PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

special or inclusive school environment so as to provide

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY necessary education to all school children. Specifically, they
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION should be able to;
PSE 3101: Special Needs Education
- Describe the nature of and explain the key concepts in/of
A COURSE FOR BACHELOR OF ARTS/SCIENCE WITH
special needs, in relation to educational teaching/learning
EDUCATION AY 2024/2025
field.
Facilitators: Dr. R. Balikoowa & Dr. R. O. Wandera - Reiterate and or stress the role of special needs education to a
teacher.
Course Objectives
- Use the knowledge of Special Needs Education to modify the
The purpose of this course is to equip the teacher trainees and learning/teaching environment.
teacher trainers with the basic Special Needs Education - Describe the different categories/classification of disabilities
knowledge. It enables them to understand the scope, nature, and that may directly or indirectly affect learning and or teaching.
types/categories of special needs students in a school - Tell the intervention strategies for the special needs
environment. It also gives them the opportunity to acquire situations
knowledge about the different types of physical, psychological - Explain the difference between gifted/talented and disabled
and psychosocial disabilities/abnormalities/challenges and their students/children
corresponding interventions. The target group for this specific - Sensitise and inform the different school stakeholders of the
course are the teacher trainees, teacher trainers and those who need for the attention of individual learner’s needs.
are intending to work/working with varying groups of people, in - Etc.
an inclusive and or specialized environment.

Learning Outcomes

It is expected that at the end of the course, the

students/participants, will be in position to work well in either

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Course Outline - Educational services for HI

 
The Nature of Special Needs Education Physical and health impairments
- Key objectives and assumptions of Special Needs - Classification of PHI (musculoskeletal, neuromotor &
Education health disabilities)
- The historic perspective of SNE - Obesity and Eating disorders
- SNE in Uganda today - Causes of PHI
- Placements for exceptional students/learners - Characteristics of PHI

Learning Disability (LD) - Education intervention for PHI

- Types of LDs Giftedness and Talentedness
- Characteristics of students with LD - Causes of giftedness and talentedness
- Causes of LDs - Characteristics of gifted/talented students
- Educational services for students with LDs - Identification of gifted/talented students
 - Intervention services for gifted/talented students
Mental Retardation (MR) 
- Types of MR Intervention through Special Needs Education
- Causes of MR Mode of Delivery
- Characteristics of mentally retarded people Lecturers, discussions and general participation, study
- Teaching the mentally retarded materials and project work

Behavioural and Psychological Disorders Assessment
- Classification of Psychological disorders The assessment and evaluation of this course unit is as below:
- Personality disorders (PDs)

Visual Impairment (VI)  Attendance and participation, at least one carry home
assignment & a general coursework test. This will contribute
- Causes of VI
30%
- Identification and characteristics of VI
 Final semester examination will contribute 70%.
- Educational services for VI students The assessment modes above ARE NOT alternative nor optional.

Communication Disorders (CDs)
Failure to comply with one voids the other!
- Types of CDs
References:
- Characteristics and identification of CDs  Davey, G., Sterling, C., & Field, A. (2014). Complete psychology.
- Intervention services for CDs Routledge.

Hearing Impairment (HI)  Davison, G.C. and Neale, J.M. (2001). Abnormal Psychology (8th
- Identification and characteristics of HI edn) New York: Wiley
 Oltmanns, T.F. and Emery, R.E. (1998) Abnormal Psychology (2nd
- Types of HI edn). New York: Prentice Hall
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

THE NATURE OF SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION

Objectives of Special Needs Education
Special Needs Education is the education of children with
disabilities and or unusual challenges. It is a specially designed Special Needs Education emerged based on some objectives
instructions to meet the unique needs and abilities of disabled which include:
and gifted students. Disabled children have conditions that
adversely affect their progress in convectional/usual education i. To promote early identification of the exceptionality or
programs. Gifted children, who demonstrate high capacity in disability.
intellectual, creative, or artistic areas, may fare poorly in regular ii. To prevent disability and disability conditions in the
education programs, as well.
environment e.g. a falling ceiling or roof in a class, falling
Students Who Require Special Needs Education can be brick, etc.
described as:
iii. Early intervention in order to remove the effects of the
i. Having disability, i.e. absence of body structure. disability.
ii. Having impairment, i.e. having a defective body
structure. iv. To train stakeholders about disability e.g. parents,
iii. Having handicap, which is a result of either impairment neighbors, society members, etc.
or disability, means having a problem that makes a person
not to manipulate or operate within the environment v. To develop and promote relevant tools and materials to be
easily used by students with disability.
iv. Being at risk, which means that the problem cannot be
seen but it is likely to develop. vi. To work in close collaboration with other service
Other concepts used may include; providers e.g. brail specialists.
v) Disorder vii. To act as a resource person for all those people who are in
vi) Dysfunction need. Turn you into a skilled person capably handling
vii) Retardation issues regarding disability.
Note: these terms are usually used interchangeably.
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Assumptions of SNE Provision THE HISTORIC PERSPECTIVE OF SNE

The provision of Special Needs Education is based on several
During the Greek time 1500B.C, most cultures regarded people
assumptions, which include;
with some disabilities to be cursed by gods and were bad omens
i. All students are capable of learning therefore, students
with disability should be given the opportunity to learn. in that family and thus ignored or killed them.
ii. All students have intrinsic value and, so, students with During the Roman days, such people were regarded as
special needs can acquire skills, abilities competences and entertainers for the rich and powerful (Cf. Jests)
knowledge.
iii. Students with special need are like the normal ones than a During the Christian era 13th century, the Catholic Church
difference. So, the disable and the normal students are the founders started providing asylum for the disadvantaged people,
same. especially for the blind.
iv. The teacher for a student with disability should be
carefully and adequately trained. In the renaissance period 1500-1800 (in order era of scientific
v. The disability in a student should be considered at an living and observation by education and humanitarians)—for
individual level. Thus, attending to an individual depends example, in 1785, the first school for the blind was opened in
on the disability.
vi. Disability doesn’t mean inability. Paris by Valentine Huay. Morris Montessori opened the first
school for the mentally retarded. Jean Mark also in France
started caring for the deaf. Pedro de Leon too, started to take
care for the deaf.

During the industrial revolution, especially in the 19th century, a

big attempt towards the production of special equipment was
made. For example, Louis Braille invented the machine called
the Braille; for the blind.
In the 20th century, Education Movement started spreading in
Europe and America to protect and promote the education of the
disabled.
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

In 1905, the litigation and legislation begun to take place in UNISE and EARS under the ministry of Education. The work of
America (Enactment of the law so that these people are EARS was to visit homes and schools to assess them.
educated).
By 1996, many government ministries have now been involved
In Uganda, it is estimated that about 10% of the population of in the delivery services; namely Education Ministry, Ministry of
Uganda is impaired/disabled. Gender and Community Development, Ministry of Health and
By 1988, services to the disabled were being mounted by private Ministry of Labour and Social Welfare.
and charity organisations. There were only 40s for hearing By 1999, many new schools had been opened and about 4,000
problem, 80s for mental problems, 100s for physical and 210s students had been enrolled in the tertiary institutions. About
for visual problems. 5,000 are in secondary schools and 165,000 in primary schools.
In 1989, the UN declaration (convention) was held, which There are also many organisations formed in the country such as
advocated for education for all. NUDIPU, Association of the Blind, Association of the Mentally
In 1990, the Jomtien Conference was held in Thailand in which Retarded, Uganda Society of the Disabled; among many.
all the countries advocated for education for all (EFA). There are about 50 NGO’s in the country working on children
In 1991, DANIDA extended its support in Uganda to promote with disabilities.
education for the disabled.

In 1992, the White Paper was produced, which planned for the
education of the disabled.

In 1993, the UN established and urged all member countries to

ensure that people with disabilities were catered for.

In 1995, the Uganda-DANIDA project was established which

led to the establishment of the important projects; namely,

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Studies of SNE in Uganda The Ministry of Education has tried to achieve these
objectives; thus the EARS project, which is at a district level
SNE in Uganda is still a new area and is characterized by many programme.
problems:
The EARS has several functions namely;
a) Negative attitude towards people who are disabled.
b) Lacking clear policy, especially in areas regarding the i. Sensitizing parents and community and teachers on
handicapped. disability.
c) There are poor trained people to handle the disabled.
ii. Assessment of children with special needs and
d) There is acute shortage of materials
identifying what their problems are.
e) Lacking adequate funding since there is no clear policy
by the government. iii. Organizing education placement of children with
f) Lacking informal education at home; i.e. parents and disability, i.e. where different children with different
caretakers of these people are not sensitized. disabilities can be taken.
Although the role of the government is still minimal, the iv. To offer parental guidance.
provision of services with disability has tended to be multi- v. To promote learning and training of SNE
disciplinary in a number of ministries. The major ministry has vi. To provide in-service training of teachers in terms of
been that of education charged with a number of seminars, workshops and demonstrations.
objectives/duties:
The Ministry of Health also offers SNE services mainly based
a) To initiate and coordinate SNE services in schools and
on medical rehabilitation services; for instance, through
institutions of higher learning.
departments that provide Psychiatry and psychotherapy
b) To devise, promote and maintain low cost educational
materials to be used by the disabled. services.
c) To enable children and adults with disabilities and The Ministry of Gender and Community Development is also
handicap to acquire knowledge and skills to their needs.
providing SNE services for the youths, elderly and women
with disabilities through:

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

- Evolving policies to provide previledges and rights to the SERVICE DELIVERY MECHANISMS (INTERVENTIONS) IN SNE
disabled. Persons with disabilities in schools can be helped to attain their
- Training of persons with disability in various skills; e.g. full potential through a multidisciplinary approach which
at Kireka Rehabilitation Organisation, Oloko-Gulu, involves many different professions such as psychologists,
Rutti-Mbarara, Rwera-Ntungamo Special Needs Educators, counselors, psychiatrists (those who
- Training of National district and sub-county parents deal with the brain), among others.
- Developing and generating activities in those rehabilitation Gearheart (1980) reports that service provision to people with
organisations aimed at teaching and training the disabled; disability can be influenced by several factors which include:
for example carpentry, income saving, tailoring,
bricklaying, 1. The age of the onset of the disability.
crafts, shoe making, among others. 2. The chronological or physical age of a person who is
- Home sensitizing those with disabilities. affected.
- Making referrals to experts and professionals 3. The degree or seriousness of the disability
4. The type of the disability
5. The psychological thinking of the disabled person.
6. The attitudes of the community members.
Kauffman and Hallaham (1982) have identified 3 broad
categories of services which are necessary for students with
disabilities.
a) Direct Services
These are services which are provided to people with disability
in order to remove or alleviate the disability e.g. physio-
therapy (treating the affected bones), psychiatry, etc.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

b) Consultative/ indirect services. the others at a certain point-depending on the need or

necessity.
These are provided to the disability through stakeholders who v) Special school placement (SSP) students with disability are
later on provide the services to the victims or patients e.g. taught in a school designed for children with disability-
training, sensitization (seminars), providing information, etc. this is also called segregation.
c) Related or support services vi) Hospital or home Bound placement. A situation providing
services to a disability which is chronic risky and therefore
These are services provided by the different relevant
needs protection.
professions. Evidence indicates that more than 50% of these
vi) Home-bound and hospital-bound placement. This is a kind
services fall under support services e.g. physiotherapy,
of center that keeps students isolated from every body and
psychiatry, etc. these services can be provided under different
any form of assistance or teaching is provided at home or
placements which include;
hospital where the students/people are.
i) Regular classroom placement (RCP), i.e., helping them vii) Self-contained placement. This means that a child
to learn together with other normal student. This will be removed from the general school population for all
placement is known by many names like, inclusion, academic subjects to work in a small controlled setting
mainstreaming, integration, normalization.
with a special education teacher. Students in a self-
ii) Consultant- teacher placement (CTP) i.e., the students
with disability are left under the care of the classroom contained class self-contained classroom means that your
teacher but an expert teacher works with the classroom child will be removed from the general school population
teacher (moves everywhere) for all academic subjects to work in a small controlled
iii) Itinerant- teacher placement i.e., students with disability setting with a special education teacher. Students in a self-
remain in their school so that an expert teacher keeps contained class may be working at all different academic
moving from one school to another- kind of clustering levels, with different text books and different curricula.
(moves within a given cluster or area).
Self-contained classes offer structure, routine, and
iv) Special classroom placement (SCP). or Resource room
placement (RRP) i.e., students with disability may appropriate expectations, but some students may require a
remain in a regular classroom but are separated from higher level of specialization.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

THE TYPES OF SPECIAL NEEDS CHALLENGES An individual is considered to have a learning disability if
achievement is not commensurate with age and ability levels
There are a number of unique educational challenges. In this in one or more of the above specific areas when provided with
learning experiences appropriate for age and ability levels.
course we shall concentrate on the otherwise commonest and
Students with learning disability have average or above
broad categories.
average intelligence. Their brains just process information
more differently than their nondisabled peers. Therefore, a
person has learning disability when he has normal intelligence
LEARNING DISABILITY
but academic achievement is poor/weak.
Learning disability (LD) means a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or There are THREE basic criteria used to define learning
in using language, spoken or written, which may manifest disability:
itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, spell,
or to do The discrepancy between the potential and the actual
achievement of a person. One looks able but the achievement
mathematical calculations. The term learning disability is a is low. Thus, learning disability is defined as failure of an
general term that describes specific kinds of learning apparently capable child to achieve.
problems which are NOT primarily due to visual, hearing or
motor handicaps, NOR due to mental retardation, emotional The learning problem is not attributed to any other
handicap. The term learning disability is used to refer to the
disturbance, or because of environmental, cultural, or
discrepancy that is not caused by hearing, vision ,or motor
economic disadvantage. The disorder can make it problematic handicaps; mental retardation; emotional disturbance; or
for a person to learn as quickly or in the same way as someone environmental disadvantage, but rather by a presumed
who isn’t affected by learning disability. It can cause a underlying neurological difficulty.
person to have trouble learning and using certain skills.
The disability is usually specific. Therefore, learning
The skills most often affected are: reading, writing,
disability is when an individual is failing to achieve in one
listening, speaking, reasoning, and doing math.
area or few areas.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Types of Learning Disabilities called a fine motor disability. Signs of a motor coordination
disability include problems with physical abilities that require
There are many LDs, as one student varies from another: hand-eye coordination (like holding a pencil or buttoning a
shirt).

Dyslexia: The inability to read and speak fluently. A dyslexic

Characteristics of Students with Learning Disability
student has difficulty processing language (i.e. problems with
Student often display evidence of learning disabilities when
reading and speaking). Signs include poor in articulating
words. they perform below average in school but perform at normal or
above-normal levels on intelligence tests. The student with
Dyscalculia: Difficulty with Mathematics (i.e. Problems with
learning disability may show one or more of the following:
doing Math problems, understanding time, and using money).
A child with a Math-based learning disorder may struggle with Specific academic skills deficits: For example, the students
memorization and organization of numbers, operating of signs,
may have trouble with basic reading skills, reading
and number “facts” (like 5+5=10 0r 5x5=25). Children with
Math learning disorder might also have trouble with counting comprehension, writing written expression , spelling,
principles (such as counting by 2s or counting by 5s) or have Mathematical calculation, and Mathematical reasoning.
difficulty telling time.
Perceptual-motor impairments. The student may have trouble
Dysgraphia: Difficulty with writing and drawing (i.e. Problems in distinguishing shapes and sizes. He or she may have also
with handwriting, spelling and organizing ideas. Symptoms of
difficulty with fine motor activities; such as cutting, writing,
a written language disability revolve around the act of writing
and include problems with neatness and constancy of writing, and coloring. They may lack established handedness and may
make letter, word, and/or number reversals
accurately copying letters and words, spelling consistency,
and writing organization. Memory disorders: Students tend to forget more easily what
Dyspraxia: Difficulty with fine motor skills (e.g. Cutting and they have learnt. Problems experienced by such students
writing) .if an individual has problems coordinating the use of include difficulty in filing certain kinds of new information in
large groups of muscles (arms, legs, trunk) this is known as their short-term memory; maintaining several things in
gross motor disability. Difficulty in performing tasks that memory all at once, such as remembering ideas while creating
require coordinating groups of small muscle (fingers, toes) is

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

a sentence; or finding information in long-term memory. events in a history class, or the months of a year. They are
The students may be deficient in the use of strategies for often confused about time as well.
memorization and haphazard in their approaches to learning. Attention deficits: A student doesn’t have the keen for
attention. He or she has trouble in concentrating and remaining
Speech and language disorders: Students may have
“on task”. He or she rarely finishes what is started, frequently
difficulty with grammar (syntax), meaning (semantics), or
jumps from one activity to another, and is easily distracted by
social use () of language; inability to understand ideas and
competing stimuli. It may be hard for him or her to decide
express themselves ; lack the ability to gesture; may be
what to focus on while listening to a teacher, reading a text, or
verbal but their verbalizations are scattered and difficulty to
looking over a Mathematics problem.
follow(ramble on without getting to the point) such students
are unable to interpret language sounds, understand word Hypo activity. A student may be passive, rather than active
meaning and construct sentences, make sense of spoken learner. He or she tends to be quiet and not participating in the
language that enters their minds, such as when listening to a learning activities.
speech or reading a book. These problems can slow down or
Hyperactivity: A student tends to be too stubborn, too active
even stop the learning of a wide range of skills, including and disruptive. The student has difficulty in sitting still, is
reading, spelling, and writing constantly in motion, is fidgety, and seems driven by an “inner
Spatial or sequencing difficulties: Some students experience motor”.
great difficulty in understanding information presented in Impulsiveness: The student often acts without thinking, has
either a spatial or sequential pattern. Those with spatial poor planning and Organisational skills, responds quickly and
confusion find it hard to see relationships between the makes many errors, and lacks self-regulation skills. Such
individual components of a visual pattern, such as the letters behaviors cause him or her to perform poorly when he needs to
of a word, and elements of a geometric form, or even the slow down and plan work before doing it.
features of a person’s face. Students with sequencing
problems may have trouble keeping track of the order of Emotional liability: The student is moody and often is isolated
things, such as the steps in a Mathematics procedure, the or rejected by his or her peers. He or she may have low self-

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

esteem and is more likely to violate social norms. he or she the non-achiever. Individuals with learning disability lack this
may exhibit inappropriate ways of getting attention, elicits sense of self-esteem; are afraid to take risks for fear of failure,
more negative reaction from others, and may lacking in ridicule and repercussions; lack the ability to acknowledge
social cognition skills. their own strengths; respond to challenges by blaming others
or excusing themselves; and lack the resources for achieving
General coordination deficits: The students may be their goals.
uncoordinated and have difficulty with fine and/or gross motor Slow in processing information: A student takes a long time
skills (e.g. tying shoes, running, hopping, and skipping). Some reading, writing, talking or thinking.
students have muscle coordination problems that make their
writing slow and sometimes hard to read. For example, they Poor peer relationships: difficulty in relating; interpersonal
may have an awkward pencil grip that is difficult to correct. relationship; has few friends; often in fights.
Many teachers notice that these students have much better Perseverates: Repetitive, resists changes in routines.
ideas when they speak than when they write.
Difficulty in making decisions.
Higher order thinking deficiency: some students find it hard to
understand concepts (such as photosynthesis or democracy).
Causes of Learning Disability
Others get confused when learning, gets abstract or uses too
many symbols. Still others fail to use learning strategies The causes of learning disabilities are not clear cut and so no
(techniques that could make learning easier for them), do not one has the exact explanation. But, researchers advance some
understand rules (such as grammar or Math), and have poor theories as to why the LDs develop. They include:
problem-solving skills. These disorders are actually
weaknesses in the mind’s highest abilities, which is why they  Problems during pregnancy and birth. Learning
are called higher order thinking deficiencies. disabilities can result from anomalies in the developing
brain, illness or injury, fetal exposure to alcohol or
Lack of self-esteem. Self-esteem refers to the sense of self
drugs, low birth weight, oxygen deprivation, or by
respect, confidence, identity, and purpose found in an
premature or prolonged labor.
individual. It distinguishes the highly productive person from

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

 Accidents after birth. Learning disabilities can also Identification of Learning Disability
result of head injuries, malnutrition, or by toxic
Learning disabilities are typically not diagnosed until
exposure (such as heavy metals or pesticides).
children reach school age because this is when formal
 Poverty. Learning disabilities can be a result of lack of instruction in reading, writing, Math, listening, speaking,
parental reinforcement of academics. Parents living in and reasoning begins. The diagnosis of a child with learning
poverty who don’t read to their children at an early age, disabilities usually proceeds on the basis that the child has
expose them to appropriate communication networks, average or above average intelligence and a discrepancy
feed them nutritious food and allow them to interact between expected levels of achievement and actual
with intellectually stimulating environments can place achievement. It is not easy or obvious to conclude that
their children at a risk for moderate to severe learning someone is learning disabled. The most effective way is to
disabilities.
assess different students. This assessment includes
achievement tests, which can be conducted in five (5) ways:
 Genetic influences. Experts have noticed that learning
disabilities tend to run in families and they think that i. Norm-referenced assessment; where a student’s score is
heredity may play a role. compared with the scores of the other students in the same
group.
 Environmental impacts. Infants and young children are ii. Criterion-referenced assessment; where a student’s score is
susceptible to environmental toxins (poisons). For compared against the standard that has been set. The
example, you may have heard how lead (which may be standard acts as the cut-off point, for example, Makerere
found in some old homes in form off lead paint or lead University uses 50% as the standard set.
iii. Process-ability assessment; where one tends to measure a
pipes) is sometimes thought to contribute to learning
student’s ability in all perceptual or psycholinguistic areas.
disabilities. Poor nutrition early in life may also lead to iv. Informal reading inventory; which deals with the testing of
learning disabilities later in life. the reading ability. The aim is to check proficiency,
omission, substitution, and reversion.
 Teacher’s being irresponsible in instruction /teaching, v. Direct observation; where a student’s behavior is repeatedly
which will make students lose interest. assessed in a natural situation by directly watching and
 Mode of instruction. hearing him or her.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

The Educational Services for Students with Learning  Using concrete examples and demonstrations to help
Disability the student get the message better.

The neurological disorder causes difficulty in organizing  Remedial learning; allowing learning-disabled
information received, remembering them, and expressing students to manage their learning at their own pace so
information and therefore affects a person’s basic function that they can participate actively and often.
such as reading, writing, comprehension, and reasoning.
However, these students with learning disabilities can be The teachers may also help students to work around
taught effective learning strategies that will help them individual learning disorders. For example, teachers may
approach tasks more effectively. allow a student with memory problems to use a tape
recorder to dictate notes and record class lectures.
Learning disability is highly an academic accomplishment,
and, therefore, it is usually identified until when students are
at school. Therefore, the intervention strategies are directed
towards the learning situation. Several different instructional
techniques are used for students who have problems of
learning, remembering, and communicating information.
Among these techniques are:

 Task training; which involves modifying learning

through breaking tasks into smaller units. These people
cannot conceptualize (understand) when a lot is taught.

 Learning strategies instruction; which is designed to

teach a student specific learning skills, such as strategies
to enhance memorization or problem-solving skills.

 Individualized instruction in which the teacher should

endeavor to have the student to learn individually.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

MENTAL RETARDATION c) A disorder, which is recognized during the developmental

or growing years, generally considered earlier than 18 years
Mental Retardation (MR) refers to the significant sub-average
general intellectual functioning resulting in or associated with of age. This means that mental retardation becomes
concurrent impairments in adaptive behaviour, manifested during apparent in children before the age of 18. If the onset is
developmental period of an individual. There are three after the age of 18, the condition is formerly classified as
components inferred from this definition, all of which must be dementia even though the symptoms may be identical to
present in order to correctly diagnose one with mental what would qualify for mental retardation in a young
retardation. person. Thus, mental retardation is diagnosed before the
age of 18.
a) A learning deficit, which is general in nature, differing from
specific learning disorders, and which is significant in Therefore, mental retardation is when a person has certain
severity (usually interpreted to mean an IQ of below 70). In limitations in mental functioning and has difficulties in
other words, mental retardation, learning abilities are learning basic skills necessary for daily living (such as
impaired generally, rather than in specific areas. Mental
retardation affects an individual’s capacity for learning, but it
communication, self-care, and getting along in social situations
is not a learning disorder in the academic sense. Mental and school activities). These limitations will cause a child to
retardation is distinguished from learning disabilities that are learn and develop more slowly than a typical child. For
specific to academic learning such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, instance, children with mental retardation may take longer to
and dyscalculia. Whereas learning disabilities relate to learn to speak, to walk, and take care of their personal needs
specific deficits in the ability to acquire academic skills like
such as dressing or eating.
reading and Math, Mental Retardation relates to basic and
broad impairments in cognitive functioning that affect the Mental retardation is not a disease. You can’t catch mental
individual’s ability to process and retain information across
the board. retardation from anyone. Mental retardation is also not a type
of mental illness, like depression. There is no cure for mental
b) Impairments (limitations) in adaptive behavior which retardation. However, most children with mental retardation
include, among others, deficits in communication, self-care, can learn to do many things. It just takes them more time and
socialization, and mobility. Adaptive behavior refers to the effort than other children.
skills needed to live independently.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

The definition of mental retardation highly emphasizes low Types of Mental Retardation
levels of intelligence determined by IQ (Intelligent Quotient),
1. Mild mental retardation: persons with mild mental
which is:
retardation have an IQ scores ranging from 55 to 70. Mildly
MA x 100 affected individuals often cannot be distinguished from
CA normal children until they attend school. They can cope up
Where; with the normal life and learn with other students. They are
educable, and the term Educable refers to some ability to
MA is one’s mental age, which is the measure of intellectual read and write, although academic achievement of these
ability, the age suggested by someone’s mental development. individuals is less than that of the general population.
Although they learn more slowly, people with mild
CA is chronological age, which is physical age, or some body’s
retardation usually can develop academic skills. They are
real age.
able to learn so much that, as adults, some are no longer
An IQ score of 100 is the mean (average) for the general identified as being retarded. As adults, they may function
population. quite well in society and can work and live in community.
Some are able to live independently, or in a group, home or
Generally, IQ scores for mentally retarded individuals are, by with little supervision. Some may marry and have children.
definition, seventy (70) or below. Mentally retarded
individuals are typically classified into four different 2. Moderate mental retardation: moderately (trainable)
categories based on their level of functioning or as severity as retarded people have IQ scores ranging from 40 to 54. The
measured by IQ. moderately retarded cannot learn academic subjects in
school. It is hard for them to learn in the normal situation.
Their training requires special training or special schools.
They learn best through repetition method. Such people are
trainable, especially in vocational skills, hence the term
Trainable Mental Retardation (TMR). The term Trainable
refers to the acquisition of adaptive or self-help

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

skills such as feeding, dressing, toilet training. They can be Causes of Mental Retardation
trained in low level skills necessary for independent living.
As adults, most can work at unskilled or semiskilled jobs These are the disorders that occur as a fetus develops during
with supervision. Few, if any, moderately mentally retarded pregnancy, and problems during or after birth. Some cases of
individuals are able to function independently as adults. mental retardation have multiple causes. Mental retardation
can start any time before a child reaches the age of 18. There
3. Severe Mental Retardation: Severely retarded individuals are many attributed causes of mental retardation. The most
have IQ scores ranging from 25 to 39. They are able to common include the following
learn only the most self-care skill. They may learn to talk
during childhood. In adulthood, they can perform simple Genetic conditions. Sometimes mental retardation is caused by
tasks with close supervision. They often live in group abnormal genes inherited from parents, errors when genes
homes or with families. People with severe mental combine, or other related reasons. The commonest examples of
retardation tend to display more behavioral problems and to genetic conditions include Downs syndrome, fragile X
be far less socially developed than higher functioning syndrome and Phenylketonuria (PKU). The DS is an example
mentally retarded individuals do. of chromosomal disorders which involves an abnormal number
of chromosomes or changes in the structure of a chromosome.
4. Profound Mental Retardation: This level has an IQ scores Down syndrome occurs when people inherit all or part of an
below 25. Profoundly retarded individuals can understand extra copy of a pair of chromosomes known together
some language, but they little ability to talk. They often chromosome 21. Although regarded as genetic disorders,
have a neurological condition that accounts for their
chromosomal disorders are not necessarily inherited. Both
retardation. The needs of such people are largely met by
parents may have normal genes, with the deficit resulting from
others. Many severely/profoundly retarded individuals
a random error when chromosomes reproduce.
require life-long care and supervision and are often
confined to institutions. Fragile X syndrome is an example of single-gene defects.
People with Fragile X syndrome inherit a defective gene that
results in a weak spot on the X chromosome, a sex

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

chromosome. The weak part of the chromosome is susceptible Physical traumas to the brain can too cause mental retardation.
to breaking. Fragile X syndrome is more likely to cause Brain damage may result from deprived environment and
retardation in males than in females. malnutrition, accidental blows to the head, severe child abuse,
and childhood exposure to such toxins as lead and mercury.
Other genetic causes of mental retardation are inborn errors of
metabolism. They involve inheritance of a defective gene Health problems, which may result from infectious ailments
unable to produce enzymes or proteins needed for critical cell during childhood. These can easily be preventable, especially
functions. They include the PKU and Tay-Sachs disease. through immunization but if suffered by a child may cause
mental retardation. Such diseases include measles, chicken pox
Problems during pregnancy, which may lead to MR when a and whooping cough, which may lead to encephalitis and
baby does not develop inside the mother properly. There may, meningitis all of which can potentially cause brain damage.
for example be problem with the way the baby’s cells divide as Extreme malnutrition (not eating right), inadequate and or
it grows. This may be due to a variety of problems during a inappropriate medical care and exposure to poisons like lead or
woman’s pregnancy. Such problems may include malnutrition, mercury.
alcohol and other drug abuse, viral infections like rubella and
untreated diseases like diabetes mellitus among others. The
The Common Characteristics of Mentally Retarded People
pregnant mother might have also got exposed to environmental
toxins like lead and mercury or radiation. Fetal alcohol Intellectually, they tend to experience difficulties in all such
syndrome results from excessive consumption alcohol during functions. Mental retardation here means that mental skills are
pregnancy, but it is the most preventable cause of MR. sub-average and intellectual sub-functioning is the feature.
Such individuals experience poor memory, poor attention,
Problems at birth which may be when a baby gets during
perception and lack of understanding among others.
labour and birth such as not getting enough oxygen, premature
birth, prolonged birth, very low birth weight and reduction of Academically, persons with MR are likely to be slower in
oxygen to the infant’s brain, he or she may have mental reaching levels of academic achievement equal to their peers,
retardation. due to sub-average intellectual functioning. They are slow in

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

learning, poor in academic achievement. They generally They have difficulty with the generalization of skills. The
perform poorly in all academic areas. inability to generalize is related to the inability to think
abstractly.
They lack adaptive skills. Individuals with mental retardation
They tend to experience fragile health. They are always sickly
have a significantly impaired ability to cope with common life
and weak.
demands and lack some daily living skills expected of people
in their age group and culture. They may always experience behavioral (not behaving in the
normal way), such as aggression, emotional instability, social
They lack motivation, and it is a problem to such individuals
incompetence (being antisocial).
because it is a learned behaviour. Constant comparison to
others who perform in many areas with apparent ease can be Identification of Mentally Retarded Students
frustrating and diminish motivation, diminish self-esteem, and
sometimes create “learned helplessness” and belief in failure. Mental retardation is essentially a disability of low mental
behavioral operations and intellectual abilities. To identify
They may experience retarded speech. Due to diminished them, there are three major assessment techniques:
intellectual functioning and associated neurological conditions,
many children with mental retardation have delayed language a) Using IQ tests, such as the Stanford-binet and Wechsler
and speech problems. intelligence tests
b) Adaptive behavioral scales, which are used to assess the
Retarded physical growth, physically, the may experience daily living skills of people such as eating, dressing
slower physical development, just like it is with language skills, toilet skills etc.
development; for instance, delayed walking, toilet training and c) Direct observation of the physical symptoms, such as
are likely to have some forms of associated physical problems. very short stature, very big or small heads.
They may be too big or too small, including having very small
heads.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Teaching the Mentally Retarded. 

Giving feedback: individuals with mental retardation
Most people with mental retardation have the capacity to learn, require immediate feedback in order to make a
advance intellectually, develop job and social skills, and connection between their answers, behaviors, or
become full participants in society. They may marry, have questions and teacher’s responses. A delay in providing
feedback may interrupt the connection between cause
families, and be indistinguishable from other people. In order and effect in the student’s mind, and the point will be
to achieve their potential, mentally retarded children need lost.
special education and training, which ideally begins in infancy 
Learning by doing: most people are kinesthetic learners
and continues until they establish an adult role. who learn by doing, by completing a hands-on tasks and
appreciating the results. This is especially true for mentally
The students whom teachers generally deal with mild retarded students who cannot comprehend abstract lectures
intellectual disabilities. As children, they are able to learn and very easily at all. For example, a teacher who wants to
participate in your classroom. Useful strategies that you, as a teach the concept of gravity has several options: she can tell
teacher, can use while teaching such people include the students that things are pulled towards the earth by a force
following: known as gravity: she can show how gravity works by
dropping something; or she can instruct the students to drop

Task analysis, that is breaking down the skill or project something while teaching the concept. Chances are that the
being taught into small tasks. It is helpful to break tasks students will retain more information from dropping
down into small steps and introduce the task one step at something, than simply being told how dropping (gravity)
time to avoid overwhelming the individual. Once the works.
student has mastered one step, the next is introduced.

Using visual aids: verbal directions and lectures are not 
Providing constant practice and adequate time for work. In
the most effective teaching approaches and unreliable teaching these students, you will need to allow the student
methods for teaching mentally retarded students. more time and practice than generally given to students.
Mentally retarded individuals do better in environments You should embed activities into the context of the daily
where visual aids such as charts, pictures, and graphs life. This will help the student to complete the work
are used as much as possible. Such visual components because they will be more familiar with the material and
are useful for helping students to understand what is more capable of handling it.
expected of them.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)


Including the student as often as possible in the daily BEHAVIOURAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
activities of the classroom.
 Psychological disorder can be described as deviation from the
Using the individualized education program, which is the
idea that student with disability should be taught alone. statistical norm. for instance, like we saw previously, in the
 area of learning difficulties, if an IQ is significantly below the
Using slow and simple pacing of lessons because their
capacity, attention and memory is small or slow. norm of 100 (usually 70 or less), it is considered indicative of

learning difficulties requiring remedial help and attention.
Developing age-appropriate content.
However, not every deviation is indicative of psychopathology
(to do with mental disorders).

Classification of Psychological Disorders

Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists classify disorders on
the basis of the symptoms the sufferer displays. Classification
is based on some common objective criteria that can be used
reliably by different practitioners. Classification can also be
important for understanding the causes of disorders and for
developing effective therapies. Classification of psychological
disorders was first done by World Health Organisation (WHO)
and the American Psychological Association (APA), which
first published the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) in
1952. However, the commonly referred to version is the 1994
DSM-IV. The DSM-IV encourages rating disorders on a five
separate dimensions called axes (I-V).

21
 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Axis I: Clinical disorders (anxiety disorders, mood disorders,  Good self-knowledge and awareness of one’s own
schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. feelings
 The ability to exercise voluntary control over behavior
Axis II: Personality disorders (anti-social personality disorder,
schizotypical personality disorder) and Mental retardation  Good self-esteem and an appreciation of one’s worth.

Axis III: General medical conditions (infectious and parasitic  An ability to form and maintain affectionate
diseases, diseases of the circulatory system, injury and relationships with others
poisoning).
 Productivity-a positive and planned approach to life.
Axis IV: Psychosocial and environmental problems (problems
with primary support group, educational problems, economic The commonly used terms in the grouping and
classification of Psychological Disorders (according to
problems)
Davey, 2004; Davison & Neale, 2001) include:
- Aetiology
Axis V: Global assessment of functioning - Anorexia nervosa (AN; as discussed among eating
disorders)
Note: Axis V of the DSM-IV attempts to measure the - Anti-social personality
individual’s current level of adaptive functioning, and assumes - Anxiety Disorders
that good psychological health is dependent on adaptive - Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD,
ADD)
functioning in areas of social relationships, employment and
- Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental
use of leisure time. In most cases, good psychological health Disorders)
can be indicated by the presence of most of the following - Attribution
attributes: - Bipolar Disorder (Manic-Depressive Illness)
 An efficient perception of reality - Borderline Personality Disorder
- Bulimia nervosa
- Catastrophic misinterpretation of bodily

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

sensations Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence

- Depression
- Delusions Children can suffer many of the psychological disorders
- Eating Disorders mentioned earlier, though basic emotions like anxiety and
- Externalizing disorders depression may manifest themselves in very different ways
- Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) early in their lives. And, because children are less able than
- Hallucinations adults to communicate their psychological problems to us,
- Internalizing disorders
- Learned helplessness childhood disorders have tended to be categorized in terms of
- Mood disorders whether symptoms are externalized or internalized.
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Externalizing disorders are those that are manifested as
- Panic Disorder disruptive within the child’s external environment, or reflect
- Personality disorders behaviours that are considered to demonstrate lack of control
- Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as defined by normal standards of conduct and include
- Schizophrenia
syndromes associated with behaviour problems, such as
- Social Phobia (Social Anxiety Disorder)
- Studies Recruiting Only Men Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and conduct
- Studies Recruiting Only Women disorders (CDs) (child’s behaviour is defiant and violates
- Suicide and parasuicide accepted societal norms. These are easily diagnosed and
- Vulnerability factors reported to account for about 50 per cent in children.
Internalizing disorders, on the other hand, represent the child’s
NOTE: You are encouraged to find out what each of these experience of emotions such as anxiety and depression, and
terms may refer to, in relation to the course objective. You
can reflect the difficulties that a child is having in
may consult books like ones referenced in the course
understanding and expressing their emotions.
outline, internet sources among others. The following
website may be useful here:

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

During the time they develop physically and psychologically, Interventions/Treatment of Psychological Disorders
children are bound to experience events and circumstances that As implied at the start of classification,
trigger either acute or chronic bouts of anxiety of depression. treatment/interventionary measures highly depend on the
What is though striking about these episodes is that even the cause/class of the disorder. We shall highlight here the
best intentioned of parents often fail to identify bouts of following:
anxiety and depression in their children, and do not have a i. Biological/medical treatment; especially if the cause
good insight into the levels of distress their offspring suffer. was medical like due to infections like syphilis, HIV,
among others. This may involve the use of
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD): is a primarily behavioural pharmacotherapies; thus, use of anti-psychotic drugs to
disorder that is characterized by persistent difficulties with treat schizophrenic symptoms, and anti-depressants and
attention span, impulsivity and hyperactivity. A well-known anxiolytic drugs to treat mood and anxiety disorders.
and common subtype of ADD is Attention Deficit ii. Psychotherapies; any form of treatment that attempts to
Hyperacativity Disorder (ADHD); which affects about 3-6% address the psychological factors (rather than biological
of the population and the ratio of boys to girls is roughly 3:1. factors) that may be associated with psychological
According to Casey, Rourke and DelDotto (1996), about 30% disorder. This includes the Freudian approach of
of children with ADHD may have specific learning disabilities Psychoanalysis that involves the use of techniques like
that include academic skills like mathematics, spelling and a) free association b) transference, c) dream analysis
reading. and d) interpretation
iii. Humanistic (Client-centered and Gestalt) therapies
The causes of ADHD rang from biological/genetic, iv. Behaviour therapies (based on conditioning, etc)
psychological/environmental. (We can suggest a variety of
these).

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT c) The pupil, which is a hole in the eye (an opening in the iris)
which allows light to enter. When more or less
One of the basic senses of human being is vision. Vision is the light is needed to see better, the pupil becomes larger or
ability to respond to light, or the ability to see the features of smaller through the movement of the muscle of the iris.
objects we look at, such as colour, shape, size or details, d) The iris, which is a coloured ring or part behind the
depths and contrasts. Vision is achieved when the eyes and aqueous humor. It controls the amount of light entering the
brain work together to form pictures of the world around us. eye through the pupil. The iris closes up the pupil in bright
Vision begins when light rays bouncing off the surface of the light and opens it wide in dim light.
objects. These refracted light rays enter the eye and are e) The lens, which is a clear part of the eye behind the iris that
transformed into electronic signals, which leave the eye via the refracts light to form images. It helps to focus light rays, or
optic nerve and travel to the visual area of the brain. Brain images, on the retina.
cells then decord the signals into images, providing us with f) The retina, which is the position at the back of the eye
sight. where images are focused or formed. The retina converts
the light rays into the nerve or electrical signals that can be
The eye is the main organ for vision which detects light from
sent to the brain.
the environment and directs and transmits it to the brain for
g) Optic nerves, which are a bundle of nerve fibers that carry
processing. There are several parts of the eye which interact to electrical signals from the retina to the brain.
bring about vision, and they include:

a) The cornea, which is a transparent, protective surface of the

eye through which light is admitted to the interior of the
eye.
b) The aqueous humor, which is chamber filled with a clear,
watery fluid. The aqueous humor helps the eye maintain its
shape and delivers oxygen and nutrients to the cornea and
the lens.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Diagram of the Human Eye Visual acuity is the ability to see details, such as symbols or
letters of specific sizes. Visual acuity is how well or clear a
person can see objects from different positions as well as
perceiving the shape of objects in their direct line of vision. It
is a measurement of the ability to distinguish details and
shapes of objects. One way to measure visual acuity is with
standardized chart of symbols and letters known as the Snellen
Chart, invented in 1862 by a Dutch ophthalmologist Herman
Snellen. He derived a simple formula that determines the
relationship between the distance at which a letter is read by
the patient to the distance at which that same letter is read by a
normal eyed. Normal vision is described as 20/20. A person
with any degree of sight loss has a visual acuity with a higher
second number, such as 20/200. An individual with a visual
acuity of 20/200 must stand at 20ft to see objects that a person
with a normal sight can see at 200ft.

Peripheral vision is how wide a person can see and distinguish

the presence of colour, objects or motion outside the direct line
When all these parts work well, a person’s vision is perfect.
of vision. A person is able to move freely and perceive objects
The ability to see is referred to as visual efficiency. Visual
because of peripheral vision.
efficiency suggests that there must be light and light must
refracted properly, and the brain must receive it and process it. But when one or more parts of the eye or brain that are needed
There are two basic elements of visual efficiency, namely: to process images become diseased or damaged, there may be
inability to perceive light, leading to poor visual efficiency;
o Visual acuity
o Peripheral vision hence visual impairment. For instance, without the

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

retina, the eye cannot communicate with the brain, making The lack of light perception is known as total blindness or total
vision impossible. visual impairment. Totally blind students learn via braille or
other non-visual media.
The term visual impairment is used to describe any kind of
vision loss, ranging from someone having no sight at all to Causes of Visual Impairment
someone who has partial vision loss. It is the inability to
Some babies have congenital blindness, which means they are
perceive light, leading to poor or no vision. There are two
visually impaired at birth. Congenital blindness can be caused
categories of visual impairment, namely;
by a number of things. It can be inherited, for instance, or
a) Low vision caused by an infection (like German measles) that is
b) Blindness transmitted from the mother to developing fetus during
Low vision is a condition in which there is functional use of pregnancy. However, people rarely lose their eyesight during
vision but which requires a lot of adaptation using technology. their teen years. If they do, it is usually caused by some of the
People with low vision use a combination of vision and other following:
senses to learn, although they may require adaptations in - An injury, like getting hit in the eye or head with a
lighting or the size of print, and, sometimes, Braille. baseball
- Having an automobile or motorcycle accident
Blindness is a vision loss so pronounced that the child learns
- Malnutrition
best through touch and listening, rather than through sight,
- Infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, meningitis, and
even with adaptive aids. A blind person may be either legally measles
or totally blind.
Other conditions that may cause vision loss after birth include
Legal blindness is defined as very little sight but with no trachoma, retinitis pigmentosa, macular degeneration, diabetic
functional use of the sight. People who are legally blind have retinopathy, glaucoma, cataracts, strabismus, myopia,
some vision, but have lost enough sight that it requires them to hyperopia and astigmatism.
stand at 20ft from an object to see it as well as someone with Trachoma occurs when a very contagious microorganism
perfect vision who could see the same at 200ft away. called chlamydia trachomatis causes inflammation in the eye.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Retinitis pigmentosa is an inherited condition that brings causes loss of vision. Cataracts often form slowly and usually
degeneration of the retina, and it frequently begins as what is affect people in their 60s and 70s, but sometimes babies are
commonly called night blindness. The most common pattern born with congenital cataracts. Symptoms include double
of development is thus; at approximately the age of ten or vision, cloudy or blurry vision, difficulty seeing in poorly lit
twelve, the youngster begins to experience some difficulty in spaces and colours that seem faded.
seeing at night and in poorly lighted areas. The visual loss is Glaucoma is an increase in pressure inside the eye. The
progressive, so that the individual is usually legally blind by increased pressure impairs or reduces vision by damaging the
young adulthood and slowly loses more and more vision optic nerve.
thereafter. Total blindness often results. There is no known Strabismus, or cross eyes is a condition in which both eyes are
treatment. unable to gaze at an object at the same time. It is caused by a
Macular degeneration is a gradual and progressive muscle imbalance.
deterioration of the macula, the most sensitive region of the In myopia (nearsightedness or short sightedness), images are
retina. The condition leads to progressive loss of central vision focused in front of the retina, making far away objects appear
(the ability to see fine details directly in front) though the blurry. In simple terms, myopia is where the eye is large and
person will be able to see his peripheral vision. Symptoms may thus near vision is better than distance.
include increased difficulty reading or watching TV, or Hyperopia results from an image being focused behind the
distorted vision in which straight lines appear wavy or objects retina, meaning that the person will have trouble focusing on
look larger or smaller than normal. objects that are close up. In other words, hyperopia is where
Diabetic retinopathy occurs when the tiny blood vessels in the the eye is small and thus one’s distance vision is better than the
retina are damaged due to diabetes. People with retinopathy near vision.
may not have any problems seeing at first, but if the condition Astigmatism results from curvature of the cornea, which keeps
gets worse, they can become blind. light rays from focusing properly in one area of the retina. This
Cataracts are cloudy areas in part or all of the lens of the eye. condition results in the inability to focus on objects far or near.
In people without cataracts, the lens is crystal clear and allows
light to pass through and focus on the retina. Cataracts prevent
light from easily passing through the lens, and this

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Identification of Visual Impairment - Eyes bouncing around, dancing eyes or strange eye
While total blindness can easily be identified, low vision may movements
be difficult to identify. Low vision can be identified through - Eyelids not completely covering the eyes when one closes
the observation of certain symptoms in the eye which include: them.
The disability can be identified scientifically using the
- Difficult to read, manifested in confusing letters or words principle of visual acuity, which tries to measure attention,
when reading, holding books and other reading materials capacity and processing abilities. The most common scientific
very close or too far from the face of the intending reader
technique of measurement is the use of Snellen Chart. The
and sometimes misreading.
chart is used to detect the ability to read letters, figures and
- Writing less clearly and having trouble writing on a line.
objects with different sizes, shapes and in different positions.
- Excessive rubbing of the eye
- Shutting or covering one eye while trying to see something
- Experiencing trouble identifying or differentiating colours Characteristics of Students with Visual Impairment
- Having difficulty identifying faces or objects Although students with visual impairment experience severe
- Complaints of eyes itching and double vision limitations in the environment, they manifest certain basic
- Corking or tilting the head in order to see or read something characteristics.
- Not blinking at sudden bright lights a) In the area of language, there is a tendency for such
- Blinking the eyes more frequently than normal students to develop some verbalism—talking and asking
- Not looking at others in the eyes (not making eye contact) questions a lot.
- Feeling for objects on the ground instead of looking with b) Intellectually, they develop high tactual and synthetic touch
one’s eyes and feeling (the ability to detect situations in the
- Having squinting (cross) eyes in the case of strabismus or environment by touching, hearing and feeling). They also
‘heteropia’, which is a condition where eyes are not aligned develop high memory and conceptualization.
properly. c) Physically, they suffer mobility limitation, movement and
- Eye signs which are very common and recurring, such as orientation. They are unable to master the environment;
swellings, inflamed or watery eyes.
although some with high capacity for mental orientation to
- Constant eye pains and headaches, dizziness or nausea.
allow them move around.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

d) Academically, these people can be easily taught in the equipment include braille, which are used to write braille (a
regular classroom, but may need assistive technology. They network of dots embossed on paper and read by touch);
have limitations in reading and writing but manifest well computers equipped with screen readers or synthetic speech
developed listening skills, attentiveness and sensitivity. systems (a sound board and microphone for inputting
spoken words and programme to translate the words into a
e) Socially, they tend to experience feelings of isolation form the computer can use); reading machines equipped
and limited interaction, but most of them are friendly, with cameras that can scan lines of print which computers
hyperactive, talkative and humorous. However. Many also can then convert to synthesized speech, typewriters, among
suffer from emotional instability, especially rude responses others.
and feeling of loneliness.  Use of walking devices which can help the individual to
find his or her way, for example, the white cane the path
Education Services to the Visually Impaired Students finder.
Visually impaired students can be taught in schools for blind.  Orientation training which helps a person develop the
However, children with visual impairment can also attend mental map of the area by walking him or her around.
regular classes with their sighted peers in both private and  Mobility training; that is, teaching an individual to
public schools. In part, this is due to the many technological travel or move around independently in the school and
innovations for teaching visually impaired people. SNE community, often with an assistive device, such as the
educators need to play a big role in helping the visually white cane.
challenged students in many ways, some of which include  Exposing them to medical services like surgery,
below: medicine use, grafting, among others.
 Use of corrective lenses to improve on the focusing on  Using a reading and walking buddy, to assist in
light so that vision is enhanced, especially those with directing the path and reading print text.
myopia and hyperopia, and tinted lenses to prevent  Periodic examination of the eye in order to identify
strong light which can damage. early enough the type and seriousness of the disability.
 Use of reading and writing equipment (technological The eye examinations are performed by the following
aid) which can facilitate their reading and writing. Such experts:

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

i) Ophthalmologists, who are the medical physicians HEARING IMPAIRMENT

trained to examine the eye, diagnose and treat eye
disorders, perform surgery, prescribe glasses and Another valuable human sense and also key in learning is the
dispense medicine. ability to respond to sound and, therefore hear things in the
ii) Optometrist, the eye-care specialists trained to examine environment. The hearing is, too, fundamental in learning,
the eye and test and prescribe eyeglasses or contact communication and interaction. The ear is the main organ for
lenses, but many give medicine. hearing, whose duty is to detect sound in the environment and
iii) Opticians, who are mainly responsible for prescribing direct it to the brain. The ear has three main parts that play role
glasses. in hearing, namely;

a) The outer ear

b) The middle ear
c) The inner ear
The outer ear, which consists of the pinner / auricle and the
auditory canal, is mainly to collect and direct sound waves
from the environment and direct them into the ear system.

The middle ear, which comprise the ear drum and the three
bones, technically called the ossicles). Convert the sound
waves into vibrations.

The inner ear, which consists of the semicircular canal, the

cochlea, the oval window ant the auditory nerves, is
responsible for conveying the sound impulses to the brain for
processing or final interpretation.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Diagram of a Human Ear Frequency of sound is how high or low a sound is. Frequency
is based on the number of vibrations per second. A low sound
indicates few vibrations per second while a high sound
indicates many vibrations per second. It is measured in units
called Hertz designated as Hz. The lowest normal hearing can
perceive is 20 hertz and the highest is 40,000 hertz. Normal
hearing can perceive sound between 20 and 20,000 hertz

The inability to detect sound is called hearing impairment.

There are two types of hearing impairment, namely:

o Deafness
o Hard-of-hearing

Deafness is a hearing loss that prevents a person from

receiving the sound in almost all its form. The only thing is to
When all these parts are functional, a person is able to hear find another strategy for communicating with him like the use
well. The ability to hear well is called auditory acuity. of signs.
Auditory acuity depends on two factors;
Hard-of-hearing is a hearing loss with ability to perceive or
i) Intensity and hear some sound. It is, sometimes, called residual hearing
ii) Frequency of sound because one can respond to some sound. This condition may
Intensity of sound is how loud or soft the sound is. It is be static or seasonal.
measured in units called decibels, designated as Db.0. decibels Hearing impairment is also categorized into four;
represents the smallest sound a person with normal hearing can
perceive. A sound of 125 decibels causes pain and the inability 1) Conductive hearing impairment, which results from the
to hear. damage or dysfunction of the outer ear or middle which

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

prevents these transmission of sounds from the outer 

Discharge (white staff or bad – looking substance) from
to the middle ear from the middle to the inner ear, and, the ear.
thus, the sound doesn’t reach the inner ear. It is usually 
Inattentiveness when spoken to.
unilateral, light, temporally and, therefore, can be 
corrected. A person with conductive hearing Erratic responses to situations (i.e. making un
coordinated responses)
impairment can deaf or hard of hearing.
2) Sensor neural hearing impairment, which is due to the
damage of the inner ear (such as the damage of the Identification of hearing impairment is usually done by
cochlea and the auditory nerves) and, thus, sound audiologists in order to determine the degree of one’s
impulses cannot be delivered to the brain and are response to sound. The instrument used is called the
transmitted into hearing impairment. It is usually severe, audiometer. The teacher’s task, therefore is to observe the
permanent and bilateral. symptoms of hearing impairment and encourage the patient
3) Mixed hearing loss, a situation in which the inability is (student) to visit the audiologist.
affecting all the three parts of the ear. It is usually
bilateral and, in most cases, quite severe Characteristics of hearing impaired people
4) Functional hearing loss, a condition of hearing
disability with no organic causes. Hearing impaired students tend to manifest certain
characteristics.
Identification of Hearing Impairment a) In the area of language, they manifest poor speech
development.
Any form of hearing impairment can be identified crudely
b) In the area of academic educational achievement. They
through the observation of certain symptoms, such as; manifest varying degree, with some achieving very
 highly while others seriously low. However, the
Tilting the head at an angle in order to look for the
direction of the sound majority experience difficulty in reading because
 reading is dependent on language but achieve
Failing to respond when questioned or responding in
another way substantially high in mathematics.

Difficulty in following instructions c) In the area of personality, they usually feel isolated and

Deformity of the outer ear. frustrated because of lack of interaction.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

d) In terms of socialization, they have a tendency of an Educational Services for students with Hearing Impairment
aggressive and emotional personality. They are
generally emotional unstable and erratic. Although hearing impaired people may experience hardship in
e) Intellectually, most of them experience limited learning, they can be helped to learn through;
intellectual functioning .this is because thinking
depends on language and language is a product of 1. Auditory training in which students are helped to
reading. They therefore manifest low conceptualization develop awareness of sound and speech by
of issues due to not receiving language or hear any discriminating among sounds using signs.
speech. 2. Lip or speech reading in which the affected student is
f) Physically, there is no significant physical abnormality taught how to use visual ability to understand what is
except some erratic movements in the environment. said by studying and watching the movement of the lips
Common Causes of Hearing Impairment of the speaker. The means that the teacher should be
Hearing impairment is caused by a number of factors, which articulate in speech, be clearly observable and should at
include, the level of the eye of the student.
3. Environmental modification, which usually involves
 Infections of the ear by ear diseases which destroy the
instructional strategies that make a student’s learning
functioning of the ear cells.
fairly easy. This usually involves:
 Viral diseases, such as German measles. 
The use of overhead projectors

 Bacterial infections, such as meningitis, that affect the Amplification (using a loud speaker)

Use of a hearing buddy to help him in
sensitive acoustic mechanism of the ear. interpretation

 Toxic drugs that can damage the hearing cells in the Sitting position in such a way that he/she can
cochlea. 
easily get access to the teacher’s lips
Use of hearing aids
 Environmental influences, such as noise and pollutions.
 Birth complications 4. Non-verbal communication, which involves the use of
natural body movements, facial expressions, and head
 Excessive accumulation of wax in the auditory canal
which blocks the movement of sound movements as well as eye contact
 Perforations (spots) in the ear drum And eye movements. Among the non-verbal communication
 Heredity technics is the use of sign language. Sign language is the visual
 Accidents and aging gestural language of eyes and fingers.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS - Syntax which is to do with ordering of words into

sentences and phrases or sentence structure; thus use of
Communication is the process of transferring, exchange and grammar or grammar rules.
sharing of ideas, thoughts, feelings and information. The - Semantics that concerns meanings derived from words
process involves two elements: encoding and decoding. and sentences and
Encoding refers to the process of organizing and conveying the
message; while decoding refers to the ability to receive and - Pragmatics that refers to the functional/situational use
comprehend the message. If the message is received and of a language.
comprehended, then communication will have taken place. Speech, on the other hand, is the production of sound in a
The two basic communication skills include Language and language; thus the expression of language with sounds. The
Speech. Language is a mechanism by which humans share vocalization or spoken from of language.
ideas. It’s the principal means used by human beings to
In case of any linguistic deviations as per the communication
communicate with one another through speaking/voice,
using language occur, there is deficiency in effective
gesturing/signing and writing/drawing. Language happens in
communication.
two divisions; Receptive, which is the ability to
understand/comprehend by listening or reading what is said or
written; and, Productive/expressive which is the ability to Types and Causes of Communication Disorders Two basic
speak, write, sign or draw. Any language MUST be described
by the following elements: types of communication disorders:

1. Language disorders
2. Speech disorders
- Phonology which concerns the sound system of a
language, Language disorder is the inability to use language either
- Morphology which concerns the structure and or receptively or expressively. The disorder MUST be in one’s
formation of words, own language (linguistically called mother tongue). However,

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

it can also be loosely applied to any other language. Four b) Voice disorder—absence or abnormal production of
types of language disorders: sound in terms of quality and quantity; manifested in
four elements:
a) Absence of language
- Pitch—production of high or low sounds
b) Delayed language inappropriately, usually related to sex & age
c) Interrupted language (originally normal develops - Intensity—some people are inappropriately too loud or
inability: dysphasia or aphasia) too soft.
d) Qualitatively deviant language; using language in a - Quality—to do with roughness or smoothness sound is.
different way and it is usually due to childhood
This may be characterized by nasality, the tendency to
psychosis, learning disability or hearing impairment.
produce sound through the nose; breathiness, speaking like
Speech disorder is the inappropriate production of the sound one is too tired; harshness or hoarseness; resonance,
of a language such that it may be difficult for the receiver. The tendency to speak too slowly or too fast.
disorder is usually in the ear of the listener or receiver. Three
The causes of voice disorders include brain damage, heredity,
types of speech disorders:
infection of the voice box (larynx) and damage of the nerves in
a) Articulation disorder—faulty production of speech in a the voice box.
language, speech sound in a wrong way. It usually c) Fluency disorder—abnormal flow in the production of
manifests in four ways: sound of a language, manifested in the following ways:
o Substitution o Omission - Stammering
o Distortion - Prolongation of sounds
o Addition - Hesitation—producing sound with pauses
The disabilities may be a result of the brain damage of - Interjection—speaking of what is not supposed to be there
nerves controlling the muscles used in speech, the faulty at all.
mouth structures like cleft palate or space among the Fluency disorders are commonly caused by heredity, social
teeth, loss of teeth or hearing impairment. modelling and imitation.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Causes of Communication Disorders

Intervention Services for Persons with Communication
 Heredity Disorder
 Mental retardation
While some of the victims can do well in regular placements,
 Severe environmental deprivation
others may need special services. The common services that
 Nasal deficiencies can help include:
 Defects in the mouth
 Hearing impairment a) Medical services like surgery, use of speech therapists and
 Neurological (brain) damage other medical.
 Defects in the respiratory system b) Structural exercises and drills to correct the problem; like
 Etc providing exercises for reading and writing practice as well
as speech training & practice, including pronouncing
Characteristics and Identification of Communication words.
Disorders c) Use of operant conditioning; thus, reinforcing good
o Poor performance especially on verbal IQ tests. communication and discouraging the other.
o They may be academically competent with some d) Giving prompts and cues to guide in making proper speech
difficulties for others e) Grouping the learners (why?)
o No physical differences with the rest f) Using sign language to teach them
g) Proper sitting position/postures
Identification can be by:

o Hearing tests
o Articulation tests
o Auditory discrimination test
o Language development test—trying to determine
the amount of words one has acquired
o The overall language test, Etc.
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

PHYSICAL AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENT

A physical and health impairment is a type of disability in

which a person experiences deficiency or a problem in the
functioning and structure of the body, especially muscle, bones  Monoplegia, meaning that only one limb is affected or
and the skeletal system. Thus, physical and health impairment deformed
is a condition when a person has problems in performing one
or more motor activities. It is any disability which limits the
physical function of limbs or fine or gross more ability.
A

In the field of special education, physical disabilities refer to a

B
wide variety of conditions that may interfere with a child’s
ability to perform everyday activities. Such conditions include:
problems with muscles. Problems involving the central
nervous system, problems with the structure of the skeleton,
C
such as missing limbs and health problems. D

Physical and health impairment can be des cribbed in terms of

the limb that has been affected. Hence, physical and healthy
impairment can be described on the next page:

Paraplegia, i.e. lower limbs are deformed.
 Hemiplegia, meaning that one side of the body is
affected. So either the right upper limb and lower
limb or the left upper limb and lower limb are
affected. The other side of the person’s body
works just fine.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)


Double hemiplegia, i.e. one side is affected, but a) Muscular dystrophy, which is a degeneration of the
serious problem is in the upper limb and less in limbs which is hereditary. The muscles progressively
the lower limb or vice versa. degenerate until they can no longer function. Eventually,

Diplegia, i.e. the problem is such more severe in a person with muscular dystrophy needs to use a
lower limbs than upper limbs. wheelchair to move around.

Triplegia, i.e. having three limbs deformed and b) Osteogenesis imperfecta is a hereditary disability in
usually the two lower limbs and one upper limb which poor connective tissue development causes
or even vice versa. fragile, brittle bones. The disability causes

Quadriplegia, meaning that all the four limbs are underdevelopment of bones, making them to become
affected. brittle and easily fractured (break easily without a
specific cause) or unable to sustain the weight or the
Classification of physical and healthy impairment body. Such a victim cannot participate in rigorous
Physical and health impairments can be classified into activities that require enough energy. Such victims die in
three basic categories namely: a few weeks after birth.

1. Musculoskeletal disabilities c) Osteomyelitis, which is a disability in which there is

2. Neuromotor disabilities inflation of the bone or bone marrow due to direct infection by
3. Health impairments diseases, after surgery, after the compound fracture, or a s a
result of trauma. The inflammation begins in the marrow cavity
1. Musculo-skeletal Disabilities and soon spreads over the entire bone, with consequent death of
A musculo-skeletal disability, also known as an the hard portions of the hard portions of the bone.
orthopedic impairment, involves the skeletal system, Osteomyelitis begins when a person is bruised and becomes
that is, bones, joints, limbs and associated muscles. infected. The infection finds a bone in the swelling. The disease
Such a disability affects bones and muscles, leading to they spread through the bones to other parts of the body,
paralysis, weakening away or degeneration. The leading to under bone development.
disability can be experienced in many forms, including:

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

c) The leg-calve perds, which is a disability that a) Poliomyelitis, which is the weakening or
affects the head of the femur (the upper bone in paralysis of the muscles of the nerves due to the
the leg), leading to interrupted blood flow. The infection of the nerve cells by virus called polio.
The muscles of the limbs contract (shorten).
head of the bone begins to degenerated, making a
Making mobility reduced or difficulty. It usually
new bone to form. The person concerned occurs before the age of 5. The virus can be
develops persistent limb problem that becomes prevented by vaccination.
more severe over time and interferes with the b) Cerebral palsy, which is a condition
participation in motor activities. characterized by paralysis, weakness. In
coordination of the limbs and/or other motor
d) Amputation, which is a disability in which a
dysfunction caused by the brain damage or birth
person is missing one limb or more limbs trauma, the disability leads to the inability to
becomes of a life-threatening condition which fully control movement. Balance and weaknesses
requires the limb or limbs to be removed, usually in other motor dysfunctions, it usually occurs
by surgery. before the age of 6.
2. Neuromotor Disabilities. c) Convulsive disorder is a disability of recurrent
These are due to the damage, or denegation, f the central seizures (sudden loss of consciousness resulting
from the abnormal activity in the brain) which are
nervous system, leading muscles to becoming unable to
sudden excessive and lead to falling down. A
move or be controlled, thereby affecting the ability to convulsive disorder is when a person’s body
move, use, feel or control certain parts of the body. shakes rapidly and uncontrollably. It leads to
The damage to the central nervous system may be focal certain alternations in consciousness. Usually
(specific to a part of the brain) or diffuse (spread to all accompanied by sensory phenomena. Such as
the brain). Consequently, focal damage, which involves involuntary muscle contractions. Stiffness of the
a specific area, may affect limited ability while diffuse body lack of movement, blinding of the eye,
damage, which involves large areas, can lead to eyeballs frequently rolling upward or to one side,
generalized effects, including mental retardation and breathing appearing labored, saliva oozing from
speech disorder. There are several kinds of Neuromotor mouth, the teeth being tightly clenched,
disabilities, which include: sometimes causing

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

serious bites to the tongue and the cheeks, and

loss of control of urine, followed by a period of
confusion. If a person has recurring seizures, and
no controlled well with medication, convulsive
disordered are caused by excessive, abnormal
firing of electrical discharge (discharge by some
neurons or electrical sparks) in the brain cells. It
is highly hereditary.
d) Spaina-bifida is a defect in which there is a bulging
or protruding of the lining of the spinal cord. It is
usually a result of the spinal cord cover failing to
close properly form the tail bone to the neck. Spina-
bifida begins in the womb, when the tissues that fold
to form the neural tube do not close or do not stay
closed completely. This causes an opening in the
vertebrae, which surround and protect the spinal
cord. So, some vertebrae (bones forming the
backbone) overlying the spinal cord are not fully
formed ad remain diffused and open. If the opening
is large enough, this allows a portion of the spinal 4. Health Disorders
cord to protrude through the opening in the bones, These are fragile and chronic health conditions due to
the severity of this disorder varies from a mild type
diseases that may interfere with the normal living and
(spina bifida acculta), where there is almost no sign
of abnormality, to extreme cases involving a mobility of the person.
completely open spine and severe neurological The most common of such include:
disability, like in the case of meningocele, where - Asthma
part of the spinal cord and its membranes may - Diabetes
protrude within a fragile sac.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

- Nephritis Characteristics of Physical and Health Impairment

- Sickle-cell anaemia - Wide variation in mental abilities, affecting intellectual
- Hypertension performance
- Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) - Reduced opportunity to learn due to frequent ill-health
- Cerebral malaria hemophilia - Emotional instability characterized by stress, isolation,
- Cystic fibrosis dejection and discriminatory tendencies.
- Allergy - Reduced mobility and increased dependence.
- Etc. - Etc
Note: (Check internet/other sources for description and
explanations)
Education Intervention for Physical and heath
Causes of Physical and Health Impairments impairment.
- Hand-on therapy
They can be congenital or adventurous causes. These
include: - Orthosis
- Provision of assistive devices
- Diseases and serious illnesses - Prosthesis
- Heredity - Environmental modifications like establishing proper
- Viral and bacterial infections sitting positions, reduced heights of chairs, reduced
- Accidents steps on pathways among others
- Amputations - Medical interventions; provision of medical services
- Excessive consumption of alcohol live surgery of spina bifida, vaccinations, antibiotics
- Burns that may cuase contractures and anticonvulsant drug administration, etc.
- Permanent injuries to the brain, spinal cord or - Etc
limbs that prevent proper movement in parts of
5. Obesity and Eating Behaviour
the body.
Obeity can be defined in a number of ways:
- Etc 
The condition of being grossly fat or overweight

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Term used to describe somebody who is very Measuring/Identification of Obesity
overweight, with a lot body

A condition associated with having an excess of Obesity is measured by various means, but the most
body fat, defined by genetic and environmental common methods used are Body Mass Index (BMI)
factors that are difficult to control when dieting. and Waist Circumference. There is no perfect
 method to measuring obesity, however these two
Having a Body Mass Index (BMI) of 30 or
greater. BMI is a tool used to measure obesity. indicators are most commonly used by clinicians as a
toll to diagnose weight.

In general, overweight and obesity indicate a
weight greater than what is considered healthy. BMI: This is a tool used to measure obesity. The
Obesity is a chronic condition defined by an access BMI is a statistical measurement derived from your
amount of body fat. A certain amount of body fat is
necessary for storing energy, heat insulation, shock height and weight. Although considered to be a
absorption, and other functions. useful way to estimate healthy body weight, it does
not measure the percentage of body fat. It is used to
Obesity is now a common problem that deserves
indicate obesity and morbid obesity in adults. BMI is
attention by all professionals, including educationist.
calculated by dividing a person’s weight in
It is an increased rapidly throughout the world.
kilograms by his or her height in meters squared. An
Many individuals affected by obesity and are not
adult with BMI of 30 or greater is considered obese;
aware of it. An analysis for the Global Burden of
for both men and women.
Disease Study report by Ng and others in 2014
estimated overweight and obesity to cause 3-4 For most adults:
million deaths, 3.9% of years life lost, and 3.8% of A BMI of 25 to 29.9 means you are overweight A BMI
disability life-years (DALYs) worldwide. Though it of 30 to 39.9 means you are obese
was traditionally a health problem for adults, the A MBI of 40 and above means you are severely obese.
prevalence in children is evident. Teachers and other
educationists should be aware. It should be noted that BMI may not be a definitive
diagnosis of obesity, since there are cases of people who
are muscular who sometimes have high BMI,

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

without excess fat. But for most people, it can be a  High cholesterol
useful indication of whether they may be overweight.  Diabetes
 Heart disease
Waist Circumference: A better measure of excess fat is  Stroke
waist circumstance, and can be used as an additional  Gallbladder disease
measure in people who are overweight (with MBI of 25  Sleep apnea and respiratory problems
to 29.9) or moderately obese (BMI of 30 to 34.9).  Some cancers (endometrial, breast, bowel and
Generally, men with a waist circumference of 94cm or colon)
more and women with a waist circumference of 80cm or It can also affect one’s quality of life and lead to
more; are more likely to develop obesity-related health psychological problems, such as low self-esteem or
problems. To find your waist circumference, wrap a depression.
tape measure around the area above hip bone and below Causes of Obesity
your rib cage. For females, a waist circumference of 35
inches or greater is considered unhealthy. For men, a It is generally caused by consuming more calories—
circumference of 40 inches or greater is considered particularly those in fatty and sugary foods—than you
unhealthy. There not a classification chart or various burn off through physical activity. The excess energy is
ranges used with this method to determine obesity, only then stored by the body as fat.
the simple thresholds for men and women noted above
It is increasingly becoming a common problem, because
apply.
many modern lifestyles often promote eating excessive
amount of cheap, high-calorie food and spending a lot
Problems Associated with Obesity
of time sitting at desks, on sofas or in cars. There are
There are more than 40 medical conditions that are also underlying health conditions that can occasionally
associated with obesity. Individuals who are obese are contribute to weight gain, such as an underactive
at risk of developing one or more of these serious thyroid gland (hypothyroidism), although may not cause
conditions: weight-related problems if effectively controlled with
 High plod pressure medication.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

So many direct and indirect causes lead to obesity; usually obese. They appear to take much longer to reach
mainly under categories of environment, behaviour and satiety (feeling of getting full).
genetics:
Leading a sedentary/inactive lifestyle: the use of television,
Behaviour: This is to adopt unhealthy behaviours. In computers, video games, remote controls, washinh machines,
this case, it relates to food choices (too many calories, dish washers among other so-called modern convenience
poorly balanced diets, amount of food consumed at a devices makes people today live a much more sedentary
time, etc.); amount of physical activity you get and the lifestyle than their parents and grandparents. Note that the less
effort to maintain your health. you move, the fewer the calories you burn. However, physical
exercise is not soley for burning calories, it has effect on
Environment: This plays a key role in shaping an
hormones work, and hormones have an effect on how your
individual’s habits and lifestyle. Today’s society has
body deals with food…heard of insulin levels? Unstable
developed a more sedentary/inactive lifestyle. Walking
insulin levels are closely associated with weight gain. Imagine
has been replaced by driving cars/boda-boda, physical
with television at all times as compared to those in gardens
activity by technology and nutrition by convenience
wandering about playing!
foods (chips, chicken, chaps, chappat, candy, lit goes
on). What did you have for breakfast today? Do you Medications that make patients put on weight: An article in
have defined routine of your eating? When and what? Annals Pharmacotherapy reported that some medications,
especially those commonly prescribed may lead to weight
Genetics: Genetics play a role in obesity. Genes can
gain.
cause certain disorders which result in obesity.
However, not all individuals who are predisposed to Interventions for Obesity
obesity become obese. Research is yet to ascertain
which genes contribute most to obesity. Obesity gene-  Behavioural modification (like eating habits, how
to spend life, among others)
A faulty gene called FTO, makes one in every 6 people
over eat. People who carry the FTO gene tend to eat  Physical activity
too much, prefer high energy-fatty foods, and are  Commercial and voluntary programmes (heard of
charity groups like Red Cross, Lions Clubs, etc?)
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

 Physician-supervised weight loss a laxative, stimulant and/or excessive exercise, usually

 Dietary changes because of an extensive concern for body weight.
 Prescribed medications for losing weight (which - Bulimia is characterized by frequent episodes of binge
should be considered as last resort; in cases like: eating, followed by frantic/desperate efforts to avoid
- Failure of other startegies to lose weight gaining weight. Such individuals are obsessed with
- Patient’s BMI is 27 and he/she also has diavetes, their bodies and their weight
hypertension or sleep apnea.
- The patient’s BMI is over 30. - They also feel guilty, ashamed, or depressed after
Under here, there are two approved drugs a eating.
physician may consider: Sibutramine often used
The most dangerous side effect of bulimia is dehydration
in USA/Canada, and Reductil in Europe and due to purging (frequent vomiting). Other common
much of the world or Orlistat (Xenical). It should effects may include weakness and dizziness, ruptured
be noted that these medications have to be taken stomach or esophagus, acid reflux or ulcers, constipation
indefinitely. Yet, some patients may not respind and constant weight fluctuations.
to these drugs.
There is no single cause of bulimia. The most attributed
Eating Disorders causes:
These may occur as a result of body dissatisfaction - Poor body image (environmentally/culturally)
individuals experience in relation to obesity or fear of - Low self-esteem (women or men who think of
becoming obese. Common eating disorders include bulimia themselves as useless, worthless, and unattractive are
and anorexia-nervosa. at risk for bulimia.
- Major life changes (triggered by stressful changes or
Bulimia-nervosa is an eating disorder characterized with by transitions like physical changes of puberty, going
binge and purging, or consuming a large amoung of food in away to school/college or breaking up of a
a short amount of time. Specifically: relationship.
- Purging; attempt to get rid by oneself of food - Appearance-oriented professions or activities
consumed, typically by self-induced vomiting, taking a (people who face tremendous image pressure and are

46
 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

vulnerable to developing bulimia. Those more at risk - Eating very small amount of food even when
include ballet dancers, models, gymnasts, wrestlers, feeling hungry.
runners and other actors. - Eating very small quantities of food even when
Eating can be an emotional release so people binge feeling hungry.
- Having low confidence and poor self-esteem.
and purge when feeling angry, depressed, or anxious.
- Becoming thin is all that matters; health is not a
(Can bulimia be a problem with school going
concern
children? Mostly at level of Ugandan education? Anorexia may be caused by a combination of social,
Could this be common in rural or urban-based emotional and biological factors.
schools and families? Why? How about you the
Campusers?) However, modern western culture emphasizes thinness.
Note*: It affects women more than men of all ages. Success and worth are often equated with being thin.
Peer pressure may help fuel the desire to be thin,
Anorexia nervosa: A pathological under-eating disorder
particularly among young girls. Furthermore,
characterized by:
contributing factors may include one’s family,
- An abnormally low body weight and intense fear environment, emotional difficulties and low self-esteem.
of gaining weight
Anorexia may result into:
- Obsession with having a thin figure and an
irrational fear of fatness - Death, that may occur suddenly even when one is
- A distorted body self-perception/image of not severely underweight; due to abnormal heart
thinking that one is overweight or “fat” rhythms (arrhythmias) or an imbalance of
- Restrictive food intake through dieting or fasting electrolytes—minerals such as sodium, potassium
and inappropriate eating habits. and calcium that maintain the balance of fluids in
- Taking appetite suppressants, such as slimming your body.
or diet pills.
- Attempts to lose weight to the point of self- - Mental disorders like depression, anxiety and
starvation and excessive exercising. other mood disorders.

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

- Malnutrition from self-imposed starvation and education or attention in order to help them maintain,
can cause abnormal heart rhythms, constipation, develop and or gain out of their higher capability. In a
fatigue, muscle damage and paralysis class situation, they are those students who usually
score in the top of the intellectual tests.
- Children and adolescents with anorexia are at risk
for slowing of their growth and development. Giftedness or talentedness can be categorized under four
groups:
Note*: Like bulimia, it affects females far more often
a) Students with general intellectual ability whose
than men; and, is most common in adolescent
overall performance is highly exceptional and
females.
thus obtain highest average from all areas.
What would be the best intervention for these eating b) Students with specific academic ability who
disorders in an educational setting? manifest ability in one or two areas
c) Those with productive or creative thinking,
GIFTEDNESS which is based on the ability to control social
Exceptional students are in most cases seen as those situation such as leadership; or the oratory power.
with some form of disability that affect their learning. d) Then those with visual and performing abilities,
However, there is a group of those who don’t which are motor-related abilities, such as art or
necessarily manifest problems in earning. These drawing, games, dancing, drama; etc.
constitute the gifted or talented students.
Causes of Giftedness and Talentedness
Giftedness is used to refer to intellectual ability while
talentedness is often used to refer to outstanding The causes may include:
performance in a specific area or skill, such as music.
- Heredity
By definition, therefore, a gifted or talented student is
that student whose performance is consistently - A stimulating environment
remarkable in any potential area in academics or other - Socio-economic status
things. The gifted or talented show high evidence of - Exposure to field or life experiences, like
capability which is not at the level of ordinary people computer, visits etc
and, therefore, they require special
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

- Organization of teaching in a class and the tasks. If not well guided or helped, many are even
teaching modes/styles by the teachers/facilitators susceptible/prone to mental illness.
- Cultural and social organization or inclinations Identification of Gifted/Talented Students
(background tendencies); like Japanese in
technology, India for trade, Jews in military, There are four main techniques that can be used to
(how about those from Sebei region in Eastern identify the gifted/talented students:
Uganda and Western Kenya on athletics?). Some
of these though can be environmental related. 1. The use of tests; such as achievement tests,
intelligence tests and aptitude tests
Characteristics of Giftedness/Talentedness 2. Observation; thus seeing and hearing what they

Intellectually/cognitively, most have high IQ. do in many areas like football, team selection,
Their memory is outstanding. Their level of 3. Peer rating or teacher’s judgment
conceptualization of issues is high. They tend to 4. Honour roll listing; thus identifying people
engage in productive (critical and creative according to their abilities specifically, for
thinking.

Academically, they may engage in complex and example, through prize awards, reinforcement in
or meaningful questions, answer questions very class, etc.
instantly/fast and provide clear detailed answers,
usually perform well in either specific or general Intervention Services for the Gifted/Talented
ideas, highly motivated to perform or achieve Students
well.
It is very clear that all gifted students learn in regular

Socially and emotionally, many tend to be highly classroom placement without special placement.
sociable, humorous and sometimes arrogant.
Others may however be passive, isolated and However, they need a lot of help and attention, which
depressed. Most of them are generally outgoing keeps them focused in order to sustain their
and want to take risks and challenges. They are potentials/abilities. There are two important services for
mainly controlled by high internal locus of
control. They are easily bored and become the gifted or talented students, namely;
frustrated if not provided with challenging
a) Enrichment services
b) Acceleration services

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Enrichment services refers to those services that can GENERAL INTERVENTION THROUGH
enhance or provide more experiences and increased SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION
opportunities to acquire knowledge and skills. Such
The fundamental goal of education is to help the normal
services include:
and exceptional students attain their fullest capacity and
- Field trips competence; cognitively, socially, affectively as well as
- Giving them extra/more work through movement and psychomotor. Special Needs
- Curriculum compacting; thus teaching them more Education, as seen with the respective learning
in short time problems prior to this unit, endeavours to provide
- Use of guest speakers opportunities to the exceptional students based on the
- Independent and project study
earlier discussed assumptions and the many aims given
- Special reading materials
below:
- Mentorship; pairing of gifted and weak students
- Etc. a) To identify the kind of problem the student has
Acceleration services are those that speed up the b) To prevent the problem from happening and or
learning experiences. They may include; spreading
c) To intervene or mediate the problem to stop
- Class skipping/double promotion d) To reduce the magnitude of the problem so that a
- The use of internship student could be able to cope with environment
- Early admission fairly
- Concurrent enrolment
The interventional issues in Special Needs Education
- Use of honour roll listing; recognizing their
include
abilities by giving them certificates, awards, etc.
1. Assessment (measurement)
2. Instructional planning
3. Parent-teacher relationship
4. Occupational orientation
5. Societally Disabled People

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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)

Assessment refers to the process of gathering - Purpose of instruction; thus being clear about
information in order to understand the student and how disabled students should be helped. It is to
his/her problem. Assessment/measurement suggests remediate, compensate, prevent, intervene, enrich
that; or accelerate.
- It should be conducted in a child’s own
environment, where such a problem can easily be Parent-teacher relationship; thus, for greater
noticed. understanding and effective help to any exceptional
- Should conducted in non-frightening conditions student, there is a need for parental involvement in
- Should be repeated many times to avoid bias providing services to such a person. Basic guidelines for
either through interviewing or using other people. working with parents include:
- Parents/families should be involved
- Must be multidisciplinary, involving not only one - Teacher shouldn’t assume that he/she knows more
professional but many, including medical and about the child and his/her needs more than the
psychiatrists parents.
- Speak plainly and in clear language to the parents
(you didn’t go to the same class or same Makerere!)
Assessment therefore helps in identifying - Don’t let generalizations about parents of the child
exceptional students and place them in terms of their guide your effort. In other words, don’t be controlled
problems and established needs. by parental thinking but conditions in the class.
- Don’t be defensive towards the parents or intimidated
Instructional Planning refers to the process of by the parents; especially by their position.
organizing what to teach and how to teach it. This - Don’t be afraid to say----‘I don’t know’ if an issue
involves five main elements: arises
- Planning the instruction
- Managing the instruction; which involves When interacting with parents, the teacher should be
creating a conducive environment that allows the aware that there are several effects of the
learner to be helped or the learner’s needs to be handicap/disability to the parents. The parents may pose
several reactions to the occurrence of the disability:
met.
- Delivering the content—involving various skills, 
Shock production
like medieval for the slow learners 
Denial
- Evaluating instruction for progress detection
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 PSE 3101: SNE Lecture Notes; (August-December 2024)


minority who have societal problems which can affect
Guilt their learning. Such people may include:

Feeling of sorrow

Feeling of rejection (may tend to avoid the  the minority, who feel isolated and the teacher
child)
 should console them
Feeling of acceptance.
 the poor
Parental involvement has many advantages and one of  the refugees
such is that it may provide information which is easily  the abused (those who are neglected are not
acceptable to the teacher from the student point of view. catered for).
People under such categories are victims of
Occupational Orientation; based on the assumption that circumstances in society. You can be their savior by
disability is not inability. Therefore, a disabled person understanding their status; the chief objective/goal of
should be helped to attain skills to get jobs. this course.

There are three ways of helping disabled students to

attain jobs. These may include At this very end of this class, we wish that you
- Career awareness appreciate the assumption of intrinsic value of
- Career exploration
everybody as bottom-line for reciprocal living! And, do
- Career preparation; which is the process of
you now realize why we should not judge a book by its
assisting such students to acquire skills by trying
to get more and more adequate skills so as to be cover?!
competent in the world of work.
Societal Disabled People are people who don’t have
true disability but have problems because of societal
problems. They suffer and don’t feel part of society.
They are a

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