[Link].

in

Module 2
DATA LINK CONTROL
 Checksum
• The checksum is used on the internet by several protocols although not at the data
link layer.
• The checksum is based on the concept of redundancy.
• Several protocols still use the checksum for error detection
• Consider the data unit 10101001 00111001 to be transmitted:
Sender Side:
• 10101001 (subunit 1)
• 00111001 (subunit 2)
• 11100010 (sum using 1's complement)
ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit • 00011101 (checksum)
Receiver Side:
• 10101001 (subunit 1)
• 00111001 (subunit 2)
• 00011101 (checksum)
• 11111111 (sum)
• 00000000 (sum's complement)
• Since the result is zero, it means no error
 High-level Data Link Control (HDLC)
• High-level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a group of
communication protocols of the data link layer for
transmitting data between network points or nodes. Since it
is a data link protocol, data is organized into frames.
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Dept. Edit
• Transfer Modes
➢ HDLC supports two types of transfer modes,
➢ Normal response mode
➢ Asynchronous balanced mode
 ➢Normal Response Mode (NRM) − Here, two types of stations are
there, a primary station that send commands and secondary station
that can respond to received commands.
➢It is used for both point - to - point and multipoint
communications.

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Dept. Edit
 • Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM) − Here, the configuration is
balanced, i.e. each station can both send commands and respond to
commands.

• It is used for only point - to - point communications.

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Dept. Edit
 HDLC Frame
HDLC is a bit - oriented protocol where each frame contains up to six
fields. The structure varies according to the type of frame. The fields of a
HDLC frame are −
Flag − It is an 8-bit sequence that marks the beginning and the end of the
ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.
Address − It contains the address of the receiver. If the frame is sent by
the primary station, it contains the address(es) of the secondary station(s).
If it is sent by the secondary station, it contains the address of the primary
station. The address field may be from 1 byte to several bytes.
 • Control − It is 1- or 2-bytes containing flow and error
control information.

• Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. Its
length may vary from one network to another.

• FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error

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Dept. Edit
detection. The standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy
code)
 HDLC FORMAT

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Dept. Edit
 • There are three types of HDLC frames. The type of frame is determined by
the control field of the frame −

• I-frame − I-frames or Information frames carry user data from the network
layer. They also include flow and error control information that is
piggybacked on user data. The first bit of control field of I-frame is 0.

• S-frame − S-frames or Supervisory frames do not contain information field.

They are used for flow and error control when piggybacking is not required.
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Dept. Edit
The first two bits of control field of S-frame is 10.

• U-frame − U-frames or Un-numbered frames are used for myriad

miscellaneous functions, like link management. It may contain an
information field, if required. The first two bits of control field of U-frame is
11 [Link]
ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit
 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
➢ The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) directly connects two network
devices at the data link layer. It is typically used for internet connections
and connecting remote networks via a Wide Area Network (WAN) link.

PPP Components:
ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit ➢ The Link Control Protocol (LCP): responsible for establishing,
configuring, and testing the link between the two devices. It negotiates
link parameters like the maximum frame size and compression type while
monitoring the link for errors and drops
 ➢ The Authentication Protocol (AP): responsible for verifying the
identities of the two devices using a range of authentication methods,
including passwords, digital certificates, and biometrics

➢ The Network Control Protocol (NCP): responsible for negotiating the

network layer protocol used to transmit data over the connection,

ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit supporting a variety of network layer protocols such as IP, IPX, and
AppleTalk
 Services Provided by PPP

• Defining the frame format of the data to be transmitted.

• Defining the procedure of establishing link between two points and
exchange of data.
• Stating the method of encapsulation of network layer data in the frame.
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Dept. Edit
• Stating authentication rules of the communicating devices.
• Providing address for network communication.
• Providing connections over multiple links.
• Supporting a variety of network layer protocols by providing a range os
services.
 PPP Frame
• PPP is a byte - oriented protocol where each field of the
frame is composed of one or more bytes. The fields of a PPP
frame are −

• Flag − 1 byte that marks the beginning and the end of the
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Dept. Edit
frame. The bit pattern of the flag is 01111110.

• Address − 1 byte which is set to 11111111 in case of

broadcast.

• Control − 1 byte set to a constant value of 11000000.

 • Protocol − 1 or 2 bytes that define the type of data contained in the
payload field.

• Payload − This carries the data from the network layer. The maximum
length of the payload field is 1500 bytes. However, this may be
negotiated between the endpoints of communication.

• FCS − It is a 2 byte or 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.

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Dept. Edit
The standard code used is CRC (cyclic redundancy code)
 ➢ MEDIA ACCESS CONTROL (MAC)

• To communicate or transfer data from one computer to another, we need

an address.

• In computer networks, various types of addresses are introduced; each

works at a different layer.

ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit • A MAC address, which stands for Media Access Control Address, is a
physical address that works at the Data Link Layer
 Logical Link Control (LLC) in the Data Link Layer
• The Logical Link Control (LLC) is a sublayer of the Data Link
Layer in the OSI model.

• It operates above the Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer and

provides essential services to ensure reliable communication between
network devices.
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Dept. Edit
• The LLC sublayer is responsible for managing the logical aspects of
data transmission, such as synchronization, flow control, and error
checking.

• It acts as an interface between the upper layers (like the Network Layer)
and the MAC sublayer, ensuring smooth communication.
 • Key Functions of LLC
• The LLC sublayer performs several critical functions:
• Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: It allows multiple network
protocols to share the same physical medium by multiplexing protocols
during transmission and demultiplexing them during reception.
• Error Detection and Correction: It identifies errors in transmitted
frames and ensures data integrity by requesting retransmissions when
necessary.
• Flow Control: It regulates the flow of data to prevent congestion and
ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit ensure efficient communication.
• Acknowledgment Tracking: It tracks acknowledgments to confirm
successful data delivery.
• Synchronization: It ensures proper timing and coordination between
sender and receiver.
 TAXONOMY OF MULTIPLE –ACCESS PROTOCOLS

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Dept. Edit
 Random Access Protocol
o In this, all stations have same superiority that is no station has more
priority than another station.
o Any station can send data depending on medium’s state( idle or busy).
It has two features:
✓ There is no fixed time for sending data
ClickoftoBCA
Dept. Edit ✓ There is no fixed sequence of stations sending data
The Random-access protocols are further subdivided as:
(a) ALOHA – It was designed for wireless LAN but is also applicable
for shared medium. In this, multiple stations can transmit data at the same
time and can hence lead to collision and data being garbled.
 (a).1Pure ALOHA
When a station sends data it waits for an acknowledgement.
If the acknowledgement doesn’t come within the allotted time,
then the station waits for a random amount of time called back-
off time (Tb) and re-sends the data.
Since different stations wait for different amount of time, the
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Dept. Edit
probability of further collision decreases
Vulnerable Time – It is the length of time, in which there is a
possibility of collision .We assume that the stations send fixed-
length frames with each frame taking to send.
 Frames in Pure ALOHA Network

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Dept. Edit
 Slotted Aloha
➢ It is similar to pure aloha, except that we divide time into

slots and sending of data is allowed only at the beginning

of these slots.
➢ If a station misses out the allowed time, it must wait for
Click to Edit
the next slot.
➢ This reduces the probability of collision.
Click to Edit
 (b) CSMA
• Carrier Sense Multiple Access ensures fewer collisions as
the station is required to first sense the medium (for idle or
busy) before transmitting data.

• If it is idle then it sends data, otherwise it waits till the

Click to Edit channel becomes idle.

• However, there is still chance of collision in CSMA due to

propagation delay.
 CSMA access modes:
➢ 1-persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends
the data, otherwise it continuously keeps on checking the
medium for being idle and transmits unconditionally(with 1
probability) as soon as the channel gets idle.

Click to Edit

➢ Non-Persistent: The node senses the channel, if idle it sends

the data, otherwise it checks the medium after a random
amount of time (not continuously) and transmits when found
idle.
 ➢ P-persistent: The node senses the medium, if idle it sends
the data with p probability.
If the data is not transmitted ((1-p) probability) then it
waits for some time and checks the medium again, now if it
is found idle then it send with p probability.
Click to Edit
This repeat continues until the frame is sent.
It is used in WIFI and packet radio systems.
 ➢ CSMA/CD
➢ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection

• In this method , a station Monitors the medium after it

sends a frame to see if the transmission was successful. If
Click to Edit so, the station is finished.

• If , however, there is a collision, the frame is sent again.

 ➢ CSMA/CD

Click to Edit
 ➢ CSMA/CA
➢ Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance is a

network protocol for transmission that operates in the Medium

Access Control (MAC)

Click to Edit ➢ In contrast to CSMA/CD which deals with collisions after their

occurrences.

➢ CSMA/CA prevents collisions before their occurrences.

 ➢ CSMA/CA

Click to Edit
 CONTROLLED ACCESS METHODS

In controlled access, the stations seek information from one another to

find which station has the right to send. It allows only one node to send
at a time, to avoid the collision of messages on a shared medium.
The three controlled-access methods are:
Click to Edit
I. Reservation
II. Polling
III. Token Passing
 Reservation
In the reservation method, a station needs to make a reservation before
sending data.

The timeline has two kinds of periods:

Reservation interval of fixed time length

Data transmission period of variable frames.

Click to Edit If there are M stations, the reservation interval is divided into M slots, and
each station has one slot.

Suppose if station 1 has a frame to send, it transmits 1 bit during the slot 1.
No other station is allowed to transmit during this slot.
 In general, i th station may announce that it has a frame to send by inserting
a 1 bit into i th slot. After all N slots have been checked, each station knows
which stations wish to transmit.
The stations which have reserved their slots transfer their frames in that
order. After data transmission period, next reservation interval begins.
Since everyone agrees on who goes next, there will never be any collisions.
Click to Edit

Reservation Access Methods

 Polling
• Polling process is similar to the roll-call performed in class. Just like the
teacher, a controller sends a message to each node in turn.
• In this, one acts as a primary station(controller) and the others are
secondary stations.
• All data exchanges must be made through the controller.
Click to Edit
• The message sent by the controller contains the address of the node
being selected for granting access.
• Although all nodes receive the message the addressed one responds to it
and sends data if any.
 • If there is no data, usually a “poll reject”(NAK) message is sent back.
• Problems include high overhead of the polling messages and high
dependence on the reliability of the controller.

Click to Edit
 Token Passing
• In token passing scheme, the stations are connected logically to each
other in form of ring and access to stations is governed by tokens.
• A token is a special bit pattern or a small message, which circulate
from one station to the next in some predefined order.
• In Token ring, token is passed from one station to another adjacent
Click to Edit
station in the ring whereas incase of Token bus, each station uses the
bus to send the token to the next station in some predefined order.
 • In both cases, token represents permission to send.

• If a station has a frame queued for transmission when it receives the

token, it can send that frame before it passes the token to the next
station.

• If it has no queued frame, it passes the token simply.

Click to Edit • After sending a frame, each station must wait for all N stations
(including itself) to send the token to their neighbors and the other N –
1 stations to send a frame, if they have one.
 Random Access Protocol Controlled Access Protocol

• Only that station can transmit • Only one station can transmit the
the data which is approved by data frames at a time
all other stations in that • Collision free transmission
network through the communication
• The transmission is based on channel
the availability of the channel • Collisions are less
• Collisions are more • Controlled Access Protocols are
Click to Edit • Random access protocols are 1. Reservation
1. ALOHA 2. Polling
2. CSMA
3. Token passing
3. CSMA/CD
• Orderly access
• Unordered access
• Controlled access protocols are
• Random access protocols are complicated and sophisticated
simple
 Channelization
1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) – The available bandwidth is
divided into equal bands so that each station can be allocated its own band.

• Guard bands are also added so that no two bands overlap to avoid crosstalk
and noise.

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) – In this, the bandwidth is shared

between multiple stations.
Click to Edit
• To avoid collision time is divided into slots and stations are allotted these slots
to transmit data.

• However, there is an overhead of synchronization as each station needs to

know its time slot.

• This is resolved by adding synchronization bits to each slot.

 • Another issue with TDMA is propagation delay which is resolved by
addition of guard bands.
For more details refer – Circuit Switching

3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – One channel carries all

transmissions simultaneously.

• There is neither division of bandwidth nor division of time.

Click to Edit
• For example, if there are many people in a room all speaking at the
same time, then also perfect reception of data is possible if only two
person speak the same language.

• Similarly, data from different stations can be transmitted simultaneously

in different code languages.
 • Another issue with TDMA is propagation delay which is resolved by
addition of guard bands.
For more details refer – Circuit Switching

3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) – One channel carries all

transmissions simultaneously.

• There is neither division of bandwidth nor division of time.

Click to Edit
• For example, if there are many people in a room all speaking at the
same time, then also perfect reception of data is possible if only two
person speak the same language.

• Similarly, data from different stations can be transmitted simultaneously

in different code languages.