xi. Increase in brain size
Mat PurchasE Karna
3. Role of Climate in the evolution of horses
i. beginning of the evolution of horse took place in the Cenozoic era, close to the
Palaeocene-Eocene boundary.
ii. Palaeocene–Eocene boundary witnessed an abrupt global warming, called
Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM).
iii. The major changes that took place among horses during the course of evolution were
the reduction in the number of toes and deepening of the cheek teeth. These
changes are linked to changes in environmental conditions which brought retreat in
forest cover and spread of grasslands.
iv. The major change was in the teeth of Eocene equids as they started to eat more
plant browse and less fruit. They also developed more grinding teeth to eat the
slightly tougher food.
v. With the onset of the Late Eocene, the cooling of the Earth began and small
ephemeral ice sheets developed and the climate became drier.
This affected the vegetation patterns with vast forests shrinking and grass evolving.
So as we move toward the Oligocene, horses become as mixed feeders and by
Miocene horses changed their dietary mode from browsing to grazing.
vi. Since grass is difficult to chew and wears down teeth rapidly due to its high silica
content, horse teeth increased the height of the tooth crowns so that the teeth

Geology 1 Page 6
 content, horse teeth increased the height of the tooth crowns so that the teeth
remain out of the gum as their tops were continuously worn down.
vii. The bones of the legs began to fuse together, and the leg
bones became specialised for efficient forward-and-back strides, with flexible
leg rotation being eliminated. Most significantly, the horses began to stand
permanently on tiptoe i.e., they changed from three-toed to single-toed horse,
another adaptation for speed, instead of walking on dog-like pads.
viii. The warming and cooling episodes of the Cenozoic had
also brought in global sea level changes that formed land bridges during the fall
of sea level which facilitated the dispersal of horse from North America to the
rest of the world.

Evolutionary 1. Systematic Paleontology

trend in Probo- Kingdom- Animalia
Scidae Phylum- Chordata
Class- Mammalia
Order- probo-scidae
2. Progeny lines with Time period

3. Evolutionary trends
i. Increase in size and weight (elongation of limb bones and enlarged skull)
ii. Development and elongation of Proboscis
iii. Modification of 2nd pair of incisors into tusks
iv. Modification of dentition from bunodont (molar teeth with rounded cusps) to lophodont
(grinding surface of molar teeth with transverse suture)
They are the mammals that canniot run

Gondwana flora 1. Gondwana time- Upper Carboniferous to lower Cretaceous

2. Gymnosperms and pteridophytes were the predominant flora in the Gondwana times. These
were the vascular plants
3. D.N.Wadia- 3 types
Glossopteris- Lower Triassic
Dicroidium- Lower Jurassic
Ptilophyllum- Low Cretaceous
4. Glassopteris flora- is represented by Fronds (it is a leaf which bears fructification). Here mid-rib
is well marked and there is reticulate venation.

5.

Siwalik fauna Lower Siwalik- 18.3-11.5Ma Prajesh notes

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 Siwalik fauna Lower Siwalik- 18.3-11.5Ma Prajesh notes
Warm and Humid
Tropical evergreen trees
Pigs, elephant, carnivores, artiodactyles
Sivapethicus
Flood and piedmont deposits
Upper Siwalik
Onset of mansoon
Encroachment of grasslands
Invasion of exotic fauna
Vishnutherian, hipparion antelopinum
Upper Siwalik- 5.1 to 1.6 Ma
Tropical forests replaced by Savvanah
Dominance of grazing and browsing animals
Macacus monkey and semia and semnopethicus apes

Megafossils are large, macroscopic fossilized remains of organisms that can be easily seen and studied without a microscope. These fossils typically include parts of plants,
animals, or entire organisms, and they play a significant role in identifying and dating geological strata (rock layers). Megafossils are essential for stratigraphic correlation, as
they provide age markers (index fossils) that help in dating rock formations.
Three Age-Diagnostic Megafossils and Their Significance in Indian Stratigraphy:
1. Trilobites (Cambrian Period)
Significance: Trilobites are important index fossils for the Cambrian period (around 540–485 million years ago). In India, trilobite fossils are found in the Spiti region (Himachal
Pradesh) and parts of the Kashmir valley. Their presence in these regions helps geologists define the Cambrian strata in the Indian subcontinent and correlate it with other
parts of the world.
2. Glossopteris (Permian Period)
Significance: Glossopteris is a fossilized plant found predominantly in the Gondwana region, which includes parts of present-day India, Australia, South Africa, and South
America. The plant is a marker for the Permian period (around 299–252 million years ago) and is critical in understanding the geological history of the Gondwana coalfields in
India, such as the Damodar Valley Basin (Jharkhand and West Bengal). Glossopteris provides evidence for the ancient supercontinent Gondwana and aids in dating the coal-
bearing rock formations.
3. Ammonites (Jurassic to Cretaceous Period)
Significance: Ammonites are extinct marine mollusks that serve as key index fossils for the Mesozoic era, especially from the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods (about 201–66
million years ago). In India, ammonite fossils are found in the Kachchh Basin (Gujarat) and the Jaisalmer Basin (Rajasthan). They are used to date marine sediments and to
correlate Jurassic and Cretaceous rock sequences across different regions of the country.
These megafossils are invaluable for understanding the geological history of India, particularly for dating rock layers and correlating them with global geological events.

FORAMINIFERA
COMPOSITION-
1. Calcareous- Vitreous(glassy in appearance and innumerable perforations) and porcellanous(looks like porcelain and possess one or two large openings). Porcillaneous tests- Orbitolites and Alveolina;
Vitreous tests- Fusulina and Nummulites)
2. Siliceous(arenaceous)- extraneous particles of silica aggregated by cement
3. Chitinous shell- do not occur as fossils

SHAPE, SIZE
1. Morphology- Globular(round-shaped), elongated or flattened- see dia
2. Hard skeleton present known as test or shell.
3. Some of them made of single chamber(unilocular); others number of chambers(multilocular). These chambers separated from partition walls- septa
4. Each individual septum, act as partition wall between any two consecutive chambers of multilocular test commonly made up of single lamella. In advanced form 2 lamella give rise to one septum
5. Outer surface thickened due to secretion of supplemental skeleton.

ECOLOGY
1. Benthic- prefer to live in seabed(Eliphidum)
2. Planktonic- float in water(Globigernia)

AGE RANGE
1. Paleontologists believe that foraminifers used to live in Pre-Cambrian seas but evidence are not there.
2. Therefore, believed to be of Cambrian age.
3. Foraminifers with siliceous tests occur within rocks of Ordovician age.
4. Lower Paleozoic period- chitinous tests and aggregated together number of siliceous particles giving rise to siliceous shells.
5. Upper Paleozoic- Calcareous forms
6. Calcareous fusulinids developed during carboniferous and Permian periods and were extinct at the end of Paleozoic era. Fusulinids therefore important index- fossils of Permo carboniferous age.
7. Post extinction of fusulinids, foraminifers were less important during Triassic period, developed during Jurassic Period and attained importance during Cetaceous.
8. Mesozoic era- Rotaliids, Lagenids, Lituolids
9. Cretaceous- Globigernia, Textularia, Rotalia
10. Tertiary- Orbitolites, Alveolina, Miliola, Lepidocyclina, Nummulites, etc

DIAMORPHISM
1. More advanced types commonly exhibit two distinct forms belonging to same species. They are called dimorphic
2. Two forms- Megalosphere(large initial chamber) and Microsphere.
3. Reproductive Strategies- Megalospheric form(sexual reproduction with larger chamber and lower growth rate); Microspheric Form(Asexual Reproduction characterised by smaller chamber and rapid growth).
However, diamorphism often complicates species identification. Sometimes they may be mistaken as separate species.
4. Ecological Stability- Megalosphere thrive in more stable environments while microspheric forms dominates under stress.
5. Evolutionary significance- Dimorphism can indicate evolutionary flexibilty, allowing formanifera to adapt and survive in diverse ecological niches over geological time.
6. However there is taxonomical confusions and unclear environmental triggers calling for further research.

BENTHIC FORMS-
1. Most of the Foraminifera live on sea-bottoms- benthonic forms(those who float in open ocean- pelagic(eg- Globigerina)
2. Their distribution depends on temperature as well as depth
3. They occur close of Mesozoic era and distributed all over the world during Tertiary era; give rise to foraminiferal limestone
4. Large Calcaerous shells of benthonic form, Nummulites, gave rise to nummulitic limestone(Eocene age) in certain part of Himalayas
5. They can be epifaunal(living on sediment surface) or infaunal(living within sediments).
6. Shell composition- same types
7. Ecological inidcators- sensitive to oxygen levels, salinity, temp, nutrients.
8. Application- used in paleoenvironmental reconstructions
9. Reproduction- often exhibit dimorphism
10. Common genera- Ammonia, Elphidium, Textularia

SIGNIFICANCE
1. Paleoecological- Climate(Globigernia show different coiling patterm); sea-level changes(constructing paleo bathymetry); oxygen levels(infaunal, anoxix, hypoxic species); marine productive; env stress

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