A1.
1 Water
Unity and diversity—Molecules
Standard level and higher level: 2 hours
Additional higher level: 1 hour
Guiding questions
• What physical and chemical properties of water make it essential for life?
• What are the challenges and opportunities of water as a habitat?
SL and HL
A1.1.1—Water as the medium for life
Students should appreciate that the first cells originated in water and that water remains the medium
in which most processes of life occur.
Many chemical reactions occur in solutions, like aqueous solutions where water is the solvent (liquid that
dissolves solutes). Water is the primary solvent in the human body where most reactions that help sustain
life occur.
The first cells originated in water, which enabled the formation of the phospholipid bilayer and the creation
of an internal compartment for many controlled biochemical reactions.
A1.1.2—Hydrogen bonds as a consequence of the polar covalent bonds within water molecules
Students should understand that polarity of covalent bonding within water molecules is due to
unequal sharing of electrons and that hydrogen bonding due to this polarity occurs between water
molecules. Students should be able to represent two or more water molecules and hydrogen
bonds between them with the notation shown below to indicate polarity.
Covalent bonds can involve equal or non-equal sharing of electrons.
• Equal sharing of electrons results in non-polar covalent bonds (net charge = 0).
• Unequal sharing of electrons results in polar covalent bonds. This occurs when an atom in a covalent
bond pulls electrons more strongly towards it than the other atom, resulting in a partial negative
charge (𝛿 −) for the atom with higher electron density and a partial positive charge (𝛿 +) for the atom
with lower electron density.
• Polar covalent bonds within a molecule result in different charges at various locations within the
molecule, which affects its physical and chemical properties. When polar molecules interact, their
opposite charges ephemerally attract. Even though all intermolecular interactions are much weaker
than covalent bonds, they become significant when millions of them are occurring at the same time.
• Hydrogen bonds are a specific type of intermolecular attractions that occur when hydrogen is
covalently bonded to an oxygen or nitrogen atom. The atoms within this polar covalent bond become
partially charged, which attracts oppositely charged atoms in other molecules, forming hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonding is the strongest intermolecular force.
A1.1.3—Cohesion of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding and consequences for organisms
Include transport of water under tension in xylem and the use of water surfaces as habitats due to
the effect known as surface tension.
Cohesion occurs when molecules of the same type attract each other by intermolecular forces. Cohesion
of water molecules due to hydrogen bonding has important consequences for organisms:
• Surface tension is the tendency of a liquid’s surface to resist rupture against an external force. Water
molecules at the surface form hydrogen bonds with each other, and since they have fewer neighboring
water molecules to bond with (because they are exposed to air on one side), they will form stronger
bonds with neighboring water molecules. The resultant surface tension allows it to support the
movement of some organisms on its surface like basilisk lizards and water striders.
• The area in which water evaporates from leaves (during transpiration) creates a low-pressure point that
draws water up xylem vessels from higher-pressure points. The water stream moving upwards is
continuous within the xylem due to cohesion between water molecules.
A1.1.4—Adhesion of water to materials that are polar or charged and impacts for organisms
Include capillary action in soil and in plant cell walls.
Adhesion occurs when molecules of a different type attract each other by intermolecular forces. Adhesion of
water molecules due to hydrogen bonding has important consequences for organisms:
• Water molecules are attracted to the polar molecules that make up the inner walls of xylem vessels.
During transpiration, adhesive forces help prevent the water column that is being pulled upwards from
breaking under tension by ‘sticking’ to the xylem walls.
• Soil is porous, which enables water to move against gravity (upwards) by adhering to charged soil
particles. This helps plants access water in the soil through their roots.
Both cohesion and adhesion forces work together to move water up xylem and soil under the cohesion-
tension theory.
A1.1.5—Solvent properties of water linked to its role as a medium for metabolism and for
transport in plants and animals
Emphasize that a wide variety of hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water and that most enzymes
catalyse reactions in aqueous solution. Students should also understand that the functions of
some molecules in cells depend on them being hydrophobic and insoluble.
• Hydrophilic (polar) molecules are polar and dissolve in water because they can form polar
associations (intermolecular attractions) with it.
• Hydrophobic (non-polar) molecules are non-polar and do not dissolve in water because they cannot
form intermolecular attractions with it. However, they can dissolve in other hydrophobic substances.
The hydrophilicity of most compounds (enzymes, sugars, nucleic acids) makes water an excellent medium
for metabolic reactions that occur in the cytoplasm and internal compartments of membrane-bound
organelles. Water’s polarity also allows it to transport hydrophilic compounds in plants (xylem) and animals
(blood).
The hydrophobicity of some compounds enables them to also carry out important life functions. In humans,
steroid hormones and non-polar proteins are able to pass through the hydrophobic cell membrane in order
to execute their roles. In plants, the cuticle (waxy non-polar layer on leaf surface) reduces transpiration to
prevent dehydration.
A1.1.6—Physical properties of water and the consequences for animals in aquatic habitats
Include buoyancy, viscosity, thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity. Contrast the physical
properties of water with those of air and illustrate the consequences using examples of animals
that live in water and in air or on land, such as the black-throated loon (Gavia arctica) and the
ringed seal (Pusa hispida).
Note: When students are referring to an organism in an examination, either the common name or
the scientific name is acceptable.
Hydrogen bonding has significant consequences for the physical properties of water.
Property Water Air
Buoyancy is the net upward In water, buoyancy significantly In air, buoyancy is negligible so
force on any object in any fluid offsets weight, letting organisms organisms need to generate lift
(liquid or gas). float more easily. (i.e. by wings) to stay aloft.
Viscosity is the resistance of a Organisms moving through water Organisms moving through air
substance to flow. experience more resistance than experience less drag than
through air since water is more through water since air is less
viscous. viscous.
Thermal conductivity is the Water has a higher thermal Air has a lower thermal
ability of a substance to conduct conductivity. conductivity compared to water.
heat.
Specific heat capacity is the Water has a higher specific heat Air has a lower specific heat
amount of energy required to capacity compared to air. capacity compared to water.
raise the temperature of 1 unit of
mass by 1 K / °C.
• Black throated loon:
o The bird relies on water buoyancy to stay afloat at the surface
o The bird’s webbed feet and efficient streamlined body helps it overcome water’s viscosity
o The bird produces oil from a gland that reduces the amount of heat lost by conduction to water
o The temperature of the water remains relatively stable when the air is cool due to its high specific
heat capacity which enables the bird to continue living within its range of tolerance
• Ringed seal:
o The seal is buoyant enough to keep its snout above water in order to respire air
o The seal’s paddle-like feet and streamlined body help it swim through the viscosity of water
o The seal has thick blubber (fatty layer) which reduces heat lost to the water
o The relative stability of water temperature due to its high specific heat capacity enables the seal to
continue living within its range of tolerance
Additional higher level
A1.1.7—Extraplanetary origin of water on Earth and reasons for its retention
The abundance of water over billions of years of Earth’s history has allowed life to evolve. Limit
hypotheses for the origin of water on Earth to asteroids and reasons for retention to gravity and
temperatures low enough to condense water.
Hydrogen is an atom with 1 proton and 1 electron. Deuterium (a hydrogen isotope) is an atom with 1
proton, 1 neutron, and 1 electron. H2O may contain any of these two isotopes.
Scientists measured the ratio of the two isotopes in oceanic water and compared it to that in asteroids. This
led to the asteroid theory for the existence of water on Earth, which posits that asteroids containing hydrated
material hit earth millions of years ago, which introduced water to Earth. Water was retained due to:
• The strong gravitational field of Earth, which prevents most of the water from escaping into space.
• Low temperatures that allow water to be condensed to a liquid, which due to hydrogen bonding is
much easier to retain than water vapor inside the Earth’s atmosphere.
Other non-mutually exclusive theories for the origins of water on Earth exist.
A1.1.8—Relationship between the search for extraterrestrial life and the presence of water
Include the idea of the “Goldilocks zone”.
Goldilocks zone is the region around a star (like the sun) where a planet's surface temperature could allow
for liquid water to exist on its surface. Since water is the universal medium for life, it is intuitive to search for
extraterrestrial life in such zones where liquid water can exist.
Linking questions
• How do the various intermolecular forces of attraction affect biological systems?
• What biological processes only happen at or near surfaces?
Review questions
SL and HL
• Define polarity. [1]
• Describe the nature of hydrogen bonding. [2]
• Distinguish between covalent and hydrogen bonding. [2]
• Explain the consequences of cohesion on living organisms. [4]
• Draw two water molecules experiencing hydrogen bonding. [4]
• Explain the consequences of adhesion on living organisms. [4]
• Compare the physical properties of water and air. [4]
• Explain the adaptations two organisms have to the physical properties of water. [8]
• Describe the chemical and physical properties of water that arise due to hydrogen bonding. [8]
• Discuss the challenges and opportunities of water as a habitat. [8]
Additional Higher Level
• Define the Goldilocks zone. [1]
• Outline why water was retained on Earth. [2]
• Explain why the search for extraterrestrial life is linked to the presence of water. [2]
• Outline the extraplanetary origin of water on Earth. [3]
References
Ann Clark, Mary, et al. Biology 2e. E-book, OpenStax, 2018, https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction.
OpenStax.
Cermak, Alicia. “The Habitable Zone - NASA Science.” NASA Science, 24 Mar. 2025,
science.nasa.gov/exoplanets/habitable-zone.
Damon et al. Biology for the IB Diploma Programme. Pearson, 2023. Third Edition.
Gordon Betts, J., et al. Anatomy and Physiology 2e. E-book, OpenStax, 2022, https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-
physiology-2e/pages/1-introduction. OpenStax.
Khan Academy. Khan Academy, www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/chemistry-of-life/structure-of-water-and-
hydrogen-bonding/a/cohesion-and-adhesion-in-water.
