Introduction of Automobile or Vehicle:

An Automobile is a self-propelled vehicle which contains the power source for its propulsion

and is used for carrying passengers and goods on the ground, such as car, bus, trucks, etc.,,

Types of Automobile:

The automobiles are classified by the following ways,

1. On the Basis of Load:

• Heavy transport vehicle (HTV) or heavy motor vehicle (HMV),

• Light transport vehicle (LTV), Light motor vehicle (LMV),

2. On the Basis of Wheels:

• Two wheeler vehicle, for example: Scooter, motorcycle, scooty, etc.

• Three wheeler vehicle, for example : Autorickshaw,

• Three wheeler scooter for handicaps and tempo, etc.

• Four wheeler vehicle, for example: Car, jeep, trucks, buses, etc.

• Six wheeler vehicle, for example: Big trucks with two gear axles.

3. On the basis of Fuel Used:

• Petrol vehicle, e.g. motorcycle, scooter, cars, etc.

• Diesel vehicle, e.g. trucks, buses, etc.

• Electric vehicle which use battery to drive.

• Steam vehicle, e.g. an engine which uses steam engine.

• Gas vehicle, e.g. LPG and CNG vehicles, where LPG is liquefied

4. On the basis of body style:

• Sedan Hatchback car.

• Coupe car Station wagon Convertible.

• Van Special purpose vehicle, e.g. ambulance, milk van, etc.

5. On the basis of Transmission:

• Conventional vehicles with manual transmission, e.g. car with 5 gears.

 • Semi-automatic

• Automatic : In automatic transmission, gears are not required to be

changed manually.

6. On the basis of Drive:

• Left hand drive

• Right hand drive

7. On the basis of Driving Axle

• Front wheel drive

• Rear wheel drive

• All wheel drive

8. Position of Engine:

• Engine in Front - Most of the vehicles have engine in the front. Example : most

of the cars,

• Engine in the Rear Side Very few vehicles have engine located in the rear.

Example : Nano car.

Vehicle construction and Components;

The main components of an automobile refer to the following components;

• Frame,

• Chassis,

• Body,

• Power unit,

• Transmission system.
An automobile is made up of mainly two units, these are Chassis and Body.

“Frame” + “Base components” = “Chassis”

“Chassis” + “Body” = Vehicle

• Chassis include the following

Springs and Shock absorbers
Steering System
Brakes
Frame
Tyres and Wheels
• Transmission Units includes
Clutches
Gear box
Universal Joint
Final Drive
Axle and Differential
• Engine Units Includes • Electrical System Includes
Full System Battery
Ignition System Dynamometre
Lubricating System Alternators
Cooling system Iginition Starting and Lighting
 Frame:
The frame is the skeleton of the vehicle. It serves as a main foundation and base for

alignment for the chassis.

Types;

• Conventional frame,

• Semi integral frame;

• Integral or untidiest frame.

Conventional Frame

Fig.1 Cross section of ladder chassis Fig. 1(a) Ladder Chassis

Intergal Frame
• In this type of construction, there is no frame. It is also called unitized frame-body construction.

• All the assembly units are attached to the body and all the functions of the frame carried out by the body
itself.

• Here the body shell and underbody are welded into single unit. The underbody is made of floor plates and
channel and box sections welded into single unit. This assembly replaces the frame.

• This frame is used now days in most of the cars. Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to
less weight most economical also.

• The main disadvantage is repairing

 Fig.2 Integral Frame

Semi Integral Frame

• In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on which engine gear box and front suspension is
mounted.
• In this case the rubber mountings used in conventional frame between frame and suspension are replaced by
more stiff mountings.
• Because of this some of the vehicle load is shared by the frame also. This type of frame is heavier in
construction.
• It has the advantage when the vehicle is met with accident the front frame can be taken easily to replace the
damaged chassis frame.
• This type of frame is used in some of the European and American cars.

Fig.3 Semi Integral Frame

 Chassis;
If the frame contains the base components its called as chassis. The components are
like Engine, radiator, clutch, gearbox, silencer, road wheels, fuel tank, wirings, differential
units, etc..,
FUNCTIONS OF A CHASSIS

1. Supports or bears the load of the vehicle body.

2. Provide the space and mounting location for various aggregates of vehicle.

3. Supports the weight of various systems of the vehicle such

as engine, transmission etc.

4. Supports a load of passengers as well as the luggage.

5. Withstands the stresses arising due to bad road conditions.

6. Withstands stresses during braking and acceleration of the vehicle.

Types of Chassis

i. Ladder Chassis

ii. Tubular Chassis

iii. Monocoque Chassis

Ladder Chassis

The ladder-frame chassis is one of the oldest chassis types. This chassis is characterised by
two long heavy beams that are supported by two smaller ones. Its quality of being easily
manufactured not only made it contemporarily popular but also eased the way for its mass
production. Since ladder frame chassis is significantly heavy it’s usually used for vehicles that
transport heavy material.
Benefits

• Easy to manufacture and easy assembling of the car over it.·

• Heavy and strong tensile strength.
Drawbacks

• Poor cornering ability due to weak torsional rigidity

• Its heaviness doesn’t make it suitable for performance cars and hatchbacks.
 Fig.4 Ladder chassis frame layout

Tubular Chassis

• Tubular space frame chassis employs dozens of circular-section tubes (some may use
square-section tubes for easier connection to the body panels, though circular section
provides the maximum strength), position in different directions to provide mechanical
strength against forces from anywhere.
• This type of chassis is mostly used while manufacturing racing cars due to the enhanced
safety they offer.
Benefits

• Its crafting allows better contact between the half axle and ground making it preferable for
off-roading.
• A cylindrical tube covering the driveshaft saves it from any damage while off-roading.
• The structure’s torsional toughness is relatively more supple than ladder chassis.
Drawbacks

• In case the driveshaft fails, the whole chassis needs to be dismantled as the driveshaft is
covered with the cylindrical tube of the chassis.
• The manufacture of backbone chassis is costly and increases the overall cost of the car.

Fig.5 Tubular Chassis

Monocoque Chassis

• The construction of a monocoque chassis is quite simple in the sense that the entire
structure is one big construction.
• All components or mechanical parts constitute the frame, foundation and body of the car.
• The engine, gearbox, suspension, seats and exterior body panels are simply attached to the
construction. This means that the overall construction is very lightweight and compact.
There is quite a lot of safety element to it.
• The applications include all sorts of everyday vehicles ranging from small and compact
hatchbacks to large and heavy SUVs. It must be noted that modern SUVs are using
monocoque construction quite a bit which was not always the case in the past
Benefits
• It’s safer than both the other chassis due to its cage-like construction.
• The chassis is easy to repair as well.
• It has superior torsional rigidity.
Drawbacks
• The chassis is obviously heavy as it’s both the frame and chassis as one single entity.
• Producing it in small quantities is not financially feasible and thus it cannot be used for cars that are
not mass-produced.

Body:
• Body is the super-structure for all vehicles. It may either be constructed separately and bolted to the
chassis or manufactured integral with the chassis (i.e. Frameless construction).
• The chassis and the body make the complete vehicle.
• A body consists of windows and doors, engine cover, roof, luggage cover etc. The electrical system in the
body is connected to the chassis electrical units so that the battery and the generator/alternator can furnish
the required electrical energy to the system.
Types;
• Car, Truck, Tractor, Delivery Van, Ambulance, jeep, Bus, etc..,

Fig.6. Body of various vechiles

Description of an Automobile
➢ Type: Motor Cycle, Car, Bus, truck, etc.,
➢ Capacity: Tonnage and no. of seats
➢ Make: Manufacturer of the vehicle and Engine Capacity
➢ Drive: Left hand Drive or Right hand Drive, 2, 4, 6 wheel drive
➢ Model: Year of Manufacturing

Layouts of an Automobile
The different layouts of an automobile are as follows
• Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive
• Front Engine Front Wheel Drive
• Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive
• Four Wheel Drive (All Wheel Drive)

1. Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive

Fig.7 layout of Front engine rear wheel drive

In this chassis layout, the engine is fitted at the front.

•The engine, clutch and gear box are fitted at front while drive to the rear axle is given with the help of propeller
shaft

•This chassis layout is one of the oldest and still remain popular for heavy commercial vehicle
Advantages
1. The weight distribution is reasonably balanced between the front and rear wheels, which gives good handling
characteristics.
2. Due to engine and radiator are at front , the forward facing radiator takes full benefit of the natural air stream ,
created by vehicle’s movement .hence reduce the power losses for a large fan.
3. The weight of vehicle is shifted to rear driving wheels during acceleration and on steeps resulting in better
road grip, hence, there are less chances of wheel slipping .
4. Since the front wheel are used only to steer the vehicle, hence steering mechanism become simple in design
and easy to operate.
 5. Accessibility to various components like engine , gear box and rear axle is better in comparison to outer
layout
6. Large luggage space is available at back of vehicle which providing increased carrying capacity as well as
space for easy body extension.
Dis Advantages
1. During the breaking ,weight of vehicle is fitted to front wheels and weight on rear wheels decreased , results
in decreased breaking effort developed
2. It required long propeller shaft and differential at rear, therefore height of floor area is increased .Also, due to
long propeller shaft transmission problems and weight are increased.
3. Due to less weight on driving rear wheels, there is less adhesion on road and result in less holding capacity
.therefore there is less chance of skidding on slippery surface.

2. Front Engine Front Wheel Drive

Fig.8 layout of Front engine Front wheel drive

1. In this type of chassis layout the engine is fitted at front and drive is also given to the front wheel .No
propeller shaft is used in this layout and differential are included in the same assembly.
2. This layout provides optimum body luggage space and flat floor line. However , due to all assemblies
at front ,it make very difficult to accommodate the steering mechanism.
Advantages
1. Due to more weight placed on driving front wheel, the vehicle has more adhesion on road. Hence good
road holding capacity even on the curves and slippery roads.
2. This layout provides low floor, since no propeller shaft and the differential placed at front instead of
rear.
3. The clutch, gearbox, and final drive usually made as one unit thereby coast of vehicle are reducing.
4. The wheel does not take to sharply turn into the curve due to tendency of understeering. The understeer
conditions generally preferred by many drivers are promoted by this type of chassis.
5. Either a transverse or longitudinal engine position can be used. In case of transverse mounted engine,
as the engine crankshaft and wheels already rotate in the parallel planes, therefore, they do not require
their drive to be turned through 90O as in case of conventional longitudinally mounted engines.
Dis Advantages
1. The weight on the driving front wheels is reduced during acceleration and climbing of steep gradient
due to weight of the vehicle shifting to the rear wheels. Hence, result in decreased tractive effort which
makes slippery gradient
 2. The steering mechanism become more complicated due to accommodation of engine, clutch, gearbox
& final drive all at front of vehicle.

3. Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive

Fig.9 layout of Reart engine rear wheel drive

In this chassis layout engine is fitted at the back and drive is also given to rear wheel

•This arrangement eliminates the necessity for a propeller shaft because engine is mounted near the driven wheel.

•The passenger are kept away from inconveniences like noise, heat and fumes because engine at back of vehicle

Advantages
1. Because of high weight on driving axle, it provides excellent traction and grip on steep hills
2. The rear floor can be made flat because of absence of propeller shaft.
3. The clutch, gearbox, and final drive usually made as one unit thereby coast of vehicle are reducing.
4. The driver cabin is well isolated from noise
5. The front body can be designed with steam lining and stylish.
Dis Advantages
1. Natural air cooling of the engine is not possible, hence it requires powerful radiator fan at rear.
2. The clutch and gear system mechanism is long and complex
3. Because of high weight concentration at rear, the vehicle has a tendency to over steer while taking harp
turns
4. Four Wheel Drive (All wheel Drive)

Fig.10 layout of All wheel drive

 o 4X2 = 4 Wheel vehicle and 2 Wheels can receive torque.
o 4X4 = 4 Wheel vehicle and all 4 Wheels can receive torque.
o E.g. are Jeeps, SUVs (Sports Utility Vehicle), etc.
o Games derived its name from 4WD only.
o Used mostly in defense services or where graveled or slick roads are present.
o To get enough “TRACTION” between wheels and road surfaces.
o To move vehicle on slick surfaces, dirt, slippery roads, sand roads and snowy,
muddy roads etc.
Advantages
• Increased Traction is obtained in slippery surfaces.
• More balanced axle load distribution.
• Even tire wear
Dis Advantages
• Weight of vehicle is increased.
• Cost of the vehicle is increased.
• Maximum speed of vehicle is reduced.
• Less fuel economy than 2WD

Vehicle Aero Dynamics

The term “Aero” means air, “Dynamic” means motion. Therefore, aerodynamic is the study of effects of the wind on
the vehicle in motion.
When the vehicle is moving the air flow is dependent on the two factors.
• Vehicle speed.
• Ambient wind.
Advantages of Aerodynamics
• More Fuel Efficiency
• Higher Speeds
• Good Aesthetic and Stylish Appearance
• More Stability of car at high Speed
• Reduce Noise Level
Resistance of an Automobile
✓ A moving vehicle is opposed by various forces, known as resistance
✓ For moving the vehicle, the driving force (F) should be equal to the sum of all resistance forces applied
on it. F= Ra+Rr+Rg
✓ When ‘F’ exceeds the sum of all resistance forces, vechile accelarate
✓ When ‘F’ less than the sum of all resistance forces, vechile deaccelarate
Air Resistance (Ra): This is the resistance offered by air to the movement of a vehicle. The air resistance has
an influence on the performance, ride and stability of the vehicle and depends upon the size and shape of the
body of the vehicle, its speed and the wind velocity. The last term should be taken into account when indicated,
otherwise it can be neglected. Hence in general, air resistance,

Rolling Resistance (Rr): The magnitude of rolling resistance depends mainly on

• the nature of road surface,
• the types of tyre viz. pneumatic or solid rubber type,
• the weight of the vehicle, and
• the speed of the vehicle

Gradient Resistance (Rg): The resistance due to steepness of the road gradient. It depends upon the weight of the vehicle
and road gradient. It does not depend upon vehicle speed.

MOMENTS DUE TO FORCES: Moments created by forces acting on the vehicle

Rolling Moment – Created by cross wind about x-axis
Pitching moment – Created by drag or lift force about y-axis and reduces the traction in the wheels
Yawing moment- Created by cross wind about z-axis
 Fig.11 Moments of Forces acting on the Body
Components of an Engine:
Even though reciprocating internal combustion engines look quite simple, t here are hundreds of
components that have to perform their functions satisfactorily to produce output power. There are two
types of engines, viz., spark ignition (S1) and compression-ignition (CI) engine. Let us now go through
the important engine components and the nomenclature associated with an engine.

Terms connected with I.C. engines;

Bore: The inside diameter of the cylinder is called bore

Stroke: The linear distance along the cylinder axis between two limiting position s is called

stroke.

Top Dead Center ( T.D.C.) : the top most position of the piston towards cover end side of

the cylinder is called T.D.C.

Bottom dead Center (B.D.C.) : The lowest position of the piston towards the crank end side

of the cylinder is called B.D.C.

Clearance Volume: The volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston , when

the piston is at top dead center , is called the clearance volume.

Swept Volume: The volume swept through by the piston in moving between T.D.C. and B.D.C, is called

swept volume or piston displacement.

Compression Ratio: It is the ratio of Total cylinder volume to clearance volume.

Definition of ‘Engine’

An engine is a device, which transforms one form of energy into another form. Normally, most

of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called ‘heat

engines’.

Fig.12 parts of an I.C. Engine

Engine Components
The major components of the engine and their functions are briefly described below.

Cylinder Block:

The cylinder block is the main supporting structure for the various components. The cylinder of a

multi cylinder engine is cast as a single unit, called cylinder block. The cylinder head is mounted

on the cylinder block.

The cylinder head and cylinder block are provided with water jackets in the case of water- cooling

with cooling fins in the case of air-cooling. Cylinder head gasket is incorporated between the

cylinder block and cylinder head. The cylinder head is held tight to the cylinder block by number

of bolts or studs. The bottom portion of the cylinder block is called crankcase. A cover called

crankcase, which becomes a sump for lubricating oil is fastened to the bottom of the crankcase. The

inner surface of the cylinder block, which is machined and finished accurately to cylindrical shape,

is called bore or face.

Cylinder

As the name implies it is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating

motion. The varying volume created in the cylinder during the operation of the engine is filled

with the working fluid and subjected to different thermodynamic processes. The cylinder issupported

in the cylinder block.

Piston

It is a cylindrical component fitted into the cylinder forming the moving boundary of the combustion

system. It fits perfectly (snugly) into the cylinder providing a gas-tight space with the piston rings

and the lubricant. It forms the first link in transmitting the gas forces to the output shaft.

Combustion Chamber

The space enclosed in the upper part of the cylinder, by the cylinder head and the piston top during

the combustion process, is called the combustion chamber. The combustion of fuel and the

consequent release of thermal energy results in the building up of pressure in this part of the cylinder.

Inlet Manifold

The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through which air or

air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is called the inlet manifold.

Gudgeon Pin

It forms the link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston.

Exhaust Manifold

The pipe that connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine and through which the

products of combustion escape into the atmosphere is called the exhaust manifold.

Inlet and Exhaust Valves

Valves are commonly mushroom shaped poppet type. They are provided either on the cylinder head

or on the side of the cylinder for regulating the charge coming into the cylinder (inlet valve) and for

discharging the products of combustion (exhaust valve) from the cylinder.

Connecting Rod
It interconnects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the gas forces from the piston to the

crankshaft. The two ends of the connecting rod are called as small end and the big end. Small end

is connected to the piston by gudgeon pin and the big end is connected to the crankshaft by crankpin.

Crankshaft

It converts the reciprocating motion of the piston into useful rotary motion of the output shaft. In the

crankshaft of a single cylinder engine there is pair of crank arms and balance weights. The balance

weights are provided for static and dynamic balancing of the rotating system. The crankshaft is

enclosed in a crankcase.

Piston Rings

Piston rings, fitted into the slots around the piston, provide a tight seal between the piston and the

cylinder wall thus preventing leakage of combustion gases

Camshaft

The camshaft and its associated parts control the opening and closing of the two valves. The

associated parts are push rods, rocker arms, valve springs and tappets. This shaft also provides the

drive to the ignition system. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing gears.

Cams

These are made as integral parts of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the

valves at the correct timing and to keep them open for the necessary duration.

Fly Wheel

The net torque imparted to the crankshaft during one complete cycle of operation of the engine

fluctuates causing a change in the angular velocity of the shaft. In order to achieve a uniform torque

an inertia mass in the form of a wheel is attached to the output shaft and this wheel is called the

flywheel.

Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine:

Basic Parts of the Gasoline Engine are listed below;

 • Cylinder block

• Piston

• Piston rings

• Piston pin

• Connecting rod

• Crankshaft

• Cylinder head

• Intake valve

• Exhaust valve

• Camshaft

• Timing gears

• Spark plug

Cylinder Block:

Cylinder Block Basic frame of gasoline engine. Contains the cylinder.

Piston:
Piston A sliding plug that harnesses the force of the burning gases in the cylinder.

Piston Rings:

Piston rings seal the compression gases above the piston keep the oil below the piston rings.

Piston Pins:

Piston Pins Also known as the wrist pin, it connects the piston to the small end of the connecting

rod. It transfers the force and allows the rod to swing back and forth.

Connecting Rod:

Connecting Rod Connects the piston and piston pin to the crankshaft.

Crankshaft:
Crankshaft Along the the piston pin and connecting rod it converts the up and down motion

(reciprocating) of the engine to spinning (rotary) motion.

Flywheel:

Flywheel Carries the inertia when there is no power stroke.

Cylinder Head:

Cylinder Head Forms the top of the combustion chamber. Contains the valves, the passageways

for the fuel mixture to move in and out of the engine.

Intake and Exhaust Valves:

Intake and Exhaust Valves Doorway that lets the gases in and out of the engine.

Camshaft:

Camshaft Through the use of an eccentric the cam lobes push the valves open. The valve springs

close them.

Timing Gears:

Timing Gears These gears drive the camshaft from the crankshaft.

Variable Valve Timing

It is inherent to the operation of internal combustion engines to possess inlet and exhaust valves
(4-stroke) or ports (2-stroke) for proper functioning. The idea here is to entrap the incoming fresh
charge in a well-designed combustion chamber and then initiate ignition in order to release and
convert the stored fuel chemical energy into the thermal energy. Subsequent to this release of
energy, a mechanical system, such as piston-connecting-rod-crankshaft, is needed forconversion
of the thermal energy into the mechanical energy of the crankshaft. The incoming fresh charge
usually consists of fuel, air, and possibly exhaust gas recalculated (EGR) chemical species. EGR
is used for nitric oxide (NOX) emission control purposes. In this scenario, the roles that valves,
particularly the intake valves, play are critical for the engine’s efficient operation, optimum
performance, and minimization of pollutants emission. In this tutorial, these aspects are
addressed in a concise manner.

Historically speaking, many different types of valves and valve actuation mechanisms have been
tried in the past. Most have disappeared to the point that at present time nearly all 4-stroke

engines use poppet valves opened by a cam and closed by a spring. A typical valve timing for a
4-stroke engine is shown in Fig. 1. At wide open throttle operation of an SI engine, the exhaust
gases rushing out of the exhaust valve can assist pulling fresh charge into the cylinder (moving
the intake manifold fresh charge even before the piston has moved appreciably), therefore
justifying opening of the intake valve (IVO) even before TDC, see Fig. 1. At part load operation,
however, situation is a bit more complex and the below-atmospheric pressure created by the
partially open throttle valve can become less than the chamber pressure at the time when intake
valve is opened. This causes backflow of burned gases from the cylinder into the intake system
during the valve overlap period. The overlap period is the time during which both intake and
exhaust valves are open (intake is being opened and exhaust being closed). Too early IVO will
also cause fresh charge to be lost out of the exhaust, for example, NASCAR engines.

At the closing, it is customary to delay the IVC beyond the BDC to take advantage of the inertia
of the fresh charge rushing into the engine, see Fig. 1. This will increase what is referred to as
the “volumetric efficiency” of the engine. The volumetric efficiency indicates the breathing
ability of the engine and is defined as the actual mass of the fresh air trapped in the cylinder (after
valves are closed) divided by the theoretical mass of air calculated based on the piston
displacement volume. The higher the volumetric efficiency, the higher the engine ability to trap
fresh air, providing opportunity for combustion of a more mass of fuel on account of a more
entrapped oxygen, thereby producing higher power for the same piston displacement.
Furthermore, the engine brake power rises and then falls off with speed for a number of reasons:
mainly the fall in volumetric efficiency, and the fall in mechanical efficiency. The delayed closure
of the intake valve for achieving higher volumetric efficiency usually works best at higher engine
speeds due to sufficiently high inertia of the incoming fresh charge. Note that the IVO does also
affect the volumetric efficiency through the magnitude of the backflow into the intake system
mentioned earlier.

In engines, even though attempts are made to thoroughly scavenge the chamber from burned
gases, there is always a certain amount of burned gases left to be mixed with the incoming fresh
charge. As far as the combustion (really, flame burning rate) is concerned, the amount of this
residual burned gases left from the previous cycle combustion is not desirable. The higher the
quantity of residual burned gases, the slower the flame mass burning rate. It is known that
increases in the valve overlap period will elevate the fraction of the residual gases in the
entrapped charge. Also, past research indicates that the amount of the residual gases correlates
inversely with the engine load (i.e. throttle valve position in SI engines), being maximum at idle
condition. This is the primary reason for engine stability problems at idle condition. It should
therefore be clear that the valve overlap period can affect engine stability and hence
efficiency. On the positive side, this residual gases is useful to lower the burned gases
temperature after combustion is complete, reducing the NOX emissions. Figure 2 shows effects
of the valve overlap period on emissions of NOX and hydrocarbon (HC) at two different engine
loads.
In summary, adjustments in valve timing (usually achieved by camshaft phasing) affect the raw
emissions, engine torque/power, and idle stability. However, researchers have shown benefits in
tailoring valve lift profile, primarily to achieve higher efficiency and power, although emission
benefits were also seen. Combination of adjustments in valve timing and changes in valve lift are
being used to influence both emission levels and engine efficiency and, hence, fuel economy.
Finally, potential of SI engine load control is being considered through variable lift designs.
Research has shown that improvements in fuel economy and emission can be achieved through
an optimized combination of variable valve timing and lift, see Fig. 3. To conclude, the
adjustment of the valve timing in spark-ignited (SI) engines is dictated by a set of conflicting
targets and goals. These goals cannot be achieved with fixed valve timing. Systems that provide
variable timing and lift have recently found widespread use in engine design.
Figure 13. Indicates positions of intake and exhaust valves openings and closures
with respect to the top-dead and bottom-dead centers, TDC and BDC respectively.
TDC and BDC indicate the uppermost and lowermost positions of the piston top
on the diagram. The angles shown are crankshaft angles. EVO and
EVC are exhaust valve opening and closures angles.

Figure 1 4 . Effects of valve overlap on emission of pollutants at 2000 rpm and

two different engine loads. HC and NOX are hydrocarbon and nitric oxides
emissions.
 UNIT II
ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS
 UNIT -II

ENGINE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

Electronic Controlled Gasoline (Petrol) Injection System (ECGIS)

The electronic Fuel injector system is consists of three different systems for the basic operation
of ECGIS
1. Fuel Delivery System
2. Air Induction system
3. Electronic Control System
Fuel delivery system:
• The Fuel delivery system consists of Fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, Fuel delivery
pipe, fuel injector, fuel pressure regulator and fuel return pipe
• Fuel is delivered from the tank to the injector by means of an electric fuel pump.
The pump is typically located in or near to the tank. Contaminants are filtered out
by a high capacity in line fuel filter.
• Fuel is maintained at a constant pressure by means of a fuel pressure regulator. Any
fuel which is not delivered to the intake manifold by the injector is returned to the
tank through a fuel return pipe.
Air induction system:

• The air induction system consists of the air cleaner, air flow metre, throttle valve,
air intake chamber, intake manifold runner and intake valve.

• When the throttle valve is opened, air flows through the air cleaner, through the air
flow meter (on L type system), pas the throttle valve and through a well-tuned
intake manifold runner to the intake valve.

• Air delivered to the engine is a function of driver demand. As the throttle valve is
opened firther, more air is allowed to enter the engine cylinders.

Electronic control System (ECS):

• The ECS consists of various engine sensors, Electronic control unit, Fuel injector
assemblies and related wiring.

• The ECS determines precisely how much fuel needs to be delivered by the injector
by monitoring the engine sensors.

• The ECS turns the injector for a precise amount of time, referred to as injection
pulse width or injection duration, to deliver fuel so that proper air/fuel ratio is
delivered to the engine.
Basic Operation of ECGIS
• Air enters the engine through the air induction system where it is measured by the air
flow meter. As the air flows into the cylinder, fuel is mixed into the air by the fuel
injector.
• Fuel injector is arranged in the intake manifold behind each intake valve. The injector
is electrical solenoids which are operated by the ECU.
• The ECU pulses the injector by switching the injector ground circuit on and off.
 • When the injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the back side of the
intake valve.
• As the Fuel is sprayed into the intake air stream, it mixes with the incoming air and
vaporizes due to the low pressures in the intake manifold. The ECU signals the injector
to deliver just enough fuel to achieve an ideal air/fuel ratio of 14.7:1, often referred to
as stoichiometric ratio.
• The precise amount of fuel delivered to the engine is a function of ECU control. The
ECU determines the basic injection quantity based upon measured intake air volume
and engine rpm.
• Depending on engine operating conditions, injection quantity will vary. The ECU
monitors variables such as coolant temperature, engine speed, throttle angle and exhaust
oxygen content and makes injection corrections which determine final injection
quantity.

Fig.1 Electronic control gasoline injection system- L-Jetronic with air flow meter
Advantages of Electronic Controlled Gasoline (Petrol) Injection System
• Uniform Fuel/Air mixture distribution
• High Accurate Fuel/Air Ration Control
• Superior Throttle Response and Control
• Excellent Fuel Economy
• Improved Cold engine Start ability
• Simple Mechanics and Reduced Adjustment Sensitivity.

Single Point Injector System

• It has only one injector that injects the fuel before entering into the intake manifold.
• In this system, the fuel is mixed with fuel before the throttle valve. The single-point fuel
injection system is also known as throttle body injection.
• The amount of fuel to be injected is decided by the engine control unit. The engine control unit
takes the input from different sensors and decides the amount of fuel to be supplied for the
injection.
• The fuel injector sprays the fuel for mixing with the flow of air and this air-fuel mixture enters
the intake manifold.
The intake manifold further distributes the mixture to all cylinders.
 Advantages
• Simple construction.
• Accurate fuel supply (in comparison with carburetor).
• Easy maintenance.
• It uses only a single injector.
• Reliable operation
Dis Advantages
• Ununiform fuel supply to all cylinders.
• Less efficient.
• It wets the intake manifold by forming a layer of fuel on the intake manifold.
• Lower fuel economy.

Multi Point Fuel Injection System

• In multi-point fuel injection (MPFI) technology, every cylinder in the combustion chamber of the
engine is given an injector at the front of their inlet valves (outside the intake port), which is why
it’s also called ‘Port Injection’.
• Every injector sprays fuel at the same time and each cylinder gets a more precise volume of fuel,
with less possibility of fuel condensation outside the intake manifold. While MPFI has the
advantage of lower fuel wastage as compared to TBI, since the fuel is sprayed at the same time in
all the cylinders, it doesn’t get properly synced with the rotation of all the pistons. This results in
the fuel idling in the engine and port for as long as 150 milliseconds. All the same, from the
performance point of view, the MPFIs function much better as compared to TBIs.
Advantages
• The system is reliable
• It reduces the difference in power that each cylinder creates.
• It increases the fuel efficiency of an engine
• Better atomization of fuel
• MPFI system have fewer emissions
• Better utilization and distribution of fuel within an engine.
• Better acceleration and deacceleration of engine
• It improves the cold start properties of the engine
• Vibrations in reduce in the engine
• Improves durability and functionality of an engine

Dis Advantages
• Misfiring might occur sometimes
• It requires regular inspection of fuel injectors
• The system is expensive compared to conventional systems.
• Repairing fuel injector can be tedious compared to carburetors
• The system usually has a shorter life.
• ECU failure could occur suddenly.
• A hot engine might be difficult to start due to possible vapor lock in the steel fuel lines above the
engine.
Electronically Controlled Diesel Injection System

The function of the diesel fuel system is to inject a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel
into each engine cylinder at the proper time. Combustion in a diesel engine occurs when this rush of
fuel is mixed with hot compressed air.
Parts of Diesel Injection System
• Fuel Tank: There are many different types and shapes of fuel tanks. Each size and shape is designed
for a specific purpose. The fuel tank must be capable of storing enough fuel to operate the engine
for a reasonable length of time. The tank must be closed to prevent contamination by foreign
objects. It must also be vented to allow air to enter, replacing any fuel demanded by the engine.
Three other tank openings are required--one to fill, one to discharge, and one to drain.
• Fuel Lines: There are three types of diesel fuel lines. These include heavyweight lines for the high
pressures found between the injection pump and the injectors, medium weight lines for the light or
medium fuel pressures found between the fuel tank and injection pump, and lightweight lines where
there is little or no pressure.
• Fuel Filters: Diesel fuel must be filtered not once, but several times in most systems. A typical
system might have three stages of progressive filters--a filter screen at the tank or transfer pump, a
primary fuel filter, and a secondary fuel filter. In series filters, all the fuel goes through one filter
and then through the other. In parallel filters, part of the fuel goes through each filter.
• Fuel Transfer Pump: Simple fuel systems use gravity or air pressure to get fuel from the tank to
the injection pump. On modern high-speed diesel engines, a fuel transfer pump is normally used.
This pump, driven by the engine, supplies fuel automatically to the diesel injection system. The
pump often has a hand primer lever for bleeding air from the system. Modern injection pumps are
almost all jerk pumps that use the plunger and cam method of fuel injection.
• Fuel Injection Systems: There are four primary systems for injecting fuel:
1. Individual pump and injector for each cylinder
2. Combined pump and injector for each cylinder (unit injector type)
3. One pump serving injectors for several cylinders (distributor type)
4. Pumps in a common housing with injectors for each cylinder (common rail system)
• The common rail system is rapidly gaining popularity for on-road applications. The in-line and
distributor types are used on off-road vehicles and industrial machines.
• Fuel Injector: Diesel fuel injectors are arguably the most important fuel system component. The
job of the injectors is to deliver a precise amount of atomized and pressurized fuel into each
cylinder. Highly atomized, pressurized fuel distributed evenly throughout the cylinder results in
increased power and fuel economy, decreased engine noise, and smoother operation.
Classification of Diesel Injector System

Air Injection system

 Figure: Air Injection system
Advantages:
1. It provides good atomization and distribution of fuel
2. Fuel pump needs to develop less pressure.
Dis Advantages:
1. It requires high multi stage compressor.
2. Air Compressor needs extra maintenance.

Solid or Airless Injection System

Unit Injector System

• Fill phase: The constant stroke pump element on the way up draws fuel from the supply duct in to
the chamber, and as long as electric solenoid valve remains de-energized fuel line is open.
• Spill phase: The pump element is on the way down, and as long as solenoid valve remains de-
energized the fuel line is open and fuel flows in through into the return duct.
• Injection phase: The pump element is still on the way down, the solenoid is now energized and fuel
line is now closed. The fuel cannot pass back into return duct, and is now compressed by the plunger
until pressure exceeds specific "opening" pressure, and the injector nozzle needle lifts, allowing
fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber.
• Pressure reduction phase: The plunger is still on its way down, the engine ECU de-energizes the
solenoid when required quantity of fuel is delivered, the fuel valve opens, fuel can flow back into
return duct, causing pressure drop, which in turn causes the injector nozzle needle to shut, hence no
more fuel is injected.

Figure: Unit Injector system

Individual Pump and injector (or) Jerk Pump System
• In this system, each cylinder is provided with one pump and one injector.
• Separate metering and compression pump is provided for each cylinder.
• In high pressure pump , plunger is actuated by a cam & produces the fuel pressure necessary to
open the injector valve at the correct time .
• The amount of fuel injected depends on the effective stroke of the plunger.
Figure: Individual pump and injector or Jerk Pump System
Distributor System
• In this system the pump which pressurizes the fuel also meters and times it.
• The fuel pump after metering the required amount of fuel supplies it to a rotating distributor at the
correct time for supply to each cylinder.
• The number of injection strokes per cycle for the pump is equal to the number of cylinders used in
this system.
• Since there is only one metering element, a uniform distribution is automatically ensured.

Figure: Distributor system

 Common Rail Injector System

Figure: Common rail injector system

• In this system HP pumps supplies fuel, under high pressure, to a header. High pressure in the header
forces the fuel to each nozzles located in the cylinders of this system.
• At that time, a mechanically operated valve allows the fuel to enter the proper cylinder through the
nozzle.
• By varying the length of the push rod stroke the amount of fuel entering the cylinder is regulated.
Advantages
(i) It delivers 25 % more power and torque than the normal direct injection engine.
(ii) Initial cost is low.
(iii) Superior pick up is possible.
(iv) It maintains lower levels of noise and vibration.
(v) Higher mileage is obtained.
(vi) Emissions are low.
(vii) Fuel consumption is less.
(viii) Improved performance is obtained.
Dis Advantages
(i)Many parts involve the complicated design.
(ii) Production cost is high.
(iii) High degree of engine maintenance is required.

Electronic Ignition System

• An electronic ignition system is a type of ignition system that works electronic circuits, usually by
transistors. The transistors are controlled by sensors to generate electric pulses which then generate
a high voltage spark that can burn the lean mixture and provide a better economy and lower
emission.
• The electronic ignition system is vastly used in aircraft engines, bikes, motorcycles, and cars as it
performs the same purpose as other types of ignition systems on them.
• The function of an electronic ignition system is remaining the same as it produces a high voltage
spark to the spark plug so that the fuel-air mixture can be burn or ignite. Because sensors are used
in the system, it improves reliability and mileage and decreases emission.
Components of Electronic Ignition System
• Battery
• Ignition Switch
• Electronic Control Module
• Armature
• Ignition Coil
• Distributor
• Spark Plug
Working Principle of Electronic Ignition system
• When switching on the ignition switch, just after that battery starts and it supplies current to the
system.
• Current passes through the ignition switch and move toward the ignition coil on the system then,
start passing through the primary winding of the coil.
• As the current passes through the primary coil, the pick-up coil got activated which is in the
armature. It receives current as a voltage on the pick-up. Just after receiving voltage, the reluctor
starts rotating which consists of the tooth.
• When the tooth comes in front of the pick-up coil exactly at the same time the pick-up coil starts
sending a signal to the electronic control module.
• After receiving a voltage signal, it stops the current supply from the battery up to the primary coil.
When the tooth deviates from the point, it senses the change in voltage, and then again it sends a
signal of change in voltage to the electronic control module.
• We all know that the electronic control system is already a programmed system, so exactly after
sending a signal of change in voltage it again starts supplying the current in the primary winding.
• Because of this continuous make and break of the current circuit, it creates a magnetic field inside
 the ignition coil because of that; the secondary winding emf is induced.
• This emf increases voltage up to 50000 V. The voltage is supplied to the distributor.
• It consists of a rotating rotor and distributor points, which is programmed as per the ignition. When
there is a jump of voltage between the air gap of the rotator and the distributor of high voltage, after
that it reaches to spark plug through high tension wire.
• Spark is generated because of the voltage difference between the central electrode and the ground
electrode because the combustion is possible in air-fuel.
Application of Electronic Ignition System:
• The electronic ignition system has a lot of applications in the 21st century.
• It is mostly used in modern and hyper cars.
• It is mostly used in Audi, Mahindra XUV, KTM bikes, Ducati, and many more.
• It is also used in aircraft engines.
Advantages
• These are low maintenance systems as compared to others like Battery Ignition System, Glow plug
ignition system, and Magneto Ignition System.
• It has no moving parts because it is controlled by the electronic control unit(ECV).
• Emission is less as compared to other means because this system is environmentally friendly.
• It increases the efficiency of the engine and also it is fuel-efficient.
• It is more accurate as compared to the magneto system.
• The vehicles having this system have a long life and also reliable.
Dis Advantages
• The cost of the system is very expensive

Transistorised Coil Ignition System

Figure: Transistorised Coil Ignition System

Components of Transistorised Coil Ignition System

• Battery
• Ignition Switch
• Ignition Coil
• Transistor
• Collector
• Emitter
• Blast resister
• Contact breaker
• Distributor
• Spark Plug
Working Principle of Transistorised Coil Ignition System
• The cam in the distributor is rotated by the engine. It opens and closes the contact breaker points.
When the contact breaker points are closed:
1.A small current flows in the base circuit of the transistor.
2.A large current flows in the emitter or collector circuit of the transistor and the primary winding of the
Ignition coil due to the normal transistor action.
3. A magnetic field is set up in the primary winding of the coil.
When the contact breaker points are Open :
1. The current flow in the base circuit is stopped.
2. The primary current and the magnetic field in the coil collapse suddenly due to immediate reverting of
the transistor to the non-conductive state.
3. It produces a high voltage in the secondary circuit.
4. This high voltage is directed to the respective spark plugs through tho rotor of the distributor.
5. This high voltage produces a spark when it is tried to jump the spark plug gap. It ignites air-fuel
mixture in the cylinder.
Advantages
• It increases the life of contact breaker points.
• It gives high ignition voltages.
• It gives longer duration of spark .
• It has very accurate control of timing.
• It needs less maintenance.
Dis Advantages
• More mechanical points are needed similar to a conventional system.
• It has a tendency to side tracking.
Capacitive Discharge Ignition System

Figure: Capacitive Discharge Ignition System

Working principle
• The CDI system consists of two coils that are trigged by the magnets in the flywheel/rotor, the
larger coil is called as charging or Exciter coil and the smaller coil is called as Trigger coil.
• As the flywheel rotates past the exciter coil, the AC produced by the exciter coil is changed to DC
by the diode in the CDI unit.
• The capacitor in CDI unit stores the energy until its needed to fire the spark plug.
• As the flywheel/rotor magnet rotates past the trigger coil, a low voltage in the trigger coil, which
activates the electronic switch in CDI unit.
• The electronic switch acts as power source to the primary side of the circuit, this completed
primary circuit which allows the energy stored by the capacitor to pass through the primary
winding of the ignition coil.
• The transformer action of the ignition coil causes high voltage to be induced in the secondary
winding of the ignition coil, which fires the spark plug.
Advantages of the CDI system:
• Insensitive to electrical shunts resulting from spark plug fouling.
• This system is suited to an application where insufficient dwell time is available because the
capacitor can be fully charged in a very short time.
• Short transient response.
• A fast voltage rise and shorter spark duration.
Disadvantages of the CDI system:
• The spark is strong but short in order to 0.1 to 0.3 ms which leads to ignition failure during lean
mixture operating conditions because of fast capacitive discharge.
• This system generates a huge electro-magnetic noise so CDI is rarely used by automobile
manufacturers.
Turbo Chargers

Figure: Working and Line diagram of turbo charger

• The turbo charger utilizes the wasted heat energy in the exhaust system, to run a compressor which
compresses the intake air. Compressed intake air has more density and hence more fuel can be
injected increasing the power of the engine. Turbo charging is an ideal way to increase the engine
power without increasing the engine size.
• It is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an engine's efficiency and power by
forcing extra air into the combustion chamber. This improvement over a naturally aspirated engine's
output results because the turbine can force more air, and proportionately more fuel, into the
combustion chamber than atmospheric pressure alone.
• Turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines.
They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines. They have
also been found useful in automotive fuel cells.

Waste Gate Turbo Charger (WGT)

Figure: Waste Gate Turbo Charger

The waste-gate regulates the pressure of the relief valve. It, in turn, limits the boost pressure in the
turbocharger system. This is helpful in preventing the engine from potential mechanical damages caused
by the high pressure. Furthermore, the system automatically opens the waste-gate valve when the pressure
reaches the pre-set levels. Then, it allows all the high-pressure exhaust gases to escape the turbine wheel
and enter into the downstream/outlet. Thus, it prevents the exhaust gas pressure from rising more than
required.
Advantages
• Needs a smaller space to fit.
• Reduces turbo lag to some extent.
• Installation of compact and simple external exhaust pipe system. Thus, reducing the engine weight.
• Delivers optimum engine performance at all times.
• Avoids mechanical damage to engine parts

Variable Geometry Turbo charger (VGT)

Figure: Variable Gate Turbocharger (VGT)

• VGTs refers to as those types of turbochargers which include a ring of aerodynamically-shaped

vanes inside the turbine housing at the turbine inlet. The turbos used in the passenger cars and light
commercial vehicles, can rotate in order to vary the gas swirl angle and the cross-sectional area
simultaneously. The internal vanes which are present alter the turbos area-to-radius ratio (A/R) in
order to match the RPM of the engines, and to also give a peak performance.
• Considering a case of low RPM, a low A/R ratio occurs which helps the turbo to spool up quickly
by increasing the velocity of the exhaust gas. At higher revs the A/R ratio increases which is
responsible for the increased airflow. These results in a low boost threshold which is responsible
for reducing the turbo lag, and also provides a wide and smooth torque band.
• While the VGTs are quite typically used in the diesel engines where the exhaust gases lower the
temperature and by then the VGTs were just limited in the petrol engine applications due to their
cost and the requirement for components was made from an exotic material.
Types of nozzles:
(a) Depends on the type of combustion chamber,
Open combustion chamber:
-fuel seeks air
-air swirl is created due to inclined induction port
-multi-hole nozzle injects fuel at a pressure of about 200 to 300 bar to slow moving air
-provide good cold starting performance and improved thermal efficiency

Pre-combustion chamber:
-air velocity is very much high
-single hole nozzle with 65 to 100 bar injection pressure is used
-used in high speed engine due to rapid combustion
-external heating device for easy starting of the engine

(b) Open and closed type of nozzle,

Open type:
-consists of fuel orifices and open to burner
-cheap and less efficient
ex- opposed piston two-stroke Junkers diesel engine
Closed type: pressure drop is minimised compared to open type

(c) Different types of nozzle for different combustion chamber

(i) Single hole nozzle:
-used in open combustion chamber
-size of hole larger than 0.2 mm
-very high injection pressure required

(ii) Multi-hole nozzle:

-no. of hole varies from 4 to 18 and the size from 1.5 to 0.35 mm
-injection rate is not uniform

(iii) Pintle nozzle:

-a projection or pintle is provided in the nozzle to avoid weak injection and dribbling
-pintle may be cylindrical or conical shape

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

-cone angle varied from 0 to 60ᵒ
-provide good atomisation and reduced penetration
-fuel pressures are lower than single and multi-hole nozzle

(iv) Pintaux nozzle:

-injected fuel in upstream of air
-development of pintle nozzle with auxiliary hole drilled in the nozzle body
-reduced delay period and increased thermal efficiency

CATALYTIC CONVERTER
As indicated by the meaning of chemistry, a catalyst is a substance that causes or quickens a compound
response without itself being influenced. Catalysts take an interest in the responses, however are neither
reactants nor results of the response they catalyze. An exhaust system is a vehicle discharges control gadget
which changes over lethal by-results of burning in the fumes of an interior ignition motor to less poisonous
substances by method for catalyzed compound responses . It lessens temperature at which CO and HC
change over into CO2 and H2O. Big and large exhaust systems utilize platinum gathering of respectable
metals.

The contaminations have negative effect on air quality, environment and human wellbeing that
leads instringent standards of poison outflow. Quantities of option innovations like change in motor plan,
fuelpretreatment, utilization of option energizes, fuel added substances, fumes treatment or better tuning of
the ignition procedure and so forth, are being considered to lower the release levels of the engine. Out of
various progressions available for auto vapor radiation control a fumes framework is found to best choice to
control CO, HC and NOx discharges from petrol driven vehicles while diesel particulate channel and
oxidation forces converter or diesel oxidation impulse have so far been the most potential other option to
control particulates outpourings from diesel driven vehicle [5]. An exhaust system (CC) is put inside
the tailpipe through which destructive fumes gasses containing unburnt fuel, CO, NOx are transmitted .

Three-way Catalytic Converter

Similar to the oxidation converter, the reduction catalytic converter helps to eliminate hydrocarbons and
carbon-monoxide emanations, in addition to oxides of nitrogen discharges, or NOx. NOx outflows are created
in the motor burning chamber when it reaches extremely high temperatures more than 2,500 degrees
Fahrenheit, approximately. In this type of converter, a reduction reaction also occurs in addition to two
oxidation reactions same as two-way converter. The reduction reaction occurs during the conversion of oxides

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

of nitrogen to nitrogen and oxygen. So this type of converter is also known as reduction type catalytic
converter.

Conversion Reactions in Three Way Catalytic Converter

CxH4x + 2xO2 → xCO2 + 2xH2O (conversion of hydrocarbons)

2xCO + O2 → 2xCO2 (conversion of carbon mono-oxides)
2NOx → N2 + xO2 [O2 + 2H2 → 2H2O] (Decomposition of oxides of nitrogen).

Emissions

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
History of Emission Standards in India

• It was in the early nineties that the first emission standards were introduced in the country.
• Other regulatory norms followed in the form of making the catalytic converters mandatory for petrol vehicles
and then, by the introduction of unleaded petrol.
• In 1999, the apex court of the country made it mandatory for all vehicles to meet the India 2000 norms by June
2000, in a ruling.
• In 2002, the Mashelkar Committee report was accepted by the Indian Government.
• The committee had recommended a roadmap for the implementation of the Euro norms based emission
standards for India.
• It also recommended that the roll-out of the norms be implemented in major cities first to be followed
by the rest of the country in a phased manner.
• Based on the committee’s recommendations, in 2003, the government released the National Auto Fuel
Policy.

Bharat Stage Emission Standards

• Bharat Stage or BS Emission Standards are government-instituted emission standards that all motor
vehicles have to comply with if they are to be sold and driven in India.
• Currently, all new vehicles sold and registered in India should be compliant with the BS-VI iteration
of emission standards.
• The standards and timelines for their implementation are set by the Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB) under the Minister of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
• The BS norms are based on the European Emission Standards (Euro norms) and were first set in
2000. Equivalent to the Euro-1, the first iteration was known as ‘India 2000’, and not BS-I.
• Subsequent emission standards were called BS-II, BS-III, and BS-IV.
• The government decided to jump directly from BS-IV to BS-VI skipping BS-V in view of the long
time it took to move from BS-III to IV.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • With the implementation of the new norms, pollution levels are expected to reduce to a large extent
as the particulate matter (PM) concentration should decrease. About one-third of the air pollution is
caused by motor vehicles and cars.
• At present, BS-IV auto fuels are being supplied in over 30 cities, and the rest of the country has BS-
III fuels.
• Earlier, the government planned the implementation of BS V and BS VI emission norms nationwide
by 2020 and 2024 respectively. However, the government decided to advance the dates.

The following table gives the timeline of the BS norms being implemented in India starting
from the India 2000 till the latest BS-VI norms.

Standard (Reference) Year/Region

India 2000 (Euro 1) 2000 – Nationwide

BS II (Euro 2) 2001 – Metro cities

2003 – 10 more major cities
2005 – Nationwide

BS III (Euro 3) 2005 – Metros and major cities

2010 – Nationwide

BS V (Euro 5) Skipped

BS VI (Euro 6) 2018 – Delhi

2019 – NCR
2020 – Nationwide

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT III
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT-III

TRANSMISSION SYSYTEMS

Introduction to the Transmission Systems in Automobile:

It is a system by means of which power developed by the engine is transmitted to the road wheels to propel

the vehicle.

Chief function of the device is to receive power at one torque and angular velocity and to deliver it at

another torque and the corresponding angular velocity.

REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

1. To provide for disconnecting the engine from the driving wheels.

2. When the engine is running, to enable the connection to the driving wheels to be made smoothly and

without shock.

3. To enable the leverage between the engine and driving wheels to be varied.

4. It must reduce the drive-line speed from that of the engine to that of the driving wheels in a ratio of

somewhere between about 3:1 and 10:1 or more, according to the relative size of engine and weight of

vehicle.

5. Turn the drive, if necessary, through 90° or perhaps otherwise re-align it.

6. Enable the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds.

7. Provide for relative movement between the engine and driving wheels.

The most common transmission systems that have been used for the automotive industry are:

• Manual transmission,

• Automatic transmission,

• Semi-automatic transmission,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Continuously-variable transmission (C.V.T.).

Manual Transmission:

The first transmission invented was the manual transmission system. The driver needs to disengage the

clutch to disconnect the power from the engine first, select the target gear, and engage the clutch again

to perform the gear change. This will challenge a new driver. It always takes time for a new driver to

get used to this skill.

Automatic Transmission:

An automatic transmission uses a fluid-coupling torque converter to replace the clutch to avoid

engaging/disengaging clutch during gear change. A completed gear set, called planetary gears, is used

to perform gear ratio change instead of selecting gear manually. A driver no longer needs to worry about

gear selection during driving. It makes driving a car much easier, especially for a disabled or new driver.

However, the indirect gear contact of the torque converter causes power loss during power transmission,

and the complicated planetary gear structure makes the transmission heavy and easily broken.

Semi-Automatic Transmission:

A semi-automatic transmission tries to combine the advantages of the manual and automatic

transmission systems, but avoid their disadvantages. However, the complicated design of the semi-

automatic transmission is still under development, and the price is not cheap. It is only used for some

luxury or sports cars currently.

Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.):-

The Continuously Variable Transmission (C.V.T.) is a transmission in which the ratio of the rotational

speeds of two shafts, as the input shaft and output shaft of a vehicle or other machine, canbe varied

continuously within a given range, providing an infinite number of possible ratios. The

other mechanical transmissions described above only allow a few different gear ratios to be selected,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

but this type of transmission essentially has an infinite number of ratios available within a finite range.

It provides even better fuel economy if the engine is constantly made run at a single speed. This

transmission is capable of a better user experience, without the rise and fall in speed of an engine, and

the jerk felt when changing gears.

MANUAL TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Manual transmissions also referred as stick shift transmission or just ‘stick', 'straight drive', or standard

transmission because you need to use the transmission stick every time you change the gears.To perform

the gear shift, the transmission system must first be disengaged from the engine. After the target gear is

selected, the transmission and engine are engaged with each other again to perform the power

transmission. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking

selected gear pairs to the output shaft inside the transmission.

Fig:The transmission system delivers the engine power to wheels.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Fig: Layout of Automobile Power Transmission System

Components of manual transmission

The main components of manual transmission are:

• Clutch

• Gear box

• Slip joint

• Universal joint

• Propeller shaft

• Final drive

• Differential unit

• Rear axle

Clutch:

Clutch is a device which is used in the transmission system of automobile to engage and disengage the

engine to the transmission or gear box. It is located between the transmission and the engine. When the

clutch is engaged, the power flows from the engine to the rear wheels in a rear- wheel-drive transmission

and the vehicle moves. When the clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted from the engine to

the rear wheels and vehicle stops even if engine is running.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

It works on the principle of friction. When two friction surfaces are brought in contact with each other

and they are united due to the friction between them. If one is revolved the other will also revolve.

The friction depends upon the surface area contact. The friction surfaces are so designed that the driven

member initially slips on driving member when initially pressure is applied. As pressure increases the

driven member is brought gradually to speed the driving member.

The three main parts of clutch are:

• Driving member

• Driven member

• Operating member

The driving member consists of a flywheel mounted on the engine crank shaft. The flywheel is bolted to cover

which carries a pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs and releasing levers. Thus the entire assembly

of flywheel and cover rotates all the times. The clutch housing and the cover provided with openings dissipate

the heat generated by friction during the clutch operation.

The driving member consists of a disc or plate called clutch plate. It is free to slide length wise on the

splines of the clutch shaft. It carries friction materials on both of its surfaces when it is gripped

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 between the flywheel and the pressure plate; it rotates the clutch shaft through splines.

The operating members consists of a foot pedal, linkage, release or throw-out bearing, release levers

and springs necessary to ensure the proper operation of the clutch.

Now the driving member in an automobile is flywheel mounted on crank shaft, the driven member is

the pressure plate mounted on transmission or gear box input shaft. Friction surfaces or clutch plates

is placed between two members.

Properties of Good Clutching:

• Good Wearing Properties
• High Resistance to heat
• High coefficient of friction
• Good Binders in it
Functions of Clutch
1. It permits smooth engagement and disengagement to select gear when the vehicle is stationary and the engine is
running.
2. It transmits engine power to driving wheels without jerk while the vehicle is in motion.
3. It permits the change of gear when vehicle is in motion.

Operation of Clutch:
When the clutch pedal is pressed through pedal movement, the clutch release bearing presses on

the clutch release lever plate which being connected to clutch release levers, forces these levers forward.

This causes the pressure plate to compress pressure springs, thus allowing it to move away from the

clutch driven plate. This action releases the pressure on the driven plate and flywheel, the flywheel is

now free to turn independently, without turning the transmission.

When the clutch pedal is released, reverse action takes place i.e. the driven plate is again forced against

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

the flywheel by the pressure plate- because of the force exerted by pressure springs. The pressure plate

will keep on pressing the facings of driven plate until friction created becomes equal to the resistance

of the vehicle. Any further increase in pressure will cause the clutch plate and the transmission shaft to

turn along with flywheel, thus achieving vehicle movement.

Single Clutch Plate:

It is the most common type of clutch plate used in motor vehicles. Basically it consists of only one

clutch plate, mounted on the splines of the clutch plate. The flywheel is mounted on engine crankshaft

and rotates with it. The pressure plate is bolted to the flywheel through clutch springs, and is free to

slide on the clutch shaft when the clutch pedal is operated. When the clutch is engaged the clutch plate

is gripped between the flywheel and pressure plate. The friction linings are on both the sides of the

clutch plate. Due to the friction between the flywheel, clutch plate and the pressure plate the clutch plate

revolves the flywheel. As the clutch plate revolves the clutch shaft also revolves. Clutch shaft is

connected to the transmission gear box. Thus the engine power is transmitted to the crankshaft and then

to the clutch shaft.

When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force of the springs, and

the clutch plate becomes free between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Thus the flywheel remains

rotating as long as the engine is running and the clutch shaft speed reduces slowly and finally it stops

rotating. As soon as the clutch pedal is pressed, the clutch is said to be engaged, otherwise it remains

engaged due to the spring forces.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Multi-plate Clutch:

Multi-plate clutch consists of a number of clutch plates instead of only one clutch plate as in case of

single plate clutch. As The number of clutch plates are increased, the friction surfaces also increases.

The increased number of friction surfaces obliviously increases the capacity of the clutch to transmit

torque.

The plates are alternately fitted to engine and gear box shaft. They are firmly pressed by strong coil

springs and assembled in a drum. Each of the alternate plate slides on the grooves on the flywheel and

the other slides on splines on the pressure plate. Thus, each alternate plate has inner and outer splines.

The multi-plate clutch works in the same way as a single plate clutch by operating the clutch pedal. The

multi-plate clutches are used in heavy commercial vehicles, racing cars and motor cycles for

transmitting high torque. The multi-plate clutch may be dry or wet. When the clutch is operated in an

oil bath, it is called a wet clutch. When the clutch is operated dry it is called dry clutch. The wet clutch

is used in conjunction with or part of the automatic transmission.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Advantages:
• The multi plate clutch has the following advantages:-
• Less effort requires to operate this clutch.
• It is compact in size and hence requires less space.
• It has a high power transmission capacity.
Disadvantages:
• The multi plate clutch has the following disadvantages:-
• It uses many numbers of plates hence more heat generates in this type of clutch.
• It is heavier in weight.
• It is costlier.

Cone Clutch:

Cone clutch consists of friction surfaces in the form of cone. The engine shaft consists of female cone.

The male cone is mounted on the splined clutch shaft. It has friction surfaces on the conical portion.

The male cone can slide on the clutch shaft. Hence the clutch is engaged the friction surfaces of the

male cone are in contact with that of the female cone due to force of the spring. When the clutch pedal

is pressed, the male cone slides against the spring force and the clutch is disengaged.

The only advantage of the cone clutch is that the normal force acting on the friction surfaces is

greaterthan the axial force, as compare to the single plate clutch in which the normal force acting

on the friction surfaces is equal to the axial force. The disadvantage in cone clutch is that if the angle of

the cone is made smaller than 200 the male cone tends to bind in the female cone and it becomes difficult

to disengage the clutch. Cone clutches are generally now only used in low peripheral speed applications

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

although they were once common in automobiles and other combustion engine transmissions. They are

usually now confined to very specialist transmissions in racing, rallying, or in extreme off-road vehicles,

although they are common in power boats. Small cone clutches are used in synchronizer mechanisms

in manual transmissions.

Cone clutch advantages:

• It has advantage of higher power transmission capacity as compared to other plate types

clutches since more surface area.

• Simple in construction.

Cone clutch disadvantages:

• Cone clutch has the disadvantage that if cones have less cone angle then there becomes a

difficulty in disengagement.

Dog & Spline Clutch:

This type of clutch is used to lock two shafts together or to lock a gear to shaft. It consists of a sleeve

having two sets of internal splines. It slides on a splined shaft with smallest diameter splines. The bigger

diameter splines match with the external dog clutch teeth on driving shaft. When the sleeve is made to

slide on the splined shaft, its teeth match with the dog clutch teeth of the driving shaft. Thus the sleeve

turns the splined shaft with the driving shaft.

The clutch is said to be engaged. To disengage the clutch, the sleeve is moved back on the splined shaft

to have no contact with the driving shaft. This type of clutch has no tendency to slip. The driven shaft

revolves exactly at the same speed of the driving shaft, as soon as the clutch is engaged. This is also

known as positive clutch.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Centrifugal Clutch:

The centrifugal clutch uses centrifugal forces, instead of spring force for keeping it in engaged position.

Also, it does not require clutch pedal for operating the clutch. The clutch is operated automatically

depending on engine speed. The vehicle can be stopped in gear without stalling the engine. Similarly

the gear can be started in any gear by pressing the accelerator pedal.

A centrifugal clutch works through centrifugal force. The input of the clutch is connected to the engine

crankshaft while the output drives gear box shaft, chain, or belt. As engine

R.P.M. increases, weighted arms in the clutch swing outward and force the clutch to engage. The most

common types have friction pads or shoes radially mounted that engage the inside of the rim of housing.

On the center shaft there are an assorted amount of extension springs, which connect to a clutch shoe.

When the center shaft spins fast enough, the springs extend causing the clutch shoes to engage the

friction face. It can be compared to a drum brake in reverse. The weighted arms force these disks

together and engage the clutch.

When the engine reaches a certain RPM, the clutch activates, working almost like a continuously

variable transmission. As the load increases the R.P.M. drops thereby disengaging the clutch and letting

the rpm rise again and reengaging the clutch. If tuned properly, the clutch will tend to keep the engine

at or near the torque peak of the engine.

These results in a fair bit of waste heat, but over a broad range of speeds it is much more useful then a

direct drive in many applications. Weaker spring/heavier shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a

lower R.P.M. while a stronger spring/lighter shoes will cause the clutch to engage at a higher R.P.M.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Semi-centrifugal Clutch:-

A semi centrifugal clutch is used to transmit power from high powered engines and racing car engines

where clutch disengagements requires appreciable and tiresome drivers effort. The transmission of

power in such clutches is partly by clutch springs and rest by centrifugal action of an extra weight

provided in system. The clutch springs serve to transmit the torque up to normal speeds, while the

centrifugal force assists at speeds higher than normal.

Besides clutch, pressure plate and splines shaft it mainly consists of: Compression

spring (3 numbers)

Weighted levers (3 numbers)

At normal speeds when the power transmission is low the spring keeps the clutch engaged, the weighted

levers do not have any pressure on the pressure plate. At high speed, when the power transmission is

high the weights fly off and levers exert pressure on the plate which keeps the clutch firmly engaged.

Thus instead of having more stiff springs for keeping the clutch engaged firmly at high speeds, they are

less stiff, so that the driver may not get any strain in operating the clutch.

when the speed decreases, the weights fall and the levers do not exert any pressure on the pressure plate.

Only the spring pressure is exerted on the pressure plate which is sufficient to keep the clutch engaged.
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Electromagnetic Clutch:

An electromagnetic clutch is a clutch (a mechanism for transmitting rotation) that is engaged and

disengaged by an electromagnetic actuator. In this type of clutch, the flywheel consists of winding. The

current is supplied to the winding from battery or dynamo.

When the current passes through the winding it produces an electromagnetic field which attracts the

pressure plate, thereby engaging the clutch. When supply is cutoff, the clutch is disengaged. The gear

lever consists of a clutch release switch. When then the driver holds the gear lever to change the gear

the witch is operated cutting off the current to the winding which causes the clutch disengaged. At low

speeds when the dynamo output is low, the clutch is not firmly engaged.

Therefore three springs are also provided on the pressure plate which helps the clutch engaged firmly at low

speed also. Cycling is achieved by turning the voltage/current to the electromagnet on and off. Slippage

normally occurs only during acceleration. When the clutch is fully engaged, there is no relative slip,

assuming the clutch is sized properly, and thus torque transfer is 100% efficient.

The electromagnetic clutch is most suitable for remote operation since no linkages are required to

control its engagement. It has fast, smooth operation. However, because energy dissipates as heat in the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

electromagnetic actuator every time the clutch is engaged, there is a risk of overheating. Consequently

the maximum operating temperature of the clutch is limited by the temperature rating of the insulation

of the electromagnet. This is a major limitation. Another disadvantage is higher initial cost.

Gear Box;

A gearbox is a mechanical method of transferring energy from one device to another and is used to

increase torque while reducing speed. Torque is the power generated through the bending or twisting of

a solid material. This term is often used interchangeably with transmission located at the junction point

of a power shaft, the gearbox is often used to create a right angle change in direction, as is seen in a

rotary mower or a helicopter. Each unit is made with a specific purpose in mind, and the gear ratio

used is designed to provide the level of force required. This ratio is fixed and cannot be changed once

the box is constructed. The only possible modification after the fact is an adjustment that allows the

shaft speed to increase, along with a corresponding reduction in torque. In a situation where multiple

speeds are needed, a transmission with multiple gears can be used to increase torque while slowing

down the output speed. This design is commonly found in automobile transmissions. The same principle

can be used to create an overdrive gear that increases output speed while decreasing torque.

Principle of Gearing

Consider a simple 4-gear train. It consists of a driving gear A on input shaft and a driven gear D on the
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
output shaft. In between the two gears there are two intermediate gears B, C. Each of these gears are

mounted on separate shaft.We notice that:

Gear A drives Gear B

Gear B drives Gear C

Gear C drives Gear D

Therefore, the over all speed ratios are:

Types of Gear Boxes:

The following types of gear box are used in automobiles:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Sliding Mesh

• Constant Mesh

• Synchromesh

Sliding Mesh Gear Box

It is the simplest gear box. The following figure shows 4-speed gear box in neutral position. 4 gears are

connected to the lay shaft/counter shaft. A reverse idler gear is mounted on another shaft and

always remains connected to the reverse gear of countershaft. This “H” shift pattern enables the driver

to select four different gear ratios and a reverse gear.

Gears in Neutral:

When the engine is running and clutch is engaged the clutch shaft gear drives the countershaft gear.

The countershaft rotates opposite in direction of the clutch shaft. In neutral position only the clutch

shaft gear is connected to the countershaft gear. Other gears are free and hence the transmission main

shaft is not turning. The vehicle is stationary.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

First or low shaft gear:

By operating the gear shift lever the larger gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh with

the first gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in the same direction as that of the clutch shaft.

Since the smaller countershaft is engaged with larger shaft gear a gear reduction of approximately 4:1

is obtained i.e. the clutch shaft turns 4 times for each revolution of main shaft.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Second speed gear:

By operating the gear shift lever the third gear on the main shaft is moved along the shaft to mesh with

the third gear of the counter shaft. The main shaft turns in same direction as clutch shaft. A gear

reduction of approximately 3:1is obtained.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Third speed gear:
By operating the gear shift lever, the second gear of the main shaft and countershaft are demeshed and

then the third gear of the main shaft are forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External Teeth on

the clutch shaft gear mesh with the internal teeth in the third and top gear. The main shaft turns in same

direction as clutch shaft. A gear reduction of approximately 2:1is obtained i.e. the clutch shaft

turns 2 times for each revolution of main shaft.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Fourth speed gear/ Top or High-Speed Gear:

By operating the gear shaft lever the third gears of the main and countershaft is demeshed and the gears present on the

main shaft along with the shaft is forced axially against the clutch shaft gear. External teeth present on the main shaft

engage with the internal teeth present on the main shaft. The main shaft turns along with the clutch shaft and a gear

ratio of approximately 1:1 is obtained.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Reverse gear:

By operating the gear shift lever, the last gear present on the main shaft is engaged with the reverse

idler gear. The reverse idler gear is always in mesh with the counters haft gear. Interposing the idler

gear between the counter-shaft reverse gear and main shaft gear, the main shaft turns in the direction

opposite to the clutch shaft. This reverses the rotation of the wheels so that the wheel backs.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Constant Mesh Gear Box:

In this type of gear box, all gears of the main shaft are in constant mesh with the corresponding gears

of the countershaft (Lay shaft). Two dog clutches are provided on the main shaft- one between the

clutch gear and the second gear, and the other between the first gear and reverse gear. The main shaft

is splined and all the gears are free on it. Dog clutch can slide on the shaft and rotates with it. All the

gears on the countershaft are rigidly fixed with it.

When the left hand dog clutch is made to slide to the left by means of the gear shift lever, it meshes

with the clutch gear and the top speed gear is obtained. When the left hand dog clutch meshes with the

second gear, the second speed gear is obtained. Similarly by sliding the right hand dog clutch to the

left and right, the first speed gear and reverse gear are obtained respectively. In this gear box because

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

all the gears are in constant mesh they are safe from being damaged and an unpleasant grinding

sound does not occur while engaging and disengaging them.

Syncromesh Gear Box:

In sliding Mesh Gear box the two meshing gears need to be revolve at equal peripheral speeds

to achieve a jerk less engagement and it is true for constant mesh gear box in which the

peripheral speeds of sliding dog and the corresponding gear on the output shaft must be equal.

The peripheral speed is given byWhere d1 and N1 are pitch circle diameter and r.p.m. of gear

and d2 andN2 diameterand r.p.m. of attached dog respectively. Now N1 ≠ N2 since d1 ≠ d2 .

Thus there is a difference in gear and dog which necessitates double declutching. The driver

has to disengage the clutch twice in quick succession therefore it is referred as double

declutching. There are two steps involved in this process:

The clutch is disengaged i.e. first declutching and the gear system is placed in its neutral

position. Now the clutch is reengaged and acceleration pedal is pressed to adjust the engine

speed according to driver’s judgment.The clutch is disengaged(i.e. second declutching) again

the appropriate gear is engaged and then the clutch is reengaged

It is that gear box in which sliding synchronizing units are provided in place of sliding dog

clutches asin case of constant mesh gear box. With the help of synchronizing unit, the speed

of both the driving and driven shafts is synchronized before they are clutched together through

train of gears. The arrangement of power flow for the various gears remains the same as in

constant mesh gear box. The synchronizer is made of frictional materials. When the collar tries

to mesh with the gear, the synchronizer will touch the gear first and use friction force to drive

the gear to spin at the same speed as the collar. This will ensure that the collar is meshed into

the gear very smoothly without grinding. Synchromesh gear devices work on the principle that

two gears to be engaged are first bought into frictional contact which equalizes their speed

after which they are engaged readily and smoothly.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A transmission in which various speeds are obtained automatically is known as automatic transmission. In
this type of gear box driver merely selects the general car condition such as forward or reverse. The selection,
timing and engagement of gear for the required gear speed are accomplished automatically when the
accelerator is pressed or depressed. Automatic transmission needs no gear change lever and clutch pedal
since clutch and transmission is a combined unit and works automatically.
• Automatic transmission is generally subdivided into two types:
(A.) Epicyclic gear box:
(B.) Hydraulic torque converter:

Epicyclic gear box

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 This type of gear box uses no sliding dogs or gears to engage but different gear speeds are
obtained by merely tightening brake bands on gear drum. It consists of a ring gear annular wheel,
sun gear and planet gears with carrier. In order to obtain different speeds any one of these units can
be held from rotation by means of brake band. The ring gear contains teeth on it inner circumference
and it surrounded by a brake band. The brake band is operated by a gear stick or lever to grip the
ring gear and hold its movement. The sun gear is attached to the clutch shaft thus moves along with
the movement of engine crankshaft. The planet gears are in constant mesh with both the sun gear
and ring gear and are free to rotate on their axes carried by the carrier frame which in turn is
connected to the driver shaft.
When the ring gear is locked by the brake band, the rotating sun gear causes the planet gears
to rotate. Since the ring gear cannot move. The planet gears are forced to climb over it. During this
position, the ring gear acts as track for the planet gears to move over. The driven shaft which is
connected to the planet gear carrier is thus rotate. When the ring gear is released, it is free to move
in consequence to the rotation of planet gears which rotate around their axis. During this position,
there is no movement of planet carries and hence the driven shaft remains stationary. A planetary
gear box contains a numbers of such units to obtain various speed reductions

Hydraulic torque converter:

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 • Hydraulic torque converter is same as the electric transformer. The main purpose of the torque
converter is to engage the driving member to driven member and increase the torque of driven
member. In the torque converter, an impeller is bolted on the driving member, a turbine is
bolted on the driven member and stationary guide vanes are placed between these two
members. This all parts are enclosed into single housing filled with hydraulic liquid. The
impeller rotates with the driven member and it through the liquid outward by centrifugal
action. This liquid flowing from the impeller to turbine runner exerts a torque on the stationary
guide vanes which change the direction of liquid, thereby making possible the transformation
of torque and speed. The difference of torque between impeller and turbine depends upon
these stationary guide vanes. This serves as the function of both gear box and clutch.

Over Drive Mechanism

• The overdrive is to be placed in between the Gearbox and the Propeller shaft.
• The function of overdrive is to increase more amount of power than the power delivered from the
gearbox.
• On the input shaft, the Sun gear is connected through Spline.
• The freewheel has an internal spline and the Input shaft has an external Spline and these two will mesh
together.
• Whenever there is a spline joint, the Freewheel does not undergo any rotary relative motion but it has
only horizontal relative motion.
• In the sense, the Freewheel can move only in the horizontal direction but cannot rotate at the center of
the input shaft.
• Whereas the sun gear is freely mounted on the input shaft. It means that, whenever the shaft is rotating,
the Sun Gear may or may not rotate but the Freewheel has to move w.r.t. the input shaft only.
• The Sun Gear meshes with the planet gears and this planet gears are in contact with the Planet Carrier.
• The Planet Gear is also in contact with the ring gear and from the ring gear, the power is sent to the
output shaft.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

U- Joint:

A universal joint, U-joint, Cardan joint, Hardy-Spicer joint, or Hooke's joint is a linkage that

transmitsrotation between two non parallel shafts whose axes are coplanar but not coinciding.,

and is commonly used in shafts that transmit rotary motion. It is used in automobiles where it

is used to transmit power from the gear box of the engine to the rear axle. The driving shaft

rotates at a uniform angular speed, where as the driven shaft rotates at a continuously varying

angular speed.

A complete revolution of either shaft will cause the other to rotate through a complete

revolution at the same time. Each shaft has fork at its end. The four ends of the two fork are

connected by a centre piece, the arms of which rest in bearings, provided in fork ends. The

centre piece can be of any shape of a cross, square or sphere having four pins or arms. The four

arms are at right angle to each other.

When the two shafts are at an angle other than 180° (straight), the driven shaft does not rotate

with constant angular speed in relation to the drive shaft; the more the angle goes toward 90°

the jerkier themovement gets (clearly, when the angle β = 90° the shafts would even lock).

However, the overall average speed of the driven shaft remains the same as that of driving

shaft, and so speed ratio of the driven to the driving shaft on average is 1:1 over multiple

rotations.

The angular speed ω2 of the driven shaft, as a function of the angular speed of the driving shaft ω1

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

and theangle of the driving shaft φ1, is found using:

ω2 = ω1 cosα / (1-sin2α.cos2θ)

For a given and set angle between the two shafts it can be seen that there is a cyclical variation in the

input to output velocity ratio. Maximum values occur when sin θ = 1, i.e. when θ = 900 and 2700.

The denominator is greatest when θ = 0or 1800 and this condition gives the minimum ratio of the

velocities.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Slip Joint in the Propeller Shaft;

• Slip joint is attached to the driven yoke in order the increase or decrease the length of propeller
shaft. It has outside splines on the shaft and matching internal splines in a mating hollow shaft
or yoke. When assembled the splines cause the shafts to rotate together while they can move
back and forth. This changes the length of propeller shaft.

Propeller Shaft

• The propeller shaft is a driving shaft which connects the transmission main shaft to the differential of the
real axle. It transmits the power from gear box to rear axle with the help of universal joints. The propeller
shaft is also known as drive shaft. It performs the following function:
• To receive the power from the gear box output shaft and without any change in speed transmit it to the
input pinion of the differential for onward transmission to the rear axle and rear wheels. To cope with the
difference in line with the level of the gear box output shaft and the differential input pinion shaft. The
propeller shaft has to operate at varied lengths and varied angles. The engine of the automobile is somewhat
rigidly attached to the frame by springs. As the vehicle moves on the road there are jerks and bumps due
to which the springs expand and contract. This changes the angle of drive between the propeller shaft and
the transmission shaft. The distance between the gear box and differential also changes due to the
movement of the springs. So the propeller shaft has to meet both the angular change coming between the
gear box and differential and change in length of the distance between the gear box and differential. The
propeller shaft is also not on the same line as the gear box output shaft but it runs to the rear axle at an
angle because the level of the rear axle is lower than the gear box. So to adjust angular motion universal
joints are provided and to adjust for the change in length of the propeller shaft , a slip joint is provided.
The propeller shaft has to withstand the torsional stresses of the transmitting torque, and yet it must be light
and well balanced so that vibrations will not occur at high speed. So it is usually made of a strong steel
tube.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The Drive Shaft

The drive shaft, or propeller shaft, connects the transmission output shaft to the differential pinion shaft.

Since all roads are not perfectly smooth, and the transmission is fixed, the drive shaft has to be flexible

to absorb the shock of bumps in the road. Universal, or "U-joints" allow the drive shaft to flex(and stop

it from breaking) when the drive angle changes.

Drive shafts are usually hollow in order to weigh less, but of a large diameter so that they are strong.

High quality steel, and sometimes aluminum are used in the manufacture of the drive shaft. The shaft

must be quite straight and balanced to avoid vibrating. Since it usually turns at engine speeds, a lot of

damage can be caused if the shaft is unbalanced, or bent. Damage can also be caused if the U-joints are

worn out.

There are two types of drive shafts, the Hotchkiss drive and the Torque Tube Drive. The Hotchkiss

drive is made up of a drive shaft connected to the transmission output shaft and the differential pinion

gear shaft. U-joints are used in the front and rear. The Hotchkiss drive transfers the torque of the output

shaft to the differential. No wheel drive thrust is sent to the drive shaft. Sometimes this drive comes in

two pieces to reduce vibration and make it easier to install (in this case, three U-joints are needed).The

two-piece types need ball bearings in a dustproof housing as center support for the shafts. Rubber is

added into this arrangement for noise and vibration reduction.

The torque tube drive shaft is used if the drive shaft has to carry the wheel drive thrust. It is a hollow
steel tube that extends from the transmission to the rear axle housing. One end is fastened to the axle housing

by bolts. The transmission end is fastened with a torque ball. The drive shaft fits into the torque tube. A U-

joint is located in the torque ball, and the axle housing end is splined to the pinion gear shaft. Drive thrust is

sent through the torque tube to the torque ball, to transmission, to engine and finally, to the frame through the

engine mounts. That is, the car is pushed forward by the torque tube pressing on the engine.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Automatic Transmission:

An automatic transmission (commonly "AT" or "Auto") is an automobile gearbox that can change gear

ratios automatically as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually.

Automatic Transmission Modes:

In order to select the mode, the driver would have to move a gear shift lever located on the steering

column or on the floor next to him/her. In order to select gears/modes the driver must push a button in

(called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. In some vehicles

position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central console.

Vehicles conforming to U.S. Government standards must have the modes ordered P- R-N-D- L (left to

right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Prior to this, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions often utilized

a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths and injuries owing to un-

intentional gear miss-selection, as well the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump into Reverse

from Low gear during engine braking maneuvers.

Automatic Transmissions have various modes depending on the model and make of the transmission.

Some of the common modes are:

Park Mode (P):-

This selection mechanically locks the transmission, restricting the car from moving in any direction.

A parking pawl prevents the transmission—and therefore the vehicle—from moving, although the

vehicle's non-drive wheels may still spin freely. For this reason, it is recommended to use the hand brake

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

(or parking brake) because this actually locks the (in most cases, rear) wheels and prevents them from

moving. This also increases the life of the transmission and the park pin mechanism, because parking

on an incline with the transmission in park without the parking brake engaged will cause

undue stress on the parking pin. An efficiently-adjusted hand brake should also prevent the car from

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

moving if a worn selector accidentally drops into reverse gear during early morning fast-idle engine

warm ups.

Reverse (R):-

This puts the car into the reverse gear, giving the ability for the car to drive backwards. In order for the

driver to select reverse they must come to a complete stop, push the shift lock button in (or pull the

shift lever forward in the case of a column shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a complete stop

can cause severe damage to the transmission. Many modern automatic gearboxes have a safety

mechanism in place, which does to some extent prevent (but doesn't completely avoid) inadvertently

putting the car in reverse when the vehicle is moving.

This mechanism usually consists of a solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either side of the Reverse

position, which is electronically engaged by a switch on the brake pedal. Therefore, the brake pedal

needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent

or delay engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is moving.

Neutral/No gear (N):-

This disconnects the transmission from the wheels so the car can move freely under its own weight.

This is the only other selection in which the car can be started.

Drive (D):-

This allows the car to move forward and accelerate through its range of gears. The number of gears a

transmission has depends on the model, but they can commonly range from 3, 4 (the most common), 5,

6 (found in VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox), 7 (found in Mercedes 7G gearboxes, BMW M5 and

VW/Audi Direct Shift Gearbox) and 8 in the newer models of Lexus cars. Some cars when put into D

will automatically lock the doors or turn on the Daytime Running Lamps.

Overdrive ([D], Od, Or A Boxed D):-

This mode is used in some transmissions to allow early Computer Controlled Transmissions to engage

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

the Automatic Overdrive. In these transmissions, Drive (D) locks the Automatic Overdrive off, but is

identical otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged under steady speeds or low acceleration

at approximately 35-45 mph (approx. 72 km/h). Under hard acceleration or below 35-45 mph, the

transmission will automatically downshift. Vehicles with this option should be driven in this mode

unless circumstances require a lower gear.

Second (2 or S):-

This mode limits the transmission to the first two gears, or more commonly locks the transmission in

second gear. This can be used to drive in adverse conditions such as snow and ice, as well as climbing

or going down hills in the winter time. Some vehicles will automatically up-shift out of second gear in

this mode if a certain rpm range is reached, to prevent engine damage.

First (1 or L):-

This mode locks the transmission in first gear only. It will not accelerate through any gear range. This,

like second, can be used during the winter season, or for towing.

As well as the above modes there are also other modes, dependent on the manufacturer and model.

Some examples include:

D5:- In Hondas and Acuras equipped with 5-speed automatic transmissions, this mode is used

commonly for highway use (as stated in the manual), and uses all five forward gears.

D4:- This mode is also found in Honda and Acura 4 or 5-speed automatics and only uses the first 4

gears. According to the manual, it is used for "stop and go traffic", such as city driving.

D3:- This mode is found in Honda and Acura 4-speed automatics and only uses the first 3 gears.

According to the manual, it is used for stop & go traffic, such as city driving. This mode is also found

in Honda and Acura 5-speed automatics.

This is the manual selection of gears for automatics, such as Porsche's Tiptronic. This feature can also

be found in Chrysler and General Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum and Pontiac G6. The

driver can shift up and down at will, by toggling the shift lever (console mounted) like a semi-

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

automatic transmission. This mode may be engaged either through a selector/position or by actually

changing gear (e.g. tipping the gear-down paddles mounted near the driver's fingers on the steering

wheel).

The predominant form of automatic transmission is hydraulically operated, using a fluid coupling/

torque converter and a set of planetary gear-sets to provide a range of torque multiplication.

Parts and Operation:-

A hydraulic automatic transmission consists of the following parts:
• Torque Converter/Fluid Coupling

• Planetary Gear Set

• Clutch packs & Bands

• Valve Body

• Hydraulic or Lubricating Oil

Torque Converter/Fluid Coupling: -Unlike a manual transmission system, automatic transmission does

not use a clutch to disconnect power from the engine temporarily when shifting gears. Instead, a device

called a torque converter was invented to prevent power from being temporarily disconnected from the

engine and also to pre-vent the vehicle from stalling when the transmission is in gear.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

A fluid coupling/torque converter consists of a sealed chamber containing two toroidal- shaped, vaned

components, the pump and turbine, immersed in fluid (usually oil). The pump or driving torus (the latter

a General Motors automotive term) is rotated by the prime mover, which is typically an internal

combustion engine or electric motor. The pump's motion imparts a relatively complex centripetal

motion to the fluid. Simplified, this is a centrifugal force that throws the oil outwards against the

coupling's housing, whose shape forces the flow in the direction of the turbine or driven torus (the latter

also a General Motors term).

Here, Corolis force reaction transfers the angular fluid momentum outward and across, applying torque

to the turbine, thus causing it to rotate in the same direction as the pump. The fluid leaving the center

of the turbine returns to the pump, where the cycle endlessly repeats. The pump typically is connected

to the flywheel of the engine—in fact, the coupling's enclosure may be part of the flywheel proper, and

thus is turned by the engine's crankshaft. The turbine is connected to the input shaft of the transmission.

As engine speed increases while the transmission is in gear, torque is transferred from the engine to the

input shaft by the motion of the fluid, propelling the vehicle. In this regard, the behavior of the fluid

coupling strongly resembles that of a mechanical clutch driving a manual transmission.

A torque converter differs from a fluid coupling in that it provides a variable amount of torque

multiplication at low engine speeds, increasing "breakaway" acceleration. This is accomplished with a

third member in the "coupling assembly" known as the stator, and by altering the shapes of the vanes

inside the coupling in such a way as to curve the fluid's path into the stator. The stator captures the

kinetic energy of the transmission fluid in effect using the left-over force of it to enhance torque

multiplication.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Tiptronic transmission is a special type of automatic transmission with a computer controlled automatic

shift. The driver can switch the transmission to manual mode, which lets her shift the gear at her wish

sequentially up (+) or down (-) without disengaging the clutch. This works just like a manual

transmission; however, it still uses a torque converter to transfer power from the engine. Unfortunately,

this is less efficient than a manual transmission.

Planetary Gear-Set: - The automatic system for current automobiles uses a planetary gear set instead

of the traditional manual transmission gear set. The planetary gear set contains four parts: sun gear,

planet gears, planet carrier, and ring gear. Based on this planetary set design, sun gear, planet carrier,

and ring gear spin centrifugally. By locking one of them, the planetary set can generate three different

gear ratios, including one reverse gear, without engaging and disengaging the gear set. The gear set is

actuated by hydraulic servos controlled by the valve body, providing two or more gear ratios.

Clutch Packs And Bands: - A clutch pack consists of alternating disks that fit inside a clutch drum. Half

of the disks are steel and have splines that fit into groves on the inside of the drum.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

`The other half have a friction material bonded to their surface and have splines on the inside edge that

fit groves on the outer surface of the adjoining hub. There is a piston inside the drum that is

activated by oil pressure at the appropriate time to squeeze the clutch pack together so that the two

components become locked and turn as one.

A band is a steel strap with friction material bonded to the inside surface. One end of the band is

anchored against the transmission case while the other end is connected to a servo. At the appropriate

time hydraulic oil is sent to the servo under pressure to tighten the band around the drum to stop the

drum from turning.

The bands come into play for manually selected gears, such as low range or reverse, and operate on the

planetary drum's circumference. Bands are not applied when drive/overdrive range is selected, the

torque being transmitted by the sprag clutches instead.

The sun gear is connected to a drum, which can be locked by a band. The ring gear is directly connected

to the input shaft, which transfers power from the engine. The planet carrier is connected to the output

shaft, which transfers power into the wheels.

Based on this design, when in neutral, both band and clutch sets are released. Turning the ring gear can

only drive planet gears but not the planet carrier, which stays static if the car is not moving. The planet

gears drive the sun gear to spin freely. In this situation, the input shaft is not able to transfer power to

the output shaft. When shifting to 1st gear, the band locks the sun gear by locking the drum.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

The ring gear drives the planet carrier to spin. In this situation, the ring gear (input shaft) spins faster

than the planet carrier (output shaft).

To shift to higher gear, the band is released and the clutch is engaged to force the sun gear and planet

carrier (output shaft) to spin at the same speed. The input shaft will also spin at the same speed as the

output shaft, which makes the car run faster than in 1st gear. Using a compound planetary gear set

generates more gear ratios with a special gear ratio, over-drive gear whose gear ratio is small than 1.

This will make the gear shift smoother. Both the band and clutch piston are pressurized by the hydraulic

system. The part connecting the band or clutches to the hydraulic system is called the shift valve, while

the one connecting the hydraulic system to the output shaft is called the governor.

The governor is a centrifugal sensor with a spring loaded valve. The faster the governor spins, the more

the valve opens. The more the valve opens, the more the fluid goes through and the higher the pressure

applied on the shift valve. Therefore, each band and clutch can be pushed to lock the gear based on a

specific spin speed detected by the governor from the output shaft. To make the hydraulic system work

efficiently, a complex maze of passages was designed to replace a large number of tubes. For modern

cars, an electronic con-trolled (computer controlled) solenoid pack is used to detect throttle position,

vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, brake pedal position, etc., and to automatically choose the

best gear for a moving vehicle.

Principally, a type of device known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for routine upshifts/downshifts.

Operating much as a ratchet, it transmits torque only in one direction, freewheeling or "overrunning" in

the other. The advantage of this type of clutch is that it eliminates the sensitivity of timing a

simultaneous clutch release/apply on two planetaries, simply "taking up" the drivetrain load when

actuated,and releasing automatically when the next gear's sprag clutch assumes the torq

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Valve Body: - Hydraulic control center that receives pressurized fluid from a main pump operated by

the fluid coupling/torque converter. The pressure coming from this pump is regulated and used to run

a network of spring-loaded valves, check balls and servo pistons.

The valves use the pump pressure and the pressure from a centrifugal governor on the output side (as

well as hydraulic signals from the range selector valves and the throttle valve or modulator) to control

which ratio is selected on the gearset; as the car and engine change speed, the difference between the

pressures changes, causing different sets of valves to open and close.

Each of the many valves in the valve body has a specific purpose and is named for that function. For

example the 2-3 shift valves activate the 2nd gear to 3rd gear up-shift or the 3-2 shift timing valve which

determines when a downshift should occur.

The hydraulic pressure controlled by these valves drives the various clutch and brake band actuators,

thereby controlling the operation of the planetary gearset to select the optimum gear ratio for the

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

current operating conditions. However, in many modern automatic transmissions, the valves are

controlled by electro-mechanical servos which are controlled by the Engine Management System or a

separate transmission controller.

The most important valve and the one that you have direct control over is the manual valve. The manual

valve is directly connected to the gear shift handle and covers and uncovers various passages depending

on what position the gear shift is placed in. When you place the gear shift in Drive, for instance, the

manual valve directs fluid to the clutch pack(s) that activates 1st gear.

It also sets up to monitor vehicle speed and throttle position so that it can determine the optimal time

and the force for the 1 - 2 shifts. On computer controlled transmissions, you will also have electrical

solenoids that are mounted in the valve body to direct fluid to the appropriate clutch packs or bands

under computer control to more precisely control shift points.

Hydraulic & Lubricating Oil: - A component called Automatic Transmission Fluid (ATF) which is part

of the transmission mechanism provides lubrication, corrosion prevention, and a hydraulic medium to

convey mechanical power.

Primarily it is made of refined petroleum and processed to provide properties that promote smooth

power transmission and increase service life. ATF is one of the parts of the automatic transmission that

needs routine service as the vehicle ages.

Differential Unit:

Differentials are a variety of gearbox, almost always used in one of two ways. In one of these, it receives

one input and provides two outputs; this is found in every automobile. In automobile and other

wheeled vehicles, the differential allows each of the driving wheels to rotate at different speeds, while

supplying equal torque to each of them. In the other, less commonly encountered, it combines two inputs

to create an output that is the sum (or difference) of the inputs. In automotive applications, the

differential and its housing are sometimes collectively called a "pumpkin" (because the housing

resembles a pumpkin).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Purpose:-

The differential gear box has following functions:

• Avoid skidding of the rear wheels on a road turning.

• Reduces the speed of inner wheels and increases the speed of outer wheels, while drawing a curve.

• Keeps equal speeds of all the wheels while moving on a straight road.

• Eliminates a single rigid rear axle, and provides a coupling between two rear axles.

The following description of a differential applies to a "traditional" rear- or front-wheel-drive car or

truck:

Power is supplied from the engine, via the transmission or gearbox, to a drive shaft termed as propeller

shaft, which runs to the differential. A spiral bevel pinion gear at the end of the propeller shaft is encased

within the differential itself, and it meshes with the large spiral bevel ring gear termed as crown wheel.

The ring and pinion may mesh in hypoid orientation.

The ring gear is attached to a carrier, which holds what is sometimes called a spider, a cluster of four

bevel gears in a rectangle, so each bevel gear meshes with two neighbors and rotates counter to the third

that it faces and does not mesh with. Two of these spider gears are aligned on the same axis as the ring

gear and drive the half shafts connected to the vehicle's driven wheels.

These are called the side gears. The other two spider gears are aligned on a perpendicular axis which

changes orientation with the ring gear's rotation. These two gears are just called pinion gears, not to
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
be confused with the main pinion gear.

As the carrier rotates, the changing axis orientation of the pinion gears imparts the motion of the ring gear to

the motion of the side gears by pushing on them rather than turning against them (that is, the same teeth stay

in contact), but because the spider gears are not restricted from turning against each other, within that motion

the side gears can counter-rotate relative to the ring gear and to each other under the same force (in which case

the same teeth do not stay in contact).

Thus, for example, if the car is making a turn to the right, the main ring gear may make 10 full rotations.

During that time, the left wheel will make more rotations because it has further to travel, and the right

wheel will make fewer rotations as it has less distance to travel. The side gears will rotate in opposite

directions relative to the ring gear by, say, 2 full turns each (4 full turns relative to each other), resulting

in the left wheel making 12 rotations, and the right wheel making 8 rotations.

The rotation of the ring gear is always the average of the rotations of the side gears. This is why if the

wheels are lifted off the ground with the engine off, and the drive shaft is held (preventing the ring gear

from turning inside the differential), manually rotating one wheel causes the other to rotate in the

opposite direction by the same amount.

When the vehicle is traveling in a straight line, there will be no differential movement of the planetary

system of gears other than the minute movements necessary to compensate for slight differences in

wheel diameter, undulations in the road (which make for a longer or shorter wheel path), etc.

Hotchkiss drive;

The Hotchkiss drive is a system of power transmission. It was the dominant form of power transmission

for front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout cars in the 20th century. The name comes from the French

automobile firm of Hotchkiss, although it is clear that other makers (such as Peerless) used

similar systems before Hotchkiss.

During the early part of the 20th century the two major competing systems of power transmission were

the shaft-drive and chain-drive configurations. The Hotchkiss drive is a shaft- drive system (another

type of direct-drive transmission system is the torque tube, which was also popular until the 1950s).

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

All shaft-drive systems consist of a driveshaft (also called a "propeller shaft" or Cardan shaft)

extending from the transmission in front to the differential in the rear. The differentiating characteristic

of the Hotchkiss drive is the fact that it uses universal joints at both ends of the driveshaft,

which is not enclosed. The use of two universal joints, properly phased and with parallel alignment of

the drive and driven shafts, allows the use of simple cross- type universals. (In a

torque-tube arrangement only a single universal is used at the end of the transmission tail shaft, and this

universal should be a constant velocity joint.)

In the Hotchkiss drive, slip-splines or a plunge-type (ball and trunnion u-joint) eliminate thrust

transmitted back up the driveshaft from the axle, allowing simple rear-axle positioning using parallel

leaf springs. (In the torque-tube type this thrust is taken by the torque tube to the transmission and thence

to the transmission and motor mounts to the frame. While the torque-tube type requires additional

locating elements, such as a Panhard rod, this allows the use of coil springs.)

Some Hotchkiss drive shafts are made in two pieces with another universal joint in the center for greater

flexibility, typically in trucks and specialty vehicles built on truck frames. Some installations use rubber

mounts to isolate noise and vibration. The 1984–1987 RWD Toyota Corolla (i.e., Corolla SR5 and GT-

S) coupe is another example of a car that uses a 2-part Hotchkiss driveshaft with a rubber-mounted

center bearing.

This design was the main form of power transmission for most cars from the 1920s through

the 1970s. Presently (circa 2012), it remains common in pick-up trucks, and sport utility vehicles

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Torque tube Drive
A torque tube system is a driveshaft technology, often used in automobiles with a front engine and rear

drive. It is not as widespread as the Hotchkiss drive, but is still occasionally used to this day. Drive

shafts are sometimes also used for other vehicles and machinery.

The "torque" that is referred to in the name is not that of the driveshaft, along the axis of the car, but

that applied by the wheels. The design problem that the torque tube solves is how to get the traction

forces generated by the wheels to the car frame. The "torque tube" transmits this force by directly

coupling the axle differential to the transmission and therefore propels the car forward by pushing on

the engine/transmission and then through the engine mounts to the car frame[citation needed].

In contrast, the Hotchkiss drive has the traction forces transmitted to the car frame by using other

suspension components such as leaf springs or trailing arms. A ball and socket type of joint called a

"torque ball" is used at one end of the torque tube to allow relative motion between the axle and

transmission due to suspension travel. Since the torque tube does not constrain the axle in the lateral

(side-to-side) direction a pan hard rod is often used for this purpose. The combination of the pan hard

rod and the torque tube allows the easy implementation of soft coil springs in the rear to give good ride

quality.

In addition to transmitting the traction forces, the torque tube is hollow and contains the rotating

driveshaft. Inside the hollow torque ball is the universal joint of the driveshaft that allows relative

motion between the two ends of the driveshaft. In most applications the drive shaft uses a single
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
universal joint which has the disadvantage that it causes speed fluctuations in the driveshaft when the

shaft is not straight. The Hotchkiss drive uses two universal joints which has the effect of canceling the

speed fluctuations and gives a constant speed even when the shaft is no longer straight.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 UNIT IV
STEERING, BRAKES AND
SUSPENSION SYSTEMS

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Steering System
• Steering provides the directional change for the movement of the automobile and it
maintain in a position as per the direction of the driver’s decision with out strain on him.
• Steering is done by the movement of the axis of rotation of the front wheel with respect
to chassis frame
Requirement of a Steering System
• It multiplies the turning effort applied on the steering wheel by the driver
• The shock of the road surface absorb by the wheels should not be transmitted to driver’s
hand.
• This system should be light and stable
• It should be easily operated with less maintenance
Functions of a Steering Wheel
• It should provide wheel swing either left or right
• It provides vehicle turning as per the will of the driver
• It should provide direction stability
• It helps to control the wear and tear of the tyres.
• Allows for suspension action.
•
Layout of Steering system

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Steering Geometry

• Steering Geometry means it is the angular relationship among the front wheels, front
wheel attaching parts and vehicle frame and road surface.

• The method of describing the measurement alignment of angles that affect steering
is called steering geometry or wheel alignment.

• Various Angles that affect the Steering geometry are as follows

1. Camber

2. Caster

3. King-Pin

4. Toe-in and Toe out

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 CASTER ANGLE
Caster angle is the tilt of the kingpin or ball joint centre line from the vertical towards either the front
(negative caster) or rear (positive caster) of the vehicle.

The caster angle produces a trailing effect and hence gives the directional stability. In correct caster can
produce difficulties like hard steering, pulling to one side when brakes are applied.

The caster angle ranges from 2-8° negative.

CAMBER ANGLE
Camber angle is the inclination between the centre line of the tire and the vertical line. The outward
inclination is called positive camber and the inward inclination is the negative camber. The purpose of
the camber is to prevent the top of wheels from tilting inward much due to excessive load or play in the
king-pin and wheel bearing. Unequal camber in the wheels causes the vehicles to roll in the direction of
wheel having the greater camber which upsets directional stability and tends to scuff the tread on the
opposite tire, excessive camber prevents the tire from having correct contact with the road which causes
it to wear only on the side directly beneath the load.

• Camber angle is less than 1 degree

KING-PIN INCLINATION
Kingpin inclination is the inward tilt of the kingpin or ball joint centerline from the vertical.
Kingpin tilt in combination with curvature provides directional stability. whereas kingpin inclination and
camber combine to give direction from the tire’s centre point on the road and bring upthrust at the stub
axle closest to the centre of the kingpin. The bending angle combined with the kingpin inclination is
called the included angle.

The inclination of the kingpin varies from 4-8°.

TOE-IN and TOE-OUT

The front wheels are usually designed a little forward so that the distance between the rear ends
(y) is slightly greater than the distance between the front ends (x). The difference between these

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

distances is called convergence. The wheels are turned inwards to compensate for the tendency to roll
outwards due to the curvature and play in the steering linkage. Convergence is usually 2 to 4 mm.

When a vehicle turns, the inner wheel of the vehicle moves faster as compared to the outer wheel
because the former has to go around an area with a smaller radius than the latter. This action causes the
wheels to turn due to differences in their turning angles.

Importance of Steering Geometry

1. Improve Handling: - This helps in controlling the vehicle. Improper handling can be due to vehicle
pulling on one side, vibration of the steering wheel.

2. Improves tyre life and performance: - Proper rolling tyre contact on road and prevention of slipping of
the tyres due to improper alignment results in better tyre life.

3. Helps in identifying problems: - Improper alignment could be a symptom of something wrong in the
vehicle. A check on this can lead to correction in the fault in the vehicle.

4. Ensures Safety: - By keeping the system in order by removing the defective parts, enhances the vehicle
systems, especially the suspension system, leading to better safety.

5. Improves fuel efficiency: - By enhancing the performance of various systems, leads to better fuel
efficiency from the vehicle.

Function of Steering Gear Box

The rotary motion of steering wheel is converted to straight liner motion of a linkage by a steering gear

The type of a gear used to convert the motion is worm gear

Types of Steering Gear box

1. Cam and Roller

2. Recirculating Ball

3. Rack and Pinion

4. Power-Steering

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Cam and Roller Steering Gear Box

Recirculating Steering Gear Box

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that turns the wheels is
slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.

The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. You can image the gear in two parts. The first
part is a block of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut into the outside of it,
which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram above). The steering wheel connects to a
threaded rod, similar to a bolt, that sticks into the hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it
turns the bolt. Instead of twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held
fixed so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns the wheels

Rack and Pinion Steering Gear Box

• Rack & pinion is on the vast majority of today's vehicles, and has been for the last few
decades. It's simple, compact, direct, and provides great steering feel. On this type of system,
a toothed pinion gear mounted on the bottom of your steering column turns with the steering
wheel. As that pinion gear rotates, it comes in contact with the “rack” (a long bar with teeth
cut into it) – causing the rack to slide left or right. As the rack bar moves, your front wheels
turn accordingly. Tie rod ends at each side of the vehicle provide the final connection between
the steering rack and front wheels. They’re designed to flex in many directions to allow for
up-and-down movement over bumps, and they can be adjusted in order to reset front wheels
straight during an alignment.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Hydraulic power steering

• Hydraulic power steering is a closed system composed of several elements: A motor-driven

power steering pump creates hydraulic pressure using a compressed oil - power steering
fluid. A power steering belt connected to the crankshaft drives the pump.

• The power steering pump leads the compressed fluid from its small reservoir in the engine
via closed pipes down to the steering rack that connects the car's two front wheels. It is inside
the steering rack that the power steering fluid creates the hydraulic mechanism: A piston
pushes the fluid back and forth, depending on the movement of the steering wheel. The piston
is assisted by the small pinion gear, which reacts when the steering wheel is turned.

• The whole mechanism is designed to amplify smaller levels of force applied by the driver
when turning the steering wheel, so that it becomes much easier to turn with less effort.

Electric power steering

• Electric power steering is a more recent design compared to the hydraulic system. However,

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING