Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste

Minimization
 Civil and Environmental Engineering
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks
Editor
Michael D.Meyer
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia

1. Preliminary Design of Bridges for Architects and Engineers

Michele Melaragno

2. Concrete Formwork Systems

Awad S.Hanna

3. Multilayered Aquifer Systems: Fundamentals and Applications

Alexander H.-D.Cheng

4. Matrix Analysis of Structural Dynamics: Applications and Earthquake

Engineering
Franklin Y.Cheng

5. Hazardous Gases Underground: Applications to Tunnel Engineering

Barry R.Doyle

6. Cold-Formed Steel Structures to the AISI Specification

Gregory J.Hancock, Thomas M.Murray, Duane S.Ellifritt

7. Fundamentals of Infrastructure Engineering: Civil Engineering Systems: Second

Edition, Revised and Expanded
Patrick H.McDonald

8. Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization

edited by Abbas Ghassemi

Additional Volumes in Production

Introduction to Approximate Solution Techniques, Numerical Modeling, and Finite

Element Methods
Victor N.Kaliakin
Handbook of Pollution Control
and Waste Minimization
edited by

Abbas Ghassemi
New Mexico State University
Las Cruces, New Mexico

MARCEL DEKKER, INC.

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 Foreword

Erestor, in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings,* declares that only two possibilities exist for
dealing with the menace of the Ring: “to hide it forever, or to unmake it. But both are
beyond our power.” This analogy was used by Amory Lovins in an unpublished review
of proposed U.S. policy on nuclear waste management. The dilemma described by
Erestor is analogous not only to the world’s nuclear waste issues but to many other
concerns related to long-life hazardous waste being generated worldwide at an alarming
rate. Once nuclear or hazardous waste is produced, we cannot “unmake” it. Congress has
responded to these concerns through a number of legislative initiatives that attempt to
minimize the amount of waste containing hazardous constituents and also place
restrictions on its disposal in underground repositories. In the latter case, the most notable
legislation is the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), requiring that the
best available technology be used to remove the chemical constituents in both hazardous
and mixed waste before it can be permanently disposed of in underground repositories.
Compliance with RCRA and other environmental regulations

*The council of Elrond from The Fellowship of the Ring: Lord of the Rings—Part One by J.R.R.
Tolkien, New York: Ballantine Books edn., pp. 349–50, 1986.

has come at a high cost in terms of dollars and, sometimes, potential risks to worker
health and safety.
It is with these issues in mind that the editor has compiled a comprehensive textbook
that covers the broad spectrum of pollution prevention including process design, life
cycle analysis, risk and decision analysis. The information presented will increase
awareness of the need to “do it right” the first time. The amount of waste generated in
any process results in a net reduction in profits. In every process, the ultimate goal is to
produce goods and materials that can be sold or bartered for a profit. Looking into the
future, it is ideal to proceed with industrial development that maximizes the productions
of goods and materials while minimizing or eliminating the waste produced. This
includes looking into raw materials, and production efficiencies as well as process
modification and enhancement that would result in the ultimate goal. This text
encourages future generations to develop the policies and priorities necessary to
effectively deal with scientific and political issues associated with hazardous and
radioactive waste management.
Jim Bickel
Former Assistant Manager
Projects and Energy Program
U.S. Department of Energy
Ron Bhada
 Emeritus Director
WERC
Las Cruces, New Mexico
 Preface

The most significant issues facing mankind today are related to the quality of our
environment. Past decisions did not always consider environmental factors as critical
elements. However, current decisions made daily should reflect the importance of the
environment. All environment-related issues are multidisciplinary, ranging from science
and engineering to social, economic, and regulatory issues. Further, these issues are not
related to any one region or country, but are global in nature, requiring multidisciplinary,
multiorganizational, and multinational educational efforts.
This book provides an introduction and current information to the academic
community as well as to any professional who must deal with these issues on a day-to-
day basis. My aim is to have environmental issues become a major factor in process
design consideration. Our contributors present the fundamentals of pollution prevention:
life-cycle analysis, designs for the environment, and pollution prevention in process
design. Selected case studies are provided as well.
All of the contributors to this volume are, in one way or another, associated with
WERC, a Consortium for Environmental Education and Technology Development
program.
The first part of the book deals with elements required for legal, organizational, and
hierarchal components of pollution prevention. Parts II–IV deal with the basics of
pollution prevention, leading with fundamentals of pollution prevention, followed by
methodology and life cycle cost analysis. Part V deals with risk and decision
fundamentals, as well as, utilization of pollution prevention in process design. Part VI
presents selected case studies in various fields.
As the editor, I realize that I have just begun to scratch the surface with some of the
recent advances. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the chapter authors for
their contributions to this volume. Further gratitude goes to Dr. Franc Szidarovszky,
University of Arizona, and Kay Perkins, WERC, for their editing assistance.
Abbas Ghassemi
 Contents

Foreword
vi
Jim Bickel and Ron Bhada

Preface viii
Contributors xii
Acronyms xv
Glossary xvii

Part I Legal/Organizational/Hierarchal Requirements

1 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization—Back to Basics 1
Jeff Weinrach
2 Role of Pollution Prevention in Waste Management/Environmental 8
Restoration
Harish Chandra Sharma
3 The Waste Management Hierarchy 32
W.David Constant
4 Legislative and Regulatory Issues 39
Toni K.Ristau
5 Information Systems for Proactive Environmental Management 52
Steven P.Frysinger
6 European Policies for Waste Management 77
Ingo F.W.Romey and Marc Obladen

Part II Fundamentals
7 Energy Conservation 90
K.A.Strevett, C.Evenson, and L.Wolf
8 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer 125
René Reyes Mazzoco
9 Macroscopic Balance Equations 134
Paul K.Andersen and Sarah W.Harcum
10 Biotechnology Principles 160
Teresa J.Cutright
Part III Methodology
11 Novel Materials and Processes for Pollution Control in the Mining
Industry 201
Alan Fuchs and Shuo Peng

12 Monitoring In-Situ Electrochemical Sensors

210
Joseph Wang

13 Using Roadmaps in Pollution Prevention: The Los Alamos Model

218
Thomas P.Starke and James H.Scott

14 Pollution Prevention and DFE

235
Terrence J.McManus

Part IV Life Cycle

15 Pollution Prevention and Life Cycle Assessment
252
Mary Ann Curran and Rita C.Schenck

16 Application of Life Cycle Assessment

300
W.David Constant

Part V Risk and Decision

17 Risk-Based Pollution Control and Waste Minimization Concepts
305
Gilbert J.Gonzales

18 Elements of Multicriteria Decision Making

329
Abdollah Eskandari, Ferenc Szidarovszky, and Abbas Ghassemi

19 Environmental Considerations and Computer Process Design

369
Victor R.Vasquez

Part VI Case Studies

20 Minimization and Use of Coal Combustion By-Products (CCBs): Concepts
and Applications
400
Harold W.Walker, Panuwat Taerakul, Tarunjit Singh Butalia, William E.Wolfe,
and Warren A.Dick

21 Engineered Wetlands for Metal Mining-Impacted Water Treatment

427
Herold J.Gerbrandt

22 Fuel Blends and Alkali Diagnostics: European Case Study

441
Ingo F.W.Romey
23 Best Practices for the Oil and Gas Exploration, Production, and Pipeline
Transportation Industry 472
Bart Sims

Index 479
 Contributors

Paul K.Andersen, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,

New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Tarunjit Singh Butalia, Ph.D. Research Scientist, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering and Geodetic Science, The Ohio State University,
Columbus, Ohio
W.David Constant, Ph.D., P.E. Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering and
Assistant Director of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Hazardous Substance
Research Center/South and Southwest, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering, Louisiana State University and A&M College, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Mary Ann Curran, M.S. Research Chemical Engineer, Office of Research &
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio
Teresa J.Cutright, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, The
University of Akron, Akron, Ohio
Warren A.Dick, Ph.D. Professor of Soil Science, School of Natural Resources, The
Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio
Abdollah Eskandari, Ph.D. Postdoctoral Researcher, Department of Systems and
Industrial Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
C.Evenson Graduate Degree Candidate, BioEnvironmental Engineering and Science
Laboratory, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Steven P.Frysinger, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Integrated Science and Technology,
James Madison University, Harrisonburg, Virginia
Alan Fuchs, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada
Herold J.Gerbrandt, P.E., Ph.D. Professor, Department of General Engineering,
Montana Tech of the University of Montana, Butte, Montana
Abbas Ghassemi, Ph.D. Executive Director, WERC, New Mexico State Univesity, Las
Cruces, New Mexico
Gilbert J.Gonzales, Ph.D. Ecologist, Ecology Group, Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Los Alamos, and Adjunct Professor, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Sciences,
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Sarah W.Harcum, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
René Reyes Mazzoco, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Chemical Food and Engineering,
Universidad de las Américas-Puebla, Cholula, Puebla, Mexico
Terrence J.McManus, P.E., D.E.E. Intel Fellow and Director, EHS Technologies,
Corporate Environmental Health and Safety, Intel Corporation, Chandler, Arizona
Marc Obladen, Ph.D. Scientific Co-Worker, Institute of Technology of Energy Supply
Systems and Energy Conversion Plants, and Professor, University of Essen, Essen,
Germany
Shuo Peng, Ph.D. Research Assistant, Department of Chemical Engineering, University
of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada
Toni K.Ristau, M.S., J.D. Director of Environmental Services, Department of Power
Production and Energy Services, Public Service Company of New Mexico,
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Ingo F.W.Romey, Ph.D. Head of Chair, Institute of Technology of Energy Supply
Systems and Energy Conversion Plants, University of Essen, Essen, Germany
Rita C.Schenck, Ph.D. Executive Director, Institute for Environmental Research and
Education, Vashon, Washington
James H.Scott, Ph.D. President, Abaxial Technologies, Los Alamos, New Mexico
Harish Chandra Sharma, M.S., M.B.A, REM. Site Liaison and Project Manager,
U.S.Department of Energy, Albuquerque, New Mexico
Bart Sims, B.S. Manager, Hazardous Waste and Waste Minimization, Oil and Gas
Division, Environmental Services Section, Railroad Commission of Texas, Austin,
Texas
Thomas P.Starke, Ph.D. Program Manager, Environmental Stewardship Office, Los
Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico
K.A.Strevett, Ph.D. Professor of Environmental Engineering, BioEnvironmental
Engineering and Science Laboratory, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
Ferenc Szidarovszky, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Systems and Industrial
Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
Panuwat Taerakul Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Geodetic
Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Victor R.Vasquez, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Nevada, Reno, Reno, Nevada
Harold W.Walker, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering and Geodetic Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
Joseph Wang, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, New
Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
Jeff Weinrach, Ph.D. Vice President and Director of Quality Standards, JCS/Novation,
Inc., Albuquerque, New Mexico
L.Wolf Graduate Degree Candidate, BioEnvironmental Engineering and Science
Laboratory, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma
William E.Wolfe, Ph.D. Professor, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
and Geodetic Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
 Acronyms

ACAA American Coal Ash Association

AMD Acid mine drainage
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
C&D Construction and demolition debris
CCA Clean Air Act
CCB Coal combustion by-product
CDF Code of Federal Regulation
CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability Act
CLSM Controlled low-strength material
D&D Decontamination and decommissioning
DfE Design for environment
DQO Data quality objective
E&P Exploration and production
E2 Energy efficiency
EA Environmental assessment
EDDS Environmental Decision Support System(s)
EMIS Environmental Management Information System(s)
EMS Environmental Management System(s)
EPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
ER Environmental restoration
ERP Enterprise resource planning
ESP Electrostatic precipitation
FBC Fluidized bed combustion
FGD Flue gas desulfurization
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GIS Geographic Information System(s)
IADC International Association of Drilling Contractors
IEIS Integrated Environmental Information System(s)
ISO 14001 International Standards Organization’s standard for
environmental management systems
Lb/mm BTU Pound per million British thermal unit
LFA Lime-fly ash-aggregate
LIMB Lime injection multistage burner
LOI Loss on ignition
LQG Large quantity generator
MSW Municipal solid waste
NAAQS Natural Ambient Air Quality Standards
NOx Nitrogen oxide
NOV Notice of violation
NPL National Priorities List
NSPS New Source Performance Standards
OCDO Ohio Coal Development Office
P2 Pollution prevention
PA Preliminary assessment
PC Pulverized coal
POTW Publicly-owned treatment works
PPE Personal protective equipment
PPOA Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessment
Psi Pounds per square inch
PSM Pozzolanic-stabilized Mixture
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
RI/FS Remedial investigation/ feasibility study
ROI Return on investment
RRC Railroad Commission of Texas
SI Site investigation
SO2 Sulfur dioxide
SPE Society of Petroleum Engineers
SR State route
TCLP Toxicity of characteristic leaching procedure
SWMU Solid waste management unit
TRI Toxic Release Inventory
US DOE U.S. Department of Energy
US EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
WM Waste management
Wmin Waste minimization
 Glossary

Anode The positive element of any electrical device from which electricity flows.
Cathodic protection The negative element that draws current away from pipe and other
metal equipment to protect the pipe or equipment from corrosion.
Centrifugal filter A device that spins a fluid at high speed to separate and remove
materials from the fluid.
Closed-Loop drilling fluid system A system of tanks that contains the drilling fluid used
in drilling an oil or gas well so that drilling fluid is not placed in conventional pits.
Coalescor panel A device used in fluid separation equipment that stabilizes fluid flow
through the device (e.g., reduced turbulence).
Construction and demolition debris (C&D) Waste building materials, packaging, and
rubble resulting from construction, remodeling, repair, and demolition operations on
pavement, houses, commercial buildings, plants, and other structures.
Data quality objective (DQO) Qualitative and quantitative statements derived from the
DQO process that clarify study objectives, define the appropriate type of data, and
specify the tolerable levels of potential decision errors that will be used as the basis for
establishing the quality and quantity of data needed to support decisions. It provides a
systematic procedure for defining the criteria that a data collection design should
satisfy, including when and where to collect samples, the tolerable level of decision
errors for the study, and how many samples to collect.
Decontamination and decommissioning (D&D) The process of reducing or eliminating
and removing from operation of the process harmful substances, such as infectious
agents, so as to reduce the likelihood of disease transmission from those substances.
After the D&D operation, the process is no longer usable.
Demolition The wrecking or taking out of any load supporting structural member and
any related razing, removing, or stripping of a structure. Also called Deconstruction.
Design for environment (DfE) It is the systematic consideration of pollution
prevention/waste minimization options during the design consideration of any process
associated with environmental safety and health over the product life cycle.
Drilling fluid The circulating fluid used in drilling oil and gas wells. Drilling fluid
lubricates the drill bit, carries rock cuttings from the wellbore to the surface, and
controls subsurface formation pressures.
Drilling rig The collection of equipment, such as a derrick, used to drill oil and gas
wells.
Enhanced oil recovery Methods applied to oil and gas reservoirs depleted by primary
production to make them productive once again.
Environmental assessment (EA) Document that briefly provides sufficient evidence and
analysis for determining whether to prepare an environmental impact statement or a
finding of no significant impact. Includes a brief discussion of the need for the
proposal, alternatives as required by EPA regulations, the environmental impacts of the
proposed action and alternatives, and a listing of agencies and persons consulted.
Flowline The surface pipe through which oil travels from a well to processing equipment
or storage.
Functional unit The measure of a life-cycle system used to base reference flows in order
to calculate inputs and outputs of the system.
Hazardous waste Solid waste that is hazardous as defined in Title 40 of the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR). Hazardous waste is either specifically listed as such or
exhibits a characteristic of hazardous waste as specified in 40 CFR Part 261, Subparts
D and C.
Heat-Medium oil Oil that is used to transfer heat from one medium to another medium.
ISO International Standards Organization (or International Organization of
Standardization).
ISO 14000 International Standardization of Environmental Management System
Standard which is “that part of the overall management system which includes
organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities, practices, procedures,
processes and resources for developing, implementing, achieving, reviewing and
maintaining the environmental policy.”
Large quantity generator (LQG) A hazardous waste generation site classification. In
general, LQG sites generate more than 2204 pounds of hazardous waste each month.
Life (a) Economic: period of time after which a product, machine, or facility should be
discarded because of its excessive costs due to costs or reduced profitability; (b)
Physical: that period of time after which a product, machine, or facility can no longer
be repaired in order to perform its designed function properly.
Life cycle cost Evaluation of the environmental effects associated with any given activity
from the initial gathering of raw materials from the earth to the point at which all
materials are returned to the earth; this evaluation includes all releases to the air, water,
and soil.
Life cycle impact assessment A scientifically based process or model that characterizes
projected environmental and human health impacts based on the results of the life
cycle inventory.
Life cycle inventory An objective, data-based process of quantifying energy and raw
material requirements, air emissions, waterborne effluents, solid waste, and other
environmental releases throughout the life cycle of a project, process, or activity.
Municipal solid waste (MSW) Residential and commercial solid wastes generated
within a community.
Natural gas processing plant A facility containing equipment and vessels necessary to
purify natural gas and to recover natural gas liquids, such as butane and propane.
Paraffin A heavy, wax-like hydrocarbon commonly found in produced crude oil.
Paraffin often accumulates within wells and the associated surface equipment.
pH A unit of measure of the acid or alkaline condition of a substance. On a logarithmic
scale between 1 and 14, a neutral solution has a pH of 7, acid solutions are less than 7,
and alkaline solutions are greater than 7.
Pipeline compressor station An equipment station on a natural gas pipeline that uses a
device to raise the pressure of the gas in order to move it along the pipeline.
Pollution prevention The use of materials, processes, or practices that reduce or
eliminate the creation of pollutants or wastes at the source.
Pollution Prevention Opportunity Assessment (PPOA) The systematic process of
identifying areas, processes, and activities that generate excessive waste streams or
waste by-products for the purpose of substitution, alteration, or elimination of the
waste.
Publicly owned treatment works Any device or system used to treat (including
recycling and reclamation) municipal sewage or industrial wastes of a liquid nature and
is owned by a State, municipality, intermunicipality, or interstate agency (defined by
Section 502(4) of the Clean Water Act).
Pump-jack A surface unit that imparts a reciprocating motion to a string of rods that
operate a pump in an oil well.
Reagent A substance that, because of the chemical reactions it causes, is used in analysis
and synthesis.
Recycling of materials The use or reuse of a waste as an effective substitute for a
commercial product, as an ingredient, or as feedstock in an industrial or energy
producing process; the reclamation of useful constituent fractions within a waste
material; or removal of contaminants from a waste to allow it to be reused. This
includes recovery for recycling, including composting.
Reserve pit The pit in which a supply of drilling fluid is stored for use in drilling an oil
or gas well. A reserve pit is typically an excavated, earthen-walled pit, which may be
lined to prevent contamination of soil and water.
Return on Investment (ROI) The calculation of time within which the process would
save the initial investment amount if the suggested changes were incorporated into it.
In this calculation, depreciation, project cost, and the useful life are taken into account.
Rod-pump The pump in an oil well that lifts oil to the surface as a result of the
reciprocating action of a rod-string (see also Pump-Jack).
Sand-blasting media Abrasive material used to remove paint and other coating material
from metal surfaces. Sand-blasting media is forced onto the surface using high air
pressure.
Screen-Type filter A filter unit, typically constructed of steel, from which the screen
portion can be removed, cleaned of filtrate, and reused.
Separator A cylindrical or spherical vessel used to isolate the components in streams of
mixed fluids.
Soda ash Sodium carbonate, typically used for pH control.
Sour gas Natural gas that contains hydrogen sulfide or another sulfur compound.
Specific gravity The ratio of the weight of a given volume of a substance at a given
temperature to the weight of an equal volume of a standard substance at the same
temperature.
Strata Distinct beds of rock, which are usually parallel. An individual bed of rock is a
stratum in which the subsurface oil and natural gas are contained within certain strata.
Sulfur dioxide scrubber A device designed to remove sulfur dioxide from the exhaust
gases of engines.
Thermal destruction Destroying of waste (generally hazardous) in a device that uses
elevated temperatures as the primary means to change the chemical, physical, or
biological character or composition of the waste. Examples of the processes could be
incineration, calcinations, oxidation, and microwave discharge. Commonly used for
medical waste.
Toxic release inventory (TRI) Required by EPCRA, it contains information on
approximately 600 listed toxic chemicals that facilities release directly to air, water, or
land or transport off-site.
Turn-key contract For the purpose of drilling an oil or gas well, a contract that calls for
the payment of a stipulated amount to the drilling contractor on completion of the well.
A turn-key contract may be based on a set cost per foot of well drilled.
Vitrification The process of immobilizing waste that produces a glass-like solid that
permanently captures the radioactive materials.
Waste combustion Combustion of waste through elevated temperature and disposal of
the residue so generated in the process. It also may include recovery of heat for use.
Waste management (WM) Activities associated with the disposition of waste products
after they have been generated, as well as actions to minimize the production of
wastes. This may include storage, treatment, and disposal.
Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization
 1
Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization—
Back to Basics
Jeff Weinrach
JCS/Novation, Inc., Albuquerque, New Mexico

Source: The Random House Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd edition,
Unabridged. New York: Random House, 1987.

1 TERMINOLOGY

Prevention, n. (prevent, v.—to keep from occurring; avert; hinder)

Minimization, n. (minimize, v.—to reduce to the smallest possible amount or
degree)
Source, n. any thing or place from which something comes, arises, or is
obtained; origin
Reduction, n. (reduce, v.—to bring down to a smaller extent, size, amount,
number, etc.)
Recycle, n. to treat or process (used or waste materials) so as to make suitable
for reuse

Control, n. (control, v.—to exercise restraint or direction over; dominate;

command: to hold in check; curb; to eliminate or prevent the flourishing or
spread of)
Management, n. (manage, v.—to take charge or care of: to handle, direct,
govern, or control in action or use)
Treatment, n. (treat, v.—to subject to some agent or action in order to bring
about a particular result)

Waste, n. (waste, v.—to consume, spend, or employ uselessly or without

adequate return; use to no avail or profit; squander: useless consumption or
expenditure; use without adequate return; an act or instance of wasting:
anything unused, unproductive, or not properly utilized: anything left over or
superfluous, as excess material or by-products, not of use for the work in
 Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization 2

hand)

Pollution, n. the introduction of harmful substances or products into the

environment
Pollute, v. to make foul or unclean, especially with harmful chemical or waste
products

Process, n. A systematic series of actions directed to some end

System, v. An assemblage or combination of things or parts forming a

complex or unitary whole

2 BACKGROUND

We are a society rooted in language: both the words and their meanings. We choose our
words carefully in an attempt to convey the particular meaning that we have in mind.
Often, over time, words will develop a “life” of their own, and their meanings (as well as
their usage) may become murky and indistinct. In the environmental arena, few words or
groups of words have gone through the constant deluge of interpretation and meaning as
“pollution prevention.” Over the last decade, pollution prevention has gone through an
evolutionary process from specific activities such as solvent substitution (CFCs versus
replacement solvents, as an example) to more systematic approaches that often provide
the core element to cost-effective environmental management systems (EMS).
Throughout this evolutionary process, due primarily to the regulatory oversight that
has placed administrative boundaries on what pollution prevention is and what it is not,
the practical issue has not always been the focus of attention:

What are the most cost-effective methods to reduce or eliminate environmental

impacts without sacrificing health, safety, or other related concerns?

With the advent of EMS and environmental standards such as the ISO 14000 series,
pollution prevention is now more often than not viewed as part of a systematic approach
to environmental improvement that includes planning, information management, and
process management. The last two entries in the glossary above, “process” and “system,”
reflect the conditions under which pollution prevention is now most practically used.
Many organizations have embraced pollution prevention and have already addressed or
are in the midst of addressing the “low-hanging fruit,” the relatively easy pollution-
prevention activities that often do not require a thorough understanding of the processes
that are generating the pollutants. A number of articles in the literature describe success
using nonhazardous solvents, for example, for particular applications such as paint
 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization 3
stripping or cleaning parts. As the number of case studies grows and the nonhazardous
solvents are shown to be successful for particular processes or types of processes, the
trust in using these solvents in similar applications naturally grows as well. But with
organizations now looking for more innovative and cost-effective solutions to reducing
waste and inefficiency, the application of environmental management systems where
processes and systems are key to identifying and implementing opportunities to reduce or
eliminate the waste and the inefficiency is becoming more commonplace.
Nevertheless, it is still helpful to have an understanding of what pollution prevention is
and how it can be applied to reduce or eliminate environmental impacts. This book will
provide many examples of pollution prevention as it relates to particular processes or
industries. The remainder of this chapter will provide an overview of the various aspects
to pollution prevention, with an emphasis on getting beyond the environmental
vernacular and focusing on the practical.
In a simplified way, we can think of pollution prevention in two different contexts: we
can prevent pollutants from being generated in the first place, or we can prevent the
pollutants from being introduced into the environment. In the first case, if the pollutants
are considered waste (which is most often the case), then preventing these materials from
being generated would result in a reduction, minimization, or elimination of the waste
(waste minimization). This usually provides direct economic benefit, since reducing
waste usually coincides with increased efficiency, productivity, and profitability. In the
second case, the pollutants are still being generated but are not being released to the
environment. This should provide some environmental benefits, since the environment is
not being negatively impacted by these materials. However, the economic benefit may
not be as great, since the wastes need to be stored, treated, or disposed, which is an added
cost. Also, the management of these wastes is likely to be a temporary measure and
ultimately there will be some release to the environment unless the wastes can be reused
or recycled. This second case is often referred to as pollution control. This book will
focus on the pollution prevention practices that primarily involve preventing pollutants
and wastes from being generated in the first place.
Pollution prevention is often viewed as part of an overall environmental management
hierarchical framework (in order of preference): source reduction, recycling, treatment,
disposal. This hierarchy typically reflects the degree of economic benefit and
environmental protection that can be realized through these efforts. However, the
hierarchy is not always practical in terms of prioritizing opportunities. For a particular
process, recycling may be a more economically and environmentally viable option to
source reduction given the existing techniques and approaches. By developing an
effective environmental management system, identifying the most cost-effective options
to reducing waste and preventing pollution will be much more likely. Even so, the
hierarchy has been shown to be quite effective in prioritizing pollution prevention and
waste management projects and is still useful as a first attempt to improve environmental
performance.

3 SOURCE REDUCTION
 Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization 4
Source reduction involves the use of processes, practices, or products to reduce or
eliminate the generation and/or the toxicity of pollutants and wastes. Source reduction
includes, but is not limited to, material substitution, process substitution, and process
elimination. Examples of some source reduction applications are described below.

3.1 Material Substitution

Materials that will result in less toxic wastes can be substituted for materials that are
currently being used. Examples include the following:

Shifting from solvent-based paints to water-based paints reduces the toxicity

of paint wastes.
Shifting from chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to nonhazardous solvents will
reduce waste management costs and health risks.

3.2 Process Substitution or Elimination

Process that result in less waste and increased efficiency can be substituted for processes
that are currently being used. Also, entire processes can be eliminated if pollution
prevention is implemented effectively. Examples of some process substitution or
elimination opportunities are described below:

Replacing traditional parts-cleaning processes using solvents with processes

that use supercritical fluids
Using Dry Ice pellets or other blasting techniques to remove paint, in lieu of
solvents.

3.3 Good Housekeeping and Equipment Maintenance

Good housekeeping and equipment maintenance are two environmental management
practices that are often low-cost/high-benefit approaches to pollution prevention. A
common example of good housekeeping practices involves the use of drip pans to catch
leaks or drips from equipment. Equipment maintenance is important for two distinctly
different reasons: (a) routine maintenance will reduce the occurrence of leaks and drips,
and (b) routine maintenance will extend the lifetime of the equipment. When thinking
about pollution prevention and waste minimization, it is important to consider that when
equipment comes to the end of its useful life, it also becomes a waste!

3.4 Water and Energy (Resource) Conservation

Water conservation is critically important in all of our industrial and personal activities.
Non-point-source pollution (caused by water moving over and through the ground
picking up man-made and natural contaminants) can be significantly reduced by limiting
 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization 5
water usage. Also, the cost of treating wastewater is often related to the volume of water
that requires treatment.
Energy conservation and pollution prevention are often thought of as two sides of the
same coin. Waste management is typically an energy-intensive step that, naturally,
provides an additional incentive to pollution prevention and waste minimization. When
we use life-cycle analysis (see below), we identify additional costs and wasteful steps
associated with the energy consumed as part of managing wastes. Also, energy
production usually coincides with particular waste streams and pollutants entering the
environment. This cyclic interdependency between energy efficiency and pollution
prevention signifies the importance of using systematic approaches to achieve significant
environmental improvement. Resource conservation, in general, is a fitting complement
to pollution prevention. As critical components to an integrated environmental
management system, best practices such as pollution prevention, water conservation, and
energy conservation can be more effective in tandem than as separate activities.

3.5 Pollution Prevention in Design and Planning

Designing or planning for a new process or operation is the best time to address pollution
prevention considerations. With an existing process, implementing pollution prevention
can require some possible downtime due to either equipment reengineering or technician
training. This will add greatly to the cost and, therefore, reduce the economic benefit of
the particular pollution prevention approach. Also, in the design phase, all environmental
improvement options are open for evaluation. There are no practical reasons to dismiss
any particular option due to inability to transition from the current process to the
improved process. In the design and planning phase, there is no status quo and, therefore,
no downtime and associated costs.

3.6 Training and Awareness

Training and awareness programs are critical to ensuring that pollution prevention is
realized to its fullest potential. The best ideas will come from people who work with
machines, use materials, and generate waste. These people must be aware that often there
are alternatives and that they constantly need to be thinking about ways to improve
operations, efficiency, etc. It is always more effective to provide pollution prevention
training to people with process knowledge (often, the implementers and stakeholders)
than to provide “pollution prevention experts” with process knowledge to develop a
pollution prevention plan.

3.7 Life-Cycle Analysis

Pollution prevention often utilizes a principle known as “life-cycle analysis” to address
all associated costs and possible solutions associated with a particular pollutant or waste.
Life-cycle analysis, sometimes referred to as “cradle-to-grave” analysis, is often used to
track a particular material from its inception to its ultimate demise. This tracking usually
 Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization 6
requires documentation from other companies (both vendors and customers) in the
material chain. In material substitution, for example, a possible material alternative that
would drastically reduce a particular waste stream may require a process change by the
vendor first. Also, a positive pollution prevention approach implemented by a particular
company could have negative impacts to its customers or contractors. For these reasons,
it is helpful to include vendors, customers, and contractors as part of the pollution
prevention team.

3.8 Inventory Control

Inventory control addresses the effective use of data and information to track the
procurement, use, and management of materials throughout the operation. Inventory
control practices include the following:

“Just-in-time” procurement—purchase only what is needed, in the amounts

needed. This is extremely important for chemicals or materials that have
relatively short shelf-lives and have to be disposed if not used in a timely
manner.
Affirmative procurement—purchase only materials that have been or can be
recycled. Purchase nonhazardous chemicals and materials whenever possible.
Barcoding—use barcodes to track material usage throughout the facility. This
is extremely helpful in limiting the amount of material purchased if it is
known how much of that material may already be stored at the facility.
Through a chemical or material exchange program, chemicals and materials
can be obtained from operations within the facility instead of having to
purchase the material.

4 RECYCLING

For the purpose of this book, recycling is addressed in two different fashions whenever
possible: (a) in-process recycling (recycling materials), and (b) end-of-pipe recycling
(recycling wastes).
In-process recycling implies that a material is recycled before it becomes a waste. If
the material is not being treated as a waste, then waste management regulatory
requirements are not applicable to these processes (no treatment permit required, for
example) because the recycling is in-process. The development of these recycling
activities requires knowledge of the process itself.
End-of-pipe recycling implies that the material being recycled has already become a
waste. In many cases, waste management regulatory requirements are applicable to these
recycling processes. Because the recycling is end-of-pipe, knowledge of the process that
generated the waste is normally not necessary. End-of-pipe recycling as a pollution
prevention alternative does not, therefore, depend on the processes that generated the
waste.
 Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization 7

5 TREATMENT (INCLUDING WASTE SEGREGATION)

Waste treatment is usually the third option after source reduction and recycling
opportunities have been exhausted. Treatment includes techniques such as precipitation,
neutralization, stabilization, and incineration. Waste segregation is also considered as a
treatment alternative. In many cases, waste treatment is performed off-site by a
contracting organization. The waste-generating organization must maintain very careful
records regarding the contents of the waste so the proper waste management procedures
can be carried out. In many cases, information regarding the process that generated the
waste is maintained with the waste information. This information is helpful in
demonstrating an understanding of how (and why) the waste was generated, and it lessens
the risk to the contracting organization that may be treating wastes it would otherwise not
be permitted to treat.
Waste segregation is an environmental best management practice designed to reduce
costs through storing incompatible waste separately, including separating hazardous from
nonhazardous wastes, or regulated from nonregulated wastes. In many circumstances,
mixing regulated with nonregulated wastes renders the entire waste contents regulated
and unnecessarily increases waste management costs.

6 DISPOSAL

If there are no other practical options, disposal needs to be carried out in an

environmentally responsible manner. In the majority of cases, waste disposal will be
provided by a contractor. It is critically important that proper documentation and records
are maintained regarding waste disposal, both by the parent company and by the
contractor. In many regulatory environments, for example, liability for the disposal of
waste is not totally eliminated after the waste is removed from the site.

7 CONCLUSION

Waste minimization and pollution prevention are two components of a broader, effective
system of process improvements that often have both environmental and economic
benefit. As technologies continue to be developed and as new, innovative approaches to
improving efficiency and productivity are implemented, these and other environmental
best practices will likely be drawn in to the overall operational improvement and
excellence that we strive for. If we can effect significant improvement through these
types of approaches, our companies will be more productive, more profitable, and more
competitive in the global marketplace.
References

2 Role of Pollution Prevention in Waste

Management/Environmental Restoration

2. Independent Technical Review of Three Waste Minimization

and Management Programs, p. 3–2. Albuquerque, NM: U.S.
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EPA/600/R-92/088, Washington, DC, May 1992. ABBREVIATIONS
A annual costs after implementation of P2 project B annual
costs before implementation of P2 project C capital
investment for the P2 project CAA Clean Air Act CERCLA
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act GLOSSARY Construction and demolition debris
(C&D) The waste building materials, packaging, and rubble
resulting from construction, remodeling, repair, and
demolition operations on pavement, houses, commercial
buildings, plants, and other structures. Data quality
objective (DQO) Qualitative and quantitative statements
derived from the DQO process that clarify study
objectives, define the appropriate type of data, and
specify the tolerable levels of potential decision errors
that will be used as the basis for establishing the
quality and quantity of data needed to support decisions.
It provides a systematic procedure for defining the
criteria that a data collection design should satisfy,
including when to collect samples, where to collect
samples, the tolerable level of decision errors for the
study, and how many samples to collect. C&D construction
and demolition debris D estimated project
termination/disassembly cost D&D decontamination and
decommissioning DfE design for environment DQO Data
quality objective E installation operating expenses EMS
environmental management system EPCRA Emergency Planning
and Community Right-to-Know Act ER environmental
restoration ISO 14000 International Organization for
Standardization 14000 L number of useful years of a
project MSW municipal solid waste NOV Notice of Violation
NPL National Priorities List PA preliminary assessment
PPE personal protective equipment PPOA Pollution
Prevention Opportunity Assessment RCRA Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act RI/FS remedial
investigation/feasibility study ROI return on investment
SI site investigation SWMU solid waste management unit
TRI toxic release inventory WM waste management WMin/P2
waste minimization/pollution prevention Decontamination
and decommissioning (D&D) The process of reducing or
eliminating and removing from operation of the process
harmful substances, such as infectious agents, so as to
reduce the likelihood of disease transmission from those
substances. After the D&D operation, the process is no
longer usable. Demolition The wrecking or taking out of
any load supporting structural member and any related
razing, removing, or stripping of a structure. Also called
deconstruction. Design for environment (DfE) The
systematic consideration of pollution prevention/waste
minimization options during the design consideration of any
process associated with environmental safety and health
over the product life cycle. Environmental assessment (EA)
A document that briefly provides sufficient evidence and
analysis for determining whether to prepare an
environmental impact statement or a finding of no
significant impact. This document will include a brief
discussion of the need for the proposal, of alternatives
as required by EPA regulations, of the environmental
impacts of the proposed action and alternatives, and a
listing of agencies and persons consulted. Environmental
management system (EMS) A systematic approach to ensuring
that environmental activities are well managed in any
organization. It is very similar to ISO 14000.
Environmental restoration (ER) Cleaning up and restoration
of sites contaminated with hazardous substances during
past production or disposal activities. ISO 14000
International Standardization of Environmental Management
System Standard which is “that part of the overall
management system which includes organizational structure,
planning activities, responsibilities, practices,
procedures, processes and resources for developing,
implementing, achieving, reviewing and maintaining the
environmental policy.” Municipal solid waste (MSW)
Residential and commercial solid wastes generated within a
community. Pollution prevention opportunity assessment
(PPOA) A tool for a company to identify the nature and
amount of wastes and energy usage, stimulate the generation
of pollution prevention and energy conservation
opportunities, and evaluate those opportunities for
implementation. Recycling of materials The use or reuse
of a waste as an effective substitute for a commercial
product, as an ingredient, or as feedstock in an industrial
or energyproducing process; the reclamation of useful
constituent fractions in a waste material; or removal of
contaminants from a waste to allow it to be reused. This
includes recovery for recycling, including composting.
Return on investment (ROI) The calculation of time within
which the process would save the initial investment amount
if the suggested changes were incorporated into it. In
this calculation, depreciation, project cost, as well as
useful life are taken into account. Source reduction Any
practice which: (a) reduces the amount of any hazardous
substance, pollutant, or contaminant entering any waste
stream or otherwise released into the environment prior to
recycling, treatment, or disposal; and (b) reduces the
hazards to public health and the environment associated
with the release of such substances, pollutants, or
contaminants. Thermal destruction Destroying of waste
(generally hazardous) in a device which uses elevated
temperatures as the primary means to change the chemical,
physical, or biological character or composition of the
waste. Examples include incineration, calcination,
oxidation, and microwave discharge. Commonly used for
medical waste.

Toxic release inventory (TRI) Required by the EPCRA, a TRI

contains information on approximately 600 listed toxic
chemicals that the facilities release directly to air,
water, or land or transportation of waste off-site.

Vitrification A process of immobilizing waste that

produces a glasslike solid that permanently captures
radioactive materials.

Waste combustion Combustion of waste through elevated

temperature and disposal of the residue so generated in
the process. It also may include recovery of heat for use.

Waste management (WM) Activities associated with the

disposition of waste products after they have been
generated, as well as actions to minimize the production of
wastes. This may include storage, treatment, and disposal.
3 The Waste Management Hierarchy

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ISO International Standards Organization (or International
Organization of Standardization). Life (1) Economic:
that period of time after which a product, machine, or
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costs or reduced profitability. (2) Physical: that period
of time after which a product, machine, or facility can no
longer be repaired in order to perform its designed
function properly. Life cycle assessment Evaluation of
the environmental effects associated with any given
activity from the initial gathering of raw materials from
the earth to the point at which all materials are returned
to the earth; this evaluation includes all releases to the
air, water, and soil. Life cycle cost The sum of all
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maintaining a project over the study period (i.e., the life
of the product or process). Comparing life cycle costs
among mutually exclusive projects of equal performance has
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impact assessment A scientifically based process or model
which characterizes projected environmental and human
health impacts based on the results of the life cycle
inventory. Life cycle inventory An objective, data-based
process of quantifying energy and raw material
requirements, air emissions, waterborne effluents, solid
waste, and other environmental releases throughout the
life cycle of a product, process, or activity. Pollution
prevention The use of materials, processes, or practices
that reduce or eliminate the creation of pollutants or
wastes at the source. Pollution prevention opportunity
assessment The systematic process of identifying areas,
processes, and activities which generate excessive waste
streams or waste byproducts for the purpose of
substitution, alteration, or elimination of the waste.
POTW (Publicy Owned Treatment Works) Any device or system
used to treat (including recycling and reclamation)
municipal sewage or industrial wastes of a liquid nature
that is owned by a state, municipality, intermunicipality,
or interstate agency [defined by Section 502(4) of the
Clean Water Act].

RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976)

Amending the Solid Waste Disposal Act (SWDA), the RCRA
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hazardous substances from the time of generation to
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generation of hazardous waste is to be reduced or
eliminated as expeditiously as possible. Waste that is
nevertheless generated should be treated, stored, or
disposed of so as to minimize the present and future
threat to human health and the environment (40 USC 6902).

Waste minimization Approaches or techniques that reduce

the amount of RCRAregulated wastes generated during
industrial production processes; the term applies to
recycling and other efforts to reduce waste volume.
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