Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

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ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY IN METALS

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Most of the properties of metal can be explained by assigning a free electron model to them. A classical model
of electrical conduction in a metal was first proposed by Paul Drude.

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Drude –Lorentz theory (Classical free electron theory) :

Free-electron and phonon concept:

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All metal atoms consist of valence electrons. These valence electrons are responsible for electrical conduction
in a metal. Consider copper as an example for metals. A copper atom consists of 29 electrons, out of which 28
electrons are filled in the first 3 shells. And forms the core part. The remaining one electron will be present in
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the 4th shell and is the valence electron of the copper atom. It is very loosely bound in the atom.

When a large number of copper atoms join to form a metal, the boundaries of
the neighbouring atoms slightly overlap on each other. Due to this the valence
electron finds continuity from atom to atom. Thus, it can move easily
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throughout the body of the metal. The free movement of electrons means
none of them belongs to any atom, but each of them belongs to the metal to
which they are confined to. Thus, such electrons are named free electrons.
These free electrons are responsible for physical property of metal such as
electrical and thermal conductivities, electron emission etc. Since free
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electrons are responsible for electrical conduction in a solid, they are also
called conduction electrons.

However, the loss of electrons makes the atoms lose their electrical neutrality. They become positive ions fixed
about in their mean position. The structure formation due to the array of such ions in 3 dimension is called
lattice. Thermal vibrations of ions at lattice points cause elastic waves in crystal. The energy of these lattice
vibrations is quantised and the quantum of this energy is phonon.

Phonon: a particle-like entity which carries the unit energy of an elastic field in a particular mode is called
phonon. The energy of the phonon is given by h𝝂.

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 1

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

The free electrons collide with the ion core at lattice point. The collision
results in a change in the direction of velocity of the electrons. In the absence
of an electric field, the velocities of electrons are in random directions as in
fig. due to which there is no net transfer of charge.
According to Drude –Lorentz theory all metals contain free electrons that
move through the positive ionic core of the metals. The metal is then pictured
to be held together by electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively
charged ions and negatively charged electron gas. Mutual repulsion between negative electrons is ignored in
this theory.

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Drift velocity (Vd): In the absence of an applied field, the free electrons move rapidly in all directions. i,e the
net current moving across any given plane at any instant is zero. If a constant electric field is applied, the

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electron will experience a force eE and get accelerated. This causes the electrons to drift in a direction
opposite to that of E. The accelerated electrons collide with ions of the metal. During collision their velocities
decrease. Due to repeated collisions the average acceleration of the electrons is reduced to zero. The electrons

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acquire a constant average velocity opposite to the field. This velocity is called drift velocity (Vd). The drift
motion is directional and causes current flow, called drift current.
“The average velocity with which free electrons move in a steady state opposite to the direction of the
electric field in a metal is called drift velocity”.
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Resistivity and mobility:
Electrons tend to accelerate in the direction of the field, they are deflected in random directions by vibrating
lattice points, which is scattering. The overall effect of scattering of electrons by vibrating lattice manifests as
resistance to electric current.
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Resistance is the physical effect brought about the vibrating lattice in a material by virtue of which the
accelerating effects of an applied field on the conduction electrons is annulled so that the electrons settle into
state of constant velocity which is proportional to the strength of the applied field.
For a material of uniform cross section, the resistance R is directly proportional to length of wire (L) and
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inversely proportional to cross sectional area (A)

𝐿
𝑅=ρ 𝐴
where, 𝜌 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

It is the property of the material measuring opposition offered by material to flow of current.
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = i.e., 𝜎 =
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𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌

Mobility of electrons: The mobility of electrons is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity acquired by the
electrons in a unit electric field.
𝑣𝑑
Mobility of electrons, 𝜇 = 𝐸
where, vd is drift velocity
E is electric field applied

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 2

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE AND IMPURITY ON ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS:

The variation of electrical resistivity 𝜌 with temperature T in the low
temperature region for sodium is shown in the figure.

Except for some metals that are super conducting, this variation in
general applies to all the metals. It may be noticed that 𝜌
does not become zero even at T = 0K , but has a small constant value.
From this value , 𝜌 increases with T slowly in the beginning , later it
assumes linear but faster variation . The linearity in variation is
continued throughout till the metal melts.

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From our earlier discussion we understand that resistivity of metals is

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attributed to the scattering of conduction electrons. In metals the scattering takes place basically under two
mechanisms which give rise to two components of resistivity which are described below.
1. Resistivity 𝜌𝑃ℎ due to scattering of electrons by lattice vibrations (phonons) which increases with

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temperature. 𝜌𝑃ℎ is therefore temperature dependent. It is the resistivity exhibited by pure specimen
that is free of all defects, and hence called the Ideal resistivity
2. Resistivity 𝜌𝑖 due to scattering of conduction electrons by the presence of impurities, and imperfections
such as dislocation vacancies, and grain boundaries. This type of scattering is independent of
temperature and contributes to resistivity even at the temperature T= 0K. 𝜌𝑖 is therefore called residual
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resistivity.
Since the two scattering mechanisms mentioned above act independently , the two resistivities are additive. If
𝜌 is the total resistivity of the metal, then 𝜌 is given by ,
𝜌 = 𝜌𝑃ℎ + 𝜌𝑖 …………………………….(1)
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The above equation is called Matheissen’s rule.

Matthiessen’s rule states that the total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon
scattering which is temperature dependent and the resistivity due to scattering by impurities which is
temperature independent.
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2
1 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
Since the resistivity = 𝜎
, and 𝜎 = 𝑚
, the equation for 𝜌 can be written as,
𝑚
𝜌= 2 .
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
If 𝜏𝑝ℎ is the mean collision time, assuming there is no scattering by impurities, then,
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𝑚
𝜌𝑃ℎ = 2
𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑃ℎ

Similarly, if 𝜏𝑖 is the mean collision time assuming there is no scattering by lattice vibrations, then
𝑚
𝜌𝑖 = 2
𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑖

Therefor equation (1) can be written as,

𝑚 𝑚
𝜌= 2 + 2
𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑃ℎ 𝑛𝑒 𝜏𝑖

For lower temperatures, the amplitude of vibrations becomes small because of which, the scattering of
electrons by the lattice ions also becomes less. This results in 𝜏𝑝ℎ becoming large, and 𝜌𝑃ℎ tends to zero at very
low temperatures. It essentially means that 𝜌 = 𝜌𝑖 at very low temperatures. Accordingly, in above fig, the

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 3

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

resistivity has a residual value 𝜌𝑖 at T= 0. On the other hand, when the temperature becomes high, the
amplitude of lattice vibrations increases proportionately which results in large scale scattering of electrons.
Consequently, the resistance curve takes an upswing, and the resistivity becomes linearly dependent on
temperature. At sufficiently high temperatures, the scattering effect due to phonons swamps the effect due to
scattering by impurities. Thus, at temperatures near room temperatures, the resistivity curve is essentially
linear.

Failures of classical free electron theory:

Classical free electron theory failed to account for many experimental fact among which the notable once are
specific heat, temperature dependence of electric conductivity (𝜎), and the dependence of electrical

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conductivity on electron concentration.

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1) Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
It has been experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity 𝜎 is inversely proportional to
temperature T,

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1
𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ 𝑇
…………..(1)
1
Or 𝜎𝐶𝐹𝐸𝑇 ∝ …………………(2)
𝑇
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with
experimental observation.
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2) Dependence of 𝜎 on electron concentration:
2
𝑛𝑒 𝜏
According to classical free electron theory, the electrical conductivity 𝜎 is given by 𝜎 = 𝑚
where n is the
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electron concentration.
i.e., free electron theory suggests that 𝜎 is proportional to electron concentration n.

Experimental conductivity values for different metals are as follow

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Metal Electron concentration(n) Conductivity (𝜎)

per m3 Siemens per metre

Ag 28 7
5. 85 × 10 6. 30 × 10
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Cu 28 7
8. 45 × 10 5. 88 × 10

Cd 28 7
9. 28 × 10 0. 15 × 10

Zn 28 7
13. 10 × 10 1. 09 × 10

Ga 28 7
15. 30 × 10 0. 67 × 10

Al 28 7
18. 06 × 10 3. 65 × 10

Practically it is observed from above table that 𝜎 is not strictly proportional to electron concentration.

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 4

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

3) Dependence of 𝜎 on specific heat:

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According to the Molar specific heat of metals, 𝐶𝑣 = 2
𝑅 -------------(1 )
−4
According to experiments, Specific heat of metal, 𝐶𝑣 = 10 𝑅𝑇 -----------(2 )
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing with
experimental observation.

Quantum free electron theory

After the development of quantum mechanics, a new free electron theory was proposed by Sommerfeld in
1928.He succeeded in overcoming many of the drawbacks of classical free electron theory while retaining all

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its essential features. He treated electrons quantum mechanically and included the effects of Pauli’s exclusion
principle. This new theory proposed by Sommerfeld is known as Quantum free electron theory.

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Assumptions of Quantum free electron theory:
1) The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values are realised in

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terms of a set of energy levels.
2) The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3) The free electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.
4) The attraction between the free electrons and the lattice ions, and the repulsion between the electrons
themselves are ignored.
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Fermi energy:
The energy corresponding to the highest occupied levels at zero
degree absolute is called the Fermi energy, and the energy level is
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referred to as Fermi level. The Fermi energy is denoted as 𝐸𝐹.

Thus at T=0K, all the energy levels lying above the Fermi level are
empty and those lying below are completely filled as shown in fig.
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Density of states:
We know that the permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid material will be in terms of bands. Each band
is spread over an energy range of a few electron volts. The number of energy levels in each band will be
extremely large. Therefore, in a small energy range, the energy values appear to be virtually continuous over
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the band spread. However, the number of energy levels per unit energy range varies with energy in the band.
This variation is realised through a function g(E), which is known as density of states function.

The density of states (g(E)) is essentially the number of different states

at a particular energy level that electrons are allowed to occupy, i.e. the
number of electron states per unit volume per unit energy.

It is a mathematically continuous function and the product g(E) dE

gives the number of states per unit volume in an energy interval dE at
E.

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 5

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

Let us consider the case of free electrons in a material. The possible energy values for the free electrons
correspond to only the set of energy levels available vacant but adjacent to the filled energy levels in the band.
Consider such a band as shown in fig below. Let the energy band be spread in an energy interval between E1
and E2.
Consider an infinitesimally small increment dE at arbitrary energy value E in the band. Since dE is an
infinitesimally small increment in E, we can assume that g(E)
remains constant between E and E+dE. Then the number of
energy levels in the range E and (E+dE) is obtained by evaluating
the product of g(E) and dE,
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i.e., g(E) × dE = ⎡⎢
8 2π𝑚 ⎤ 2

3 ⎥ 𝐸𝑑𝐸
⎣ ℎ ⎦
As per this equation, the number of energy levels in an energy

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interval dE is proportional to 𝐸 . A plot of g(E) verses E is
shown in fig.

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Fermi factor and its temperature dependence:
Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal equilibrium.
The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at a steady temperature T, is given by
1
f (E) = (𝐸−𝐸 )
𝐹
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𝐾𝑇
𝑒 +1
Where, EF is the Fermi energy and K is the Boltzmann constant.

The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature, and the effect on occupancy of energy level is as shown in fig
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below. Let us consider different cases of distribution as follows.

(i) Probability of occupation for E < EF at T=O

When T= 0 and E < EF, we have for the probability,
1 1 1
f (E) = −∞ = 0+1
= 1
=1
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𝑒 +1
Therefore f (E) =1, for E < EF
Here f(E ) = 1 means the energy level is certainly occupied, and E < EF applies to all the energy levels below EF.
Therefore, at T=O, all the energy levels above Fermi level are occupied.

(ii) Probability of occupation for E > EF at T=O

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When T= 0 and E > EF, we have for the probability,

1 1
f(E) = ∞ = ∞
= 0
𝑒 +1
Therefore f (E) = 0, for E >EF. i.e., at T=0, all the energy levels above Fermi levels are unoccupied.

(iii) Probability of occupation at ordinary temperature:

At ordinary temperature the value of probability remains 1 for E<< EF. But it starts decreasing from 1 as E
reaches closer to EF. The value of f(E) becomes ½ at E=EF
This is because, for E = EF,
(𝐸−𝐸𝐹)
𝐾𝑇 0
𝑒 =𝑒 = 1

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 6

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

1 1 1
Therefore, f(E) = (𝐸−𝐸 )
𝐹
= 1+1
= 2
𝐾𝑇
𝑒 +1
Further, for E> EF the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.

From the discussion we may say that the Fermi energy is the
most probable or the average energy of the electrons across
which the energy transition occurs at temperature above zero
degree absolute. This may be considered as the physical basis
for the concept of Fermi energy.

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SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

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Introduction to superconductors:
Superconductivity is a novel state of matter exhibited by many conductors when cooled below their

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superconducting transition temperatures. Superconductivity is one of the most fascinating phenomenons having
a vast potential in practical applications. Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike Kamerlingh
Onnes, who was studying the resistance of solid mercury at cryogenic temperatures using liquid helium as a
refrigerant. He got the 1913 Physics Nobel Prize for his work.
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Superconductivity is a phenomenon observed in several materials that demonstrate no resistance to the
flow of an electric current when cooled to temperatures ranging from near absolute zero (0 K) to liquid nitrogen
temperatures (77 K). The temperature below which electrical resistance is zero is called the critical temperature
Tc and this temperature is a characteristic of the material. Superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of
materials, including simple elements like tin and aluminium, various metallic alloys and some heavily-doped
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semiconductors. Superconductivity does not occur in noble metals like gold and silver, or in pure samples of
ferromagnetic metals. Another striking property of superconductors is that they are perfectly diamagnetic.

Definition: “The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly
drops to zero below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and the threshold
temperature is called critical temperature”.
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“The temperature at which the materials make a transition from normal state to superconducting
state is called ‘Critical Temperature’. It is usually denoted by TC”.

Temperature dependence of resistivity

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The resistivity of metals is attributed to the scattering of conduction electrons. The scattering of
electrons takes place because of two reasons:
one due to collision of conduction electrons
with the vibrating lattice ions and the other is
caused by scattering of electrons by the
impurities present in the metal. The resistivity
due to scattering of electrons by the lattice
vibrations called phonons is denoted by ρ0. This
increases with temperature. It arises even in a
pure conductor and hence called the ideal
resistivity. Whereas the resistivity of metals
caused by scattering of electrons with the
impurities is denoted by ρi . This is independent

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 7

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

of temperature and present even at absolute zero of temperature and hence called residual resistivity. Therefore,
the total resistivity of a metal can be written as the sum of the two resistivities. This is called Matthiessen’s
rule. Mathematically,

ρ = ρo + ρi

However, some metals show remarkable behaviour. They lose their electrical resistance completely
below a certain temperature, called critical temperature Tc. Below the critical temperature these
superconducting materials can carry large amounts of electrical current for long periods of time without losing
energy as ohmic heat. In general, metal can not be perfectly pure and will contain some impurities. Therefore,
the electrons are scattered by thermal vibrations of lattice impurity atoms. This scattering by impurities is

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independent of temperature. As a result, there will be a certain amount of residual resistivity which remains at
the lowest temperature (from figure). More the impurity in metals, the larger will be its residual resistivity.

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Meissner’s effect
When Superconductors are cooled below the critical temperature, they expel magnetic fields and do not allow
the magnetic field to penetrate inside them. This phenomenon in superconductors is called the Meissner
effect.

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This effect of superconductivity is used in magnetic levitation which is the base of modern high-speed bullet
trains. In superconducting state (phase), due to expulsion of external magnetic field, the sample of
superconducting material levitates above the magnet or vise-versa. Modern high-speed bullet trains use the
phenomenon of magnetic levitation.
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Critical field : Temperature dependence of critical field

The Meissner effect breaks down when the applied magnetic field is
too large. The strength of the magnetic field required to just switch a
material from superconducting state to normal state is called the critical
magnetic field Hc. When the applied magnetic field exceeds the critical value
Hc, the superconducting state of the material goes into the normal state.
Obviously, the value of Hc varies with temperature. The figure shows the
dependence of Hc on temperatures T < Tc, the material remains
superconducting until a corresponding critical magnetic field is applied.

The temperature dependence of the critical field is given by the

expression,

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 8

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

Where,
Hc is the critical field;
H0 is the field required to turn the superconductor to normal at 0 K;
T is the temperature of the superconducting material and
Tc is the critical temperature.
This equation says that if the strength of the applied magnetic field is greater than H0, then the material can
never become superconducting however low the temperature may be.

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Types of superconductors
Superconductors are classified into two types, I type and II type superconductors based on magnetic
behaviour.

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1. Type I (Soft) Superconductors
The superconductors which strictly follow the Meissner effect are called type I or soft superconductors. In type
I superconductor, the transition occurs sharply at the critical value Hc from superconducting to normal state in

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the presence of a magnetic field which is as shown in the figure:(a). The resistivity abruptly jumps from zero to
a high value at Hc.
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Type I superconductors are perfectly diamagnetic below Hc and completely expel the magnetic field from the
interior of the superconducting phase. Up to the critical field strength, the magnetization of the material
grows in proportion to the external field and then abruptly drops to zero and transitions to normal conducting
state as shown in figure: (b). The magnetic field can penetrate the surface layer and then current can only
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flow in this layer. Consequently, type I superconductors are poor carriers of electrical current. Example:
Aluminium, Lead and indium are type I superconductors and their critical value (Hc) is low as 0.01 Wb/m2.

2. Type II (hard) superconductors:

They are a new kind of magnetic phase. These are characterised by a lower critical field HC1 at which magnetic
flux begins to enter the superconductor and upper Critical magnetic field HC2 at which superconductivity
disappears. The Meissner effect is satisfied up to the lower field HC1. After that the flux partially penetrates
into the specimen. The magnetization of the material grows in a proportion to the external field up to the
lower critical field HC1. the external magnetic field is expelled from the interior of the material till then. At HC1,
the magnetic field lines begin to penetrate the material.

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 9

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

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As the magnetic field increases further, the magnetic flux through the material increases. At the upper
critical field HC2, the magnetization vanishes completely and the external magnetic field has completely
penetrated and destroyed superconductivity. The region between HC1 and HC2, the material is a magnetically
mixed state but electrically it is a superconducting state. HC2 can be as high as 20 to 50 Wb/m2 and the

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retention of superconductivity in such high magnetic fields makes Type II materials very useful in applications
of creating very high magnetic fields.

A close examination of the specimen reveals the presence of small circular regions in the normal state,
which are surrounded by a large superconducting ring current. The small normal regions are called Vortices or
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fluxoids. Each fluxoid encloses only one quantum of magnetic flux. The magnetic field penetrates in the form
of quantized flux tubes through the vortices. Transition metals and alloys usually fall in the Type II Class.

BCS theory of superconductors

The understanding of superconductivity was proposed in 1957 by three American Physicists – John
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Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Schrieffer. Their microscopic theory of superconductivity is known as BCS
theory for which they received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972.
The BCS theory explains superconductivity at temperatures close to
absolute zero.

The BCS theory is based on quantum treatment and two

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experimental facts vise - 1.Isotope effect, and 2. Variation of

electronic specific heat with temperature. The BCS theory showed
that the interaction of two electrons through intermediary of
phonons. When an electron approaches an ion in the lattice, there is
a coulomb attraction between the electron and the lattice ion. This
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produces a distortion in the lattice called lattice distortion. The

distortion causes an increase in the density of ions in the region of
distortion. Smaller the mass of the ion core greater will be the
distortion. At this juncture, an electron coming near that place will
also interact with the distorted lattice, which tends to reduce the
energy of the electrons. This process looks like the interaction of
two electrons via lattice or phonon field which reduces energy of
electrons. The lowering of electrons' energy implies that the force
between the electrons is attractive. This process is called
electron-lattice-electron interaction via the phonon field. Because
of reduced energy during the interaction, it is treated as equivalent to establishing an attractive force between
two electrons of equal and opposite momentum. The attractive force may exceed the Coulomb repulsive force

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 10

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

between electrons at temperatures below critical temperature, leading to formation of a Cooper pair shown in
figure.

A Cooper pair is a bound pair of electrons formed by the interaction between the electrons with
opposite spin and momentum in a phonon field. This condition favours the formation of clouds of Cooper
pairs. When the electrons flow in the form of Cooper pairs in materials, they do not encounter any scattering
by cooperative action of the pairs in the union. The resistance factor vanishes and conductivity becomes
infinity and material becomes a superconductor. At T>Tc, they get separated into normal individual electrons
and lose superconducting condition.

The good conductors like gold, silver and copper do not exhibit a superconducting state. It is mainly

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due to free motion of electrons in the lattice and electron-lattice-electron interaction is virtually absent. This
rules out the possibility of formation of Cooper pairs and the occurrence of superconductivity.

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High temperature superconductors
A new era in the study of superconductivity began in 1986 with the discovery of high critical temperature
(high-Tc ) superconductors by Karl Miller and Johannes Bednorz for which they won the Nobel Prize in Physics

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in 1987. Until then it was thought that BCS theory ruled out superconductivity at temperatures above 30 K.

High-temperature superconductivity allows some materials to be superconducting at temperatures

above the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (77 K or −196◦ C). Indeed, they offer the highest transition
temperatures of all superconductors. The ability to use relatively inexpensive and easily handled liquid
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nitrogen as a coolant has increased the range of practical applications of superconductivity. As of now, the
current world record of superconductivity is held by a ceramic superconductor doped with thallium, mercury,
copper, barium, calcium and oxygen which has Tc = 138 K.
The critical magnetic field that destroys superconductivity tends to be higher for materials with a high
Tc and in magnet applications this may be more valuable than the high Tc itself. All known high Tc
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superconductors are of Type-II and the best known are BSCCO and YBCO. The search for a theoretical
understanding of high-temperature superconductivity is an important unsolved problem in physics.

Examples are given below.

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Quantum tunnelling
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Quantum tunnelling is defined as a quantum mechanical

process where wavefunctions can penetrate through a
potential barrier. The transmission through the potential
barrier can be finite and relies exponentially on the
barrier width and barrier height. The wave functions
have the genuine probability of disappearing on one side
and reappearing on the remaining side. The first
derivative of the wave functions is continuous. In the
steady-state case, the probability flux in the forward
trajectory is spatially uniform. No wave or particle is
eliminated. Tunnelling happens with barriers of thickness about 1–3 nm and smaller. Quantum tunnelling
cannot be explained through the laws of classical mechanics, where a dense potential barrier needs potential

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 11

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

energy. It has a crucial role in physical processes such as nuclear fusion. It’s been used in quantum computing,
tunnel diodes and scanning tunnelling microscopes. The quantum phenomenon was theorised in the early
20th century, and it was accepted as a practical physical phenomenon in the mid-century.
Quantum tunnelling is forecasted to create physical limits to the dimensions of the transistors employed in
microelectronics. This is due to electrons’ ability to tunnel transistors that are too small. Tunnelling can be
understood through the concepts of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. In other words, the uncertainty in the
precise location of electromagnetic particles permits these particles to break the laws of classical physics and
propagate in space without going over the potential energy boundary. Both tunnelling and uncertainty
principle are mutually compatible as they consider a quantum body as both wave and particle simultaneously.

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Josephson effect

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Josephson effect is the flow of electric current between two pieces of superconducting material separated by
a thin layer of insulating material.
The Josephson current flows only if no battery is connected across the two superconductors. If a battery is
inserted, the current oscillates very rapidly so that no net current flows. The presence of magnetic fields near

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the superconductors influences the Josephson effect, allowing it to be used to measure very weak magnetic
fields.
According to the BCS theory, superconductivity is a result of the correlated motion of electrons in the
superconducting solid. Part of this correlation is the formation of pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs.
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According to Josephson, under certain circumstances these Cooper pairs move from one superconductor to
the other across the thin insulating layer. Such motion of pairs of electrons constitutes the Josephson current,
and the process by which the pairs cross the insulating layer is called Josephson tunnelling.

A Josephson junction is made by sandwiching a thin layer of a non superconducting material between two
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layers of superconducting material.

DC Josephson effect
A DC current flowing across the two superconductors separated by an insulating layer of 10Å thickness
(junction) in the absence of electric and magnetic field is known as DC Josephson effect.
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Consider a josephson junction formed by two superconductors separated by an insulating layer of thickness
10Å, as shown in figure.

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 12

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

Let it be connected in a circuit. The cooper pairs tunnel from one side of the junction to the other side easily.
The effect of the insulating layer is that it produces a phase difference between the wave function of cooper
pairs on one side of the insulating layer and the wave function of the pairs on the other side. Because of this
phase difference, super current appears across the junction even though the applied voltage is zero. This is
known as the DC josephson effect.
Josephson showed that super current through the junction is given by,
IS = IC sin(ⲫo)
Where ⲫo is the phase difference between the wave functions describing cooper pairs on both sides of the
barrier and IC is the critical current at zero voltage condition which depends on thickness and width of

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insulating layer.

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AC Josephson effect

On the other hand, when a potential difference V is applied between the two sides of the junction, there will
be an oscillation of the tunnelling current. This is called the A.C. Josephson Effect.

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The DC voltage generates an alternating current I given by,
I = IC sin(ⲫo + Δⲫ) —--------(1)
Because of the applied voltage V across the barrier, the difference in energies of cooper pairs on both sides of
the barrier is 2eV. Using quantum mechanical calculations, it can be shown that,
( )
2𝑒𝑉
Δⲫ = 2ħt ħ —---------(2)
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From equations (1) and (2) we get,
I = IC sin(ⲫo +2ħt( )) —-----(3)
2𝑒𝑉
ħ
The current I in the above equation is known as alternating current of frequency
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2𝑒𝑉
𝜈 = ħ —------(4)
The above equation shows that a photon of frequency 𝜈 is emitted or absorbed when a cooper pair crosses
the junction. Thus, when a dc voltage is applied across a josephson junction, an AC current is produced . This is
known as the AC josephson effect.
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SQUID
S for Superconducting Q for Quantum and I for Interference and D for Devices
A superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is a very sensitive device for measuring weak
magnetic fields. It is capable of measuring magnetic fields as low as 5 aT (5×10-18 T). Due to their sensitivity,
SQUIDs are widely used in research, biological studies and other ultrasensitive electronic and magnetic
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measurements where faint signals cannot be sensed using conventional measurement instruments.

A SQUID is constructed of a superconducting loop containing one or more Josephson junctions.There are two
types of SQUID, the radio frequency (RF) SQUID consisting of only one Josephson junction, and the direct
current (DC) SQUID with two or more junctions. The RF is cheaper in construction but less sensitive compared
to the DC.

DC SQUID

It has two Josephson junctions in parallel in a superconducting loop. It is based on the DC Josephson effect. In
the absence of any external magnetic field, the input current Ｉsplits into the two branches equally. If a small
external magnetic field is applied to the superconducting loop, a screening current,Ｉs ,begins to circulate the
loop that generates the magnetic field cancelling the applied external flux, and creates an additional

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 13

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

Josephson phase which is proportional to this external magnetic flux. The induced current is in the same
direction as Ｉ in one of the branches of the superconducting loop, and is opposite to Ｉ in the other branch; the
Ｉ Ｉ
total current becomes 2 + Ｉ𝑠 in one branch and 2 − Ｉ𝑠 in the other. As soon as the current in either branch
exceeds the critical current, 𝐼𝑐 of the Josephson junction, a voltage appears across the junction.

Now suppose the external flux is further increased until it exceeds Φ0/2, half the magnetic flux quantum. Since
the flux enclosed by the superconducting loop must be an integer number of flux quanta, instead of screening
the flux the SQUID now energetically prefers to increase it to Φ0. The current now flows in the opposite
direction, opposing the difference between the admitted flux Φ0 and the external field of just over Φ0/2. The
current decreases as the external field is increased, is zero when the flux is exactly Φ0 and again reverses

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direction as the external field is further increased. Thus, the current changes direction periodically, every time
the flux increases by additional half-integer multiple of Φ0, with a change at maximum amperage every
half-plus-integer multiple of Φ0 and at zero amps every integer multiple.

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RF SQUID

It is based on the AC Josephson effect and uses only one

Josephson junction. It is less sensitive compared to DC SQUID
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but is cheaper and easier to manufacture in smaller quantities.

Most fundamental measurements in biomagnetism, even of
extremely small signals, have been made using RF SQUIDS. The
RF SQUID is inductively coupled to a resonant tank circuit.
Depending on the external magnetic field, as the SQUID
operates in the resistive mode, the effective inductance of the
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tank circuit changes, thus changing the resonant frequency of

the tank circuit. These frequency measurements can be easily
taken, and thus the losses which appear as the voltage across
the load resistor in the circuit are a periodic function of the
applied magnetic flux with a period of Φ0.

Applications in quantum computing

Charge qubit

In quantum computing, a charge qubit (also known as Cooper-pair box) is a qubit whose basis states are
charge states (i.e. states which represent the presence or absence of excess Cooper pairs in the island).In
superconducting quantum computing, a charge qubit is formed by a tiny superconducting island coupled by a

Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 14

 Electrical conductivity in metals Module - 4

Josephson junction (or practically, superconducting tunnel junction) to a

superconducting reservoir (see figure). The state of the qubit is determined by
the number of Cooper pairs which have tunnelled across the junction. In contrast
with the charge state of an atomic or molecular ion, the charge states of such an
"island" involve a macroscopic number of conduction electrons of the island. The
quantum superposition of charge states can be achieved by tuning the gate
voltage U that controls the chemical potential of the island. The charge qubit is
typically read-out by electrostatically coupling the island to an extremely sensitive
electrometer such as the radio-frequency single-electron transistor.

Phase qubit and flux qubit

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The phase qubit is closely related, yet distinct from, the flux qubit and the charge qubit, which are also
quantum bits implemented by superconducting devices. The major distinction among the three is the ratio of

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Josephson energy vs charging energy(the necessary energy for one Cooper pair to charge the total capacitance
in the circuit):
● For phase qubit, this ratio is on the order of 106, which allows for macroscopic bias current through

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the junction;
● For flux qubit it's on the order of 10, which allows for mesoscopic supercurrents (typically ~300 nA);
● For charge qubit it's less than 1, and therefore only a few Cooper pairs can tunnel through and
charge the Cooper-pair box. However, transmon can have a very low charging energy due to the
huge shunt capacitance, and therefore have this ratio on the order of 10~100
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Sindhoora Shetty, Dept. of Physics, SKIT 15