L2105 – PARAMETRIC CURVES

Another way to express a curve (or a line) in the xy-plane is based on its parametrization i.e. on representing
it in the form of parametric equations x = x(t), y = y(t) (this can also be be done in R3 , like in the case of
parametric equations of a line).

1. Parametric equations
Any curve in the xy-plane can be represented parametrically, in terms of parameter t. A curve given by parametric
equations x = x(t), y = y(t) is called a parametric curve.
Remark 1.1. To express a curve in the xy-plane in the form of parametric equations
(
x = x(t)
x = x(t), y = y(t), or
y = y(t),
we have to represent both x and y in terms of parameter t on some interval [t1 , t2 ] (taking into account the
relationship between x and y). This can be done for any curve, including functions y = f (x).

Remark 1.2. The direction of the graph, as the parameter t increases on interval [t1 , t2 ], does not need to follow
those strict rules, we used to have for polar curves (even for a closed curve). It can be clockwise or counter-clockwise,
and this is usually referred to as the orientation of that curve (sometimes also as the direction, like for polar
curves). The orientation of a parametric curve has also a wider meaning (related to the sign of x′ (t) and important
for some applications), and should be marked with an arrow on the graph.

Examples of parametric curves:

x2 y2
• Ellipse a2 + b2 = 1, a, b > 0
y(t)

x(t)
a

Parametrically, this curve can be represented as follows

(
x(t) = a cos t
t ∈ [0, 2π]
y(t) = b sin t,
where a, b < 0. The orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise (and this is marked with an arrow on
the graph).

To check that, the above parameterization is correct (and really represents this ellipse), we can substitute the
2 2
parametric equations to xa2 + yb2 = 1. This gives
x2 (t) y 2 (t) a2 cos2 t b2 sin2 t
+ = + = 1.
a2 b2 a2 b2
Since, the parametric equations satisfy the algebraic equation of that ellipse, this parameterization is correct. The
orientation can be checked by substituting t = 0 and then t = π2 to both x(t) and y(t). For t = 0
x(0) = a cos 0 = a, and y(0) = b sin 0 = 0,
which means that, the graph starts with (a, 0). Then, depending on the orientation of that curve, it either goes up
to (0, b) (orientation counter-clockwise) or down to (0, −b) (orientation clockwise). Putting t = π2 , we have
x( π2 ) = a cos π2 = 0, and y( π2 ) = b sin π2 = b.
As it goes up to the point (0, b), the orientation is counter-clockwise.

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 • Astroid. Parametric equations:
(
x(t) = a cos3 t
t ∈ [0, 2π], a > 0,
y(t) = a sin3 t,
and the orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise.
y(t)

x(t)
a

• Cycloid. This is an example of a roulette, i.e. a curve obtained by moving a point on one curve along
another curve (in this case - a point on a circle, moving along a line).
y(t)

x(t)
2πa 4πa

Parametric equations: (
x(t) = a(t − sin t)
a > 0,
y(t) = a(1 − cos t),
For one full arc t ∈ [0, 2π], for two arcs t ∈ [0, 4π], etc. This is not a closed curve, but its orientation can
be described as clockwise.

Remark 1.3. As opposed to the polar coordinates, a parametric representation of a curve is not unique. In fact,
given curve can be represented parametrically in infinitely many ways (this also applies to functions of
the form y = f (x)). Moreover, different parameterizations may result in different orientations.

Example 1.1 A circle x2 + y 2 = r 2 , r > 0, like other curves in the xy-plane, can be represented parametrically in infinitely
many ways (with orientation either counter-clockwise or clockwise). Two examples of parametric equations for that circle
are presented below.
y(t) y(t)

r r

x(t) x(t)
r r

( (
x(t) = r cos t x(t) = r sin 2πt
t ∈ [0, 2π] t ∈ [0, 1]
y(t) = r sin t, y(t) = r cos 2πt,
counter-clockwise clockwise
The first example, illustrates a ’natural parameterization’, based on the relationship between polar and rectangular coor-
dinates. The orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise (and corresponds to the angles in the coordinate system). The
second example shows that, this circle can also be orientated clockwise, and that parameter t does not need to be in interval
[0, 2π] (thanks to simple scaling, we get t ∈ [0, 1]).

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Remark 1.4. Not only curves in the xy-plane (given by algebraic equations) can be represented in the form of
parametric equations. Any polar curve r = R(ϕ), ϕ ∈ [α, β] can be represented parametrically. This can
be done using the so called ’natural parametrization’, based on the relationship
(
x = r cos ϕ
y = r sin ϕ
by taking t = ϕ and substituting R(t) for r. This gives the parametric equations of the form
(
x(t) = R(t) cos t
t ∈ [α, β].
y(t) = R(t) sin t,
Each parametric curve obtained this way is oriented counter-clockwise (this does not need to be checked), as
induced from a polar curve.
Example 1.2 The natural parametrization for the circle x2 + y 2 = r 2 , r > 0, shown in Example 1.1 is obtained from the
polar curve R(ϕ) = r, ϕ ∈ [0, 2π]. Taking t = ϕ, where t ∈ [0, 2π], and putting R(t) = r in the equations
( (
x = r cos ϕ x(t) = r cos t
we get t ∈ [0, 2π]
y = r sin ϕ y(t) = r sin t,
and the orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise.
y(t)

x(t)
r

Example 1.3 Parametric equations for the cardioid R(ϕ) = a(1 + cos ϕ), ϕ ∈ [0, 2π], a > 0 can be obtained the same way.
By putting t = ϕ, where t ∈ [0, 2π], and substituting R(t) = a(1 + cos t) for r in the relationship
(
x = r cos ϕ
y = r sin ϕ,
we get parametric equations of the form
(
x(t) = a(1 + cos t) cos t
t ∈ [0, 2π],
y(t) = a(1 + cos t) sin t,
and the orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise.

y(t)

x(t)
2a

2. Area problem and arc length for parametric curves

Remark 2.1. Given a parametric curve, both x and y are considered functions of a variable t
x = x(t), and y = y(t), t ∈ [t1 , t2 ]
1
and can be continuous, differentiable, or of C . We can also integrate expressions involving x(t), y(t), x′ (t), etc.
(we integrate over [t1 , t2 ], with respect to t).

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Area bounded by a parametric curve.
Let Γ be a parametric curve given by (
x = x(t)
t ∈ [t1 , t2 ].
y = y(t),
If function y is continuous on [t1 , t2 ] and function x is of C 1 on (t1 , t2 ), then the area bounded by this parametric
curve is given by one of the following formulas (depending on the orientation of that curve).

If Γ is oriented counter-clockwise, If Γ is oriented clockwise,

y(t) y(t)

a a
t2 t2

x(t) x(t)
a a

t1 t1

then then
Z t1 Z t2
|AΓ | = y(t)x′ (t) dt. |AΓ | = y(t)x′ (t) dt.
t2 t1

Remark 2.2. We can see that, the only difference between the above formulas is in the order of the integration
limits. This is done to ensure the positive result (area needs to be greater than zero). If Γ is oriented clockwise, then
we integrate from t1 to t2 (and the result is greater than zero). If the orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise,
then x′ (t) 6 0, for some t, so we have change the order of the integration limits (in this case we integrate from t2
to t1 ). This corresponds to the trick, used to find the area below the x-axis and cannot be replaced e.g. by taking
the absolute value of the function.

Example 2.1 We want to find the area bounded by the ellipse

(
x(t) = a cos t
t ∈ [0, 2π], a, b > 0.
y(t) = b sin t,

y(t)

A x(t)
a

The orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise, as for t = 0, we have

x(0) = a cos 0 = a, and y(0) = b sin 0 = 0,
π
and for t = 2
x( π2 ) = a cos π2 = 0, and y( π2 ) = b sin π2 = b
(the curve goes from (a, 0) up to the point (0, b)).
We can either integrate from 2π to 0 (orientation is counter-clockwise, so we use the first of the above formulas), or (even
better) we can use the symmetry and find the area of a quarter of that ellipse i.e. integrate from π2 to 0 (orientation on that
subinterval is the same), and then multiply the result by 4.
To apply the formula, we check the assumptions (on subinterval [0, π2 ]). Function y(t) = b sin t is continuous on [0, π2 ],
derivative of x is equal x′ (t) = −a sin t, so x′ is continuous and x is of C 1 on (0, π2 ). The assumptions are satisfied and we
can find the area: Z 0 Z 0 Z 0
|AΓ | = 4 y(t)x′ (t) dt = 4 (−a sin t)b sin t dt = −4ab sin2 t dt.
π π π
2 2 2
2 1
Applying the formula sin α = 2
(1 − cos 2α), and changing the order of the integration limits, we get
π
π
Z 2
2
|AΓ | = 4ab 12 (1 − cos 2t) dt = 2ab(t − 1
2
sin 2t) = 2ab( π2 − 0 − 12 (sin π − sin 0)) = πab.
0
0

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 Example 2.2 Now we are interested in the area bounded by one full arc of the cycloid
(
x(t) = a(t − sin t)
t ∈ [0, 2π], a > 0.
y(t) = a(1 − cos t),

y(t)

A
x(t)
2πa

The orientation is clockwise, so we have to use the second formula (i.e. integrate from 0 to 2π). We check the assumptions:
y(t) = a(1 − cos t) is continuous on [0, 2π], x′ (t) = (a(t − sin t)′ = a(1 − cos t) is also continuous, so x is of C 1 on (0, 2π).
Assumptions are satisfied, we can apply the formula
Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
|AΓ | = y(t)x′ (t) dt = a(1 − cos t)a(1 − cos t) dt = a2 (1 − cos t)2 dt =
0 0 0
Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π Z 2π
2 2 2 2
=a (1 − 2 cos t + cos t) dt = a dt − 2a cos t dt + a2 1
2
(1 + cos 2t) dt =
0 0 0 0
2π 2π 2π
a2
=a2 t − 2a2 sin t + 2
(t + 1
2
sin t) = 3a2 π.
0 0 0

Length of a parametric curve.

Let Γ be a parametric curve given by (
x = x(t)
t ∈ [t1 , t2 ].
y = y(t),
If functions x and y are of C 1 on (t1 , t2 ), then the length of that curve is given by
Z t2 p
|Γ| = (x′ (t))2 + (y ′ (t))2 dt.
t1

Since in the above formula x′ (t) is squared, the orientation of Γ does not matter in this case.
Example 2.3 We want to find the length of the astroid
(
x(t) = a cos3 t
t ∈ [0, 2π], a > 0.
y(t) = a sin3 t,
The orientation of that curve is counter-clockwise (we do not need the orientation in this case, but should mark it on the
graph anyway).
y(t)

x(t)
a

We can see that the graph is symmetric with respect to both axes, so the length of that curve is equal to the length of its arc
for t ∈ [0, π2 ], multiplied by 4. We check the assumptions on interval [0, π2 ] (both functions must be of C 1 ). By Chain Rule
x′ (t) = −3a cos2 t sin t, and y ′ (t) = 3a sin2 t cos t.
Both derivatives are continuous on [0, π2 ], so functions x and y are of C 1 . We can apply the above formula
Z πp Z πp
2 2
|Γ| =4 (x′ (t))2 + (y ′ (t))2 dt = 4 9a2 cos4 t sin2 t + 9a2 sin4 t cos2 t dt =
0 0
Z π q Z π
2 2
=12a cos2 t sin2 t(cos2 t + sin2 t) dt = 12a | cos t sin t| dt
0 0
Since cos t sin t > 0 for t ∈ [0, π2 ], we have
π
π π
Z Z 2
2 2
|Γ| = 12a cos t sin t dt = 6a sin 2t dt = 6a(− 21 cos 2t) = 6a
0 0
0
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 3. Volume and Surface area of the solid of revolution
Remark 3.1. To get a solid of revolution, we have to follow the same rules as for functions y = f (x): As this is mostly about
closed curves, we only rotate an arc of a parametric curve (e.g. its top half or a right-hand quarter), not the entire curve.
Also, functions x and y on the subinterval corresponding to that arc of the curve should be nonnegative (this is the reason
for taking the top half or one of the top quarters)

Volume and the surface area of a solid of revolution.

Let Γ be a parametric curve given by (
x = x(t)
t ∈ [t1 , t2 ].
y = y(t),
Volume
If function y is continuous on [t1 , t2 ] and function x is of C 1 on (t1 , t2 ), then the volume of the solid obtained by revolving
the curve about the x-axis is equal:
if Γ is oriented counter-clockwise, if Γ is oriented clockwise,
y(t) y(t)

r r

x(t) x(t)
r r

Z t1 Z t2
|VΓ | = π y 2 (t)x′ (t) dt. |VΓ | = π y 2 (t)x′ (t) dt.
t2 t1

Surface area
If functions x and y are of C 1 , then the (lateral) surface area of the solid of revolution is given by
Z t2 p
|SΓ | = 2π y(t) (x′ (t))2 + (y ′ (t))2 dt.
t1

Example 3.1 We want to find the volume and the surface area of the solid obtained by revolving the arc of the astroid
(
x(t) = a cos3 t
a>0
y(t) = a sin3 t,
for t ∈ [0, π2 ]. This curve is oriented counter-clockwise. Rotating this arc about the x-axis, we get the solid of revolution.

y(t) y(t)

a a

x(t) x(t)
a a

To find the volume of that solid, we first check the assumptions: function y(t) = a sin3 t is continuous on [0, π2 ], derivative
x′ (t) = −3a cos2 t sin t is continuous on [0, π2 ], so function x is of C 1 on (0, π2 ).
Both assumptions are satisfied, so we can apply the formula for the volume. Our curve is oriented counter-clockwise (first
case), so we integrate from π2 to 0:
Z 0 Z 0 Z 0 cos t = w − sin tdt = dw
2 2 6 2 3
|VΓ | =π ′
y (t)x (t) dt = π a sin t(−3a cos t sin t) dt = −3πa sin7 t cos2 t dt = for t = π2 w=0 =
π π π for t = 0 w=1
2 2 2
1
Z 1 Z 1
3 2 3 2 3 2 4 6 8 16πa3
=3πa (1 − w ) w dw = 3πa (w − 3w + 3w − w ) dw = 3πa3 ( 31 w3 − 3 5
5
w + 3 7
7
w − 1 9
9
w ) = 105
.
0 0
0
In this case, we didn’t remove the minus in front of the integral by changing the order of the integration limits. Thanks
to this, after substituting w = cos t we got the integration limits 0 to 1 (and another change of the integration limits was
unnecessary).

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Now we want to find the surface area of that solid. Obviously, the formula only describes the lateral area in this case. To
find it we need to check whether both x and y are of C 1 on (0, π2 ). Derivative y ′ (t) = 3a2 sin2 t cos t is continuous, so function
y is of C 1 on (0, π2 ). And we checked above that x′ (t) = −3a cos2 t sin t is continuous, so x is also of C 1 on that interval. We
can apply the formula
Z π Z π
2 p 2 p
|SΓ | =2π y(t) (x (t)) + (y (t)) dt = 2π
′ 2 ′ 2 a sin3 t 9a2 cos4 t sin2 t + 9a2 sin4 t cos2 t dt =
0 0
Z π q Z π
2 2 2
=6πa sin3 t cos2 t sin2 t(cos2 t + sin2 t) dt = 6πa2 sin3 t| cos t sin t| dt
0 0
We can see that cos t sin t > on interval [0, π2 ], so we can skip the absolute value and get
Z π sin t = w cos tdt = dw
Z 1 1
2
|SΓ | = 6πa2 sin4 t cos t dt = for t = π0 w=0 = 6πa2 w4 dw = 65 πa2 w5 = 65 πa2 .
0 for t = 2 w=1 0
0
To get the total surface area, we have add the area of the base
|St | = |SΓ | + |Sb | = 65 πa2 + πa2 = 11
5
πa2 .