1.

Earth's atmosphere is primarily composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and about 1%
argon, carbon dioxide, and other trace gases. It is structured in layers including the
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
2. Major atmospheric circulation processes include the Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells,
which are driven by solar heating and the Coriolis effect and are responsible for large-
scale wind and weather patterns.
3. Materials are removed from the atmosphere through dry deposition, wet deposition,
chemical reactions, and gravitational settling, all of which help clean the air of pollutants
and particles.
4. Over the last million years, Earth's climate has cycled between colder glacial periods and
warmer interglacial periods, largely due to natural variations in Earth’s orbit and tilt
known as Milankovitch cycles.
5. Human-induced global warming is caused by increased emissions of greenhouse gases,
such as carbon dioxide and methane, which trap more heat in the atmosphere and
enhance the natural greenhouse effect.
6. Humans have increased levels of heat-trapping gases mainly through burning fossil fuels,
deforestation, agriculture, and industrial processes, all of which release carbon dioxide,
methane, and nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.
7. Positive feedback loops, such as ice melting reducing Earth's albedo, amplify warming,
while negative feedback loops, like increased plant growth absorbing more CO₂, can help
moderate it.
8. There are scientific uncertainties in climate change predictions, particularly regarding
regional impacts and feedback mechanisms, but the overall trend of global warming is
well-established and supported by extensive evidence.
9. The four major gases in Earth’s atmosphere are nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon
dioxide.
10. The atmosphere is dynamic because it is constantly changing and moving due to
temperature differences, wind, pressure systems, and moisture patterns.
11. The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer and is where all weather events,
including clouds, storms, and precipitation, occur.
12. The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere, acting like a
“lid” that prevents most water vapor from rising, creating a cold trap that keeps moisture
in the lower atmosphere.
13. The lower stratosphere is especially significant because it contains the ozone layer, which
absorbs harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun.
14. Atmospheric air masses are characterized by temperature, humidity, and pressure, which
determine their weather influence when they move.
15. On a global scale, atmospheric circulation is primarily driven by uneven solar heating of
Earth’s surface and the Coriolis effect caused by Earth’s rotation.
16. Human-induced particles and chemicals are removed from the atmosphere through wet
deposition (rain), dry deposition (settling), chemical reactions (like oxidation), and
photochemical reactions caused by sunlight.
17. Weather refers to short-term atmospheric conditions, such as rain or sunshine on a given
day, while climate refers to long-term average patterns over 30 years or more.
18. The simplest classification of climate is based on temperature and precipitation levels, as
used in the Köppen climate classification system.
19. Over the last 100 years, the global mean temperature has increased by approximately
1.1°C, mainly due to human activities.
20. A one- or two-year rise in temperature, along with drought, heat waves, and wildfires,
does not prove long-term global warming, but repeated patterns of such events are
consistent with climate change predictions.
21. Milankovitch Cycles are long-term changes in Earth’s orbit, axial tilt, and wobble, which
affect the amount of solar energy Earth receives and influence the timing of ice ages.
22. According to many scientists, mean surface temperatures are expected to increase by
2.5°C to 4.5°C or more by 2100 unless significant reductions in greenhouse gas
emissions are made.
23. In an optimistic scenario where major reductions in emissions are achieved, global
warming could be limited to about 1.5°C by 2100.
24. The global conveyor belt is a system of deep-ocean currents that moves heat and nutrients
around the planet, playing a key role in regulating Earth’s climate.
25. The main goal of Earth System Science is to understand Earth as a connected system,
studying how the atmosphere, oceans, land, and life interact to influence the planet’s
environment.
26. Over the last 500 years, CO₂ levels in the troposphere remained relatively stable until the
Industrial Revolution, after which they began to rise sharply due to human activity.
27. Carbon dioxide is often seen as reflecting the “breathing” of the planet, as its levels rise
and fall seasonally with plant growth and decay across Earth’s ecosystems.
28. The Mauna Loa carbon dioxide measurements show both a long-term upward trend in
CO₂ levels and a seasonal oscillation pattern caused by plant growth and decay cycles,
especially in the Northern Hemisphere.
29. Mauna Loa CO₂ measurements have been continuously recorded since approximately
1958.
30. The temperature at or near Earth’s surface is influenced by four main factors: incoming
solar radiation, Earth's albedo (reflectivity), the greenhouse effect, and heat stored in
land, water, and atmosphere.
31. The Electromagnetic Spectrum is crucial in environmental science because it explains
how energy from the sun is absorbed, emitted, and reflected by Earth's surface and
atmosphere, affecting climate, weather, and ecosystems.
32. Three common proxies used to study Earth’s past atmosphere are ice cores (trapping
ancient air bubbles), tree rings (indicating past climate conditions), and sediment cores
(which contain chemical and biological clues).
33. Earth radiates energy at an average temperature of approximately 15°C, which is
equivalent to 59°F.
34. Approximately 70% of the sun's energy that reaches Earth is absorbed by the surface and
lower atmosphere.
35. The stratospheric ozone layer is located about 15 to 35 kilometers (roughly 9 to 22 miles)
above Earth’s surface.
36. Solar energy absorbed by surface materials such as vegetation, soil, and water is
transformed into thermal (heat) energy.
37. Approximately 50% of the incoming solar radiation is available to drive Earth's surface
processes such as the hydrologic cycle.
38. The Greenhouse Effect is the process by which certain gases in Earth’s atmosphere trap
heat, allowing sunlight to enter but preventing some of the heat from escaping back into
space, thus warming the planet.
39. The Greenhouse Effect keeps Earth's lower atmosphere approximately 33°C (about 59°F)
warmer than it would be without it.
40. The atmospheric window is significant because it is a range of wavelengths in which
infrared radiation can escape from Earth into space without being absorbed by
greenhouse gases.
41. Three major naturally occurring greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (from respiration
and volcanic activity), methane (from wetlands), and water vapor (from evaporation).
42. The most abundant naturally occurring greenhouse gas is water vapor.
43. Five anthropogenic (human-made) greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (from fossil fuel
burning), methane (from livestock and agriculture), nitrous oxide (from fertilizers), CFCs
(from refrigerants), and ozone (from industrial pollution).
44. Carbon dioxide is by far the anthropogenic greenhouse gas that makes up the largest
percentage of human-generated heat-trapping emissions.
45. CO₂ concentrations in Antarctic ice cores suggest that during the 160,000 years prior to
the Industrial Revolution, atmospheric carbon dioxide levels ranged from about 180 ppm
to 300 ppm.
46. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the tropospheric CO₂ concentration was
approximately 280 ppm.
47. The current tropospheric CO₂ concentration is around 420 ppm.
48. Over the last 200 years, the tropospheric concentration of methane has more than doubled
due to increased human activity.
49. Methane contributes approximately 20% of the anthropogenic greenhouse effect.
50. Three natural sources of methane include wetlands, termites, and oceans.
51. The greatest anthropogenic source of methane is agriculture, particularly livestock
digestion, and additional sources include landfills, rice paddies, and fossil fuel extraction.
52. Yes, uncertainties do exist regarding our understanding of carbon dioxide and methane
sources and sinks, particularly in how much is absorbed by oceans and forests versus how
much remains in the atmosphere.
53. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are synthetic compounds once widely used in refrigerants,
aerosols, and foam products, but they are now heavily regulated due to their role in ozone
depletion and climate change.
54. CFCs account for approximately 12% to 24% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
55. The international agreement that helped prevent CFCs from becoming a major
contributor to global warming is the Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, which phased out
the production and use of ozone-depleting substances.

52. CFCs are especially significant greenhouse gases because they are extremely potent,
long-lived in the atmosphere, and absorb infrared radiation efficiently.
53. The two leading anthropogenic sources of nitrous oxide are agricultural fertilizer use and
fossil fuel combustion.
54. There is a strong correlation between atmospheric CO₂ levels and global temperature, as
increased CO₂ traps more heat and leads to warming.
55. The three major forcing variables influencing global warming are greenhouse gas
concentrations, solar radiation changes, and aerosols.
56. Negative feedback loops are self-regulating because they reduce or counteract change,
while positive feedback loops are self-enhancing because they amplify or accelerate
change.
57. Algae: Increased CO₂ can cause algae blooms, which remove CO₂ through
photosynthesis, creating a cooling effect (negative feedback).

Boreal Forests: Warming may extend the growing season, increasing CO₂ uptake, which
can reduce warming (negative feedback).

Polar Regions: Increased snowfall or ice cover from warming can increase reflectivity
(albedo), reducing heat absorption (negative feedback).

Clouds: Some clouds reflect sunlight, which can cool Earth and reduce warming
(negative feedback).

62. Water Vapor: As temperatures rise, more water evaporates, increasing water vapor,
which traps more heat (positive feedback).

CH₄ & Permafrost: Thawing permafrost releases methane, which enhances the
greenhouse effect and further warms the planet (positive feedback).

Snowpack: Melting snow decreases Earth’s albedo, leading to more heat absorption and
further melting (positive feedback).

Fossil Fuel Burning: Warming may increase energy demand (e.g., for air conditioning),
leading to more fossil fuel use and emissions (positive feedback).

63. Yes, positive and negative feedback processes occur simultaneously in the atmosphere,
often interacting in complex ways that influence climate outcomes.
64. Atmospheric water vapor has a dual role: it is a greenhouse gas that traps heat, but also
forms clouds that can reflect sunlight and cool the Earth.
65. Yes, there is evidence of solar variation, including changes in solar output over time
based on sunspot activity and solar cycles.
66. Yes, variations in solar input can explain some of the climatic variability experienced
over the past thousand years, but not the recent rapid warming trend.
67. An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in the air, such as dust,
soot, sea salt, or sulfates.
68. Aerosols can contribute to global cooling through global dimming by reflecting sunlight
away from Earth and enhancing cloud formation.
69. Volcanic eruptions may have contributed to the Little Ice Age by releasing large
quantities of aerosols into the atmosphere, which reflected solar radiation and cooled the
Earth.
70. Methane hydrates are icy compounds that trap methane gas within water molecules,
typically found in ocean sediments and permafrost regions.
71. Yes, present warming is consistent with natural variability observed over the past
thousand years, but the current rate and magnitude exceed historical natural changes.
72. Yes, according to scientists like Daniel Botkin and Edward Keller, significant global
warming due to human activity is occurring and supported by scientific data.
73. El Niño alters global atmospheric circulation by weakening trade winds and warming the
central and eastern Pacific Ocean, which disrupts normal weather patterns worldwide.
74. Global warming causes greater temperature increases at polar regions due to polar
amplification, where melting ice reduces albedo, causing more heat absorption and faster
warming.
75. Five potential consequences of global warming include sea level rise, increased
frequency of extreme weather events, melting glaciers and ice sheets, shifts in ecosystems
and species distributions, and threats to agriculture and food security.
76. Rising sea level is a serious problem because it can lead to coastal flooding and the
displacement of millions of people, as well as damage to infrastructure and ecosystems.
77. Sea level is expected to rise by about 12 to 36 inches (approximately 30 to 91
centimeters) over the next century, depending on future greenhouse gas emissions.
78. The primary cause of sea level rise is the thermal expansion of seawater and the melting
of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets.
79. Global warming may increase insect-borne diseases by expanding the habitats and active
seasons of disease-carrying insects like mosquitoes and ticks, allowing them to thrive in
regions that were previously too cold.
80. Rising global temperatures are causing many plant and animal species in North America
to shift their ranges northward and to higher elevations, in search of cooler and more
suitable habitats.
81. Global temperature in the last few decades has increased by approximately 1.0 to 1.2°C,
or about 1.8 to 2.2°F.
82. According to scientists such as Botkin and Keller, the question of whether human-
induced warming is occurring is considered scientifically settled and well-supported by
evidence.
83. Yes, there is significant uncertainty regarding whether global warming and related
climate changes can be reversed, especially due to the long-lasting nature of greenhouse
gases and potential tipping points in the climate system.
84. Geologic sequestration of CO₂ involves capturing carbon dioxide emissions from sources
like power plants and injecting the gas into deep underground rock formations for long-
term storage, where it is kept from entering the atmosphere.

1. The pattern of Earth's average surface temperature fluctuations throughout geologic time
has shown significant variability. Over millions of years, Earth has experienced warm
periods and ice ages, with the most recent ice age ending about 10,000 years ago. Since
then, the Earth has been in a relatively stable warm period known as the Holocene, which
has supported the development of human civilization.
2. The greenhouse effect is the process by which certain gases in Earth's atmosphere, such
as carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor, trap heat from the Sun. Without the
 greenhouse effect, Earth would be too cold to support most life forms, with an average
temperature around -18°C (0°F), instead of the current 15°C (59°F).
3. Six major greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide
(N₂O), ozone (O₃), water vapor (H₂O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Major sources
of these gases include fossil fuel combustion for CO₂, livestock digestion for CH₄,
agricultural fertilizers for N₂O, chemical reactions in the atmosphere for O₃, evaporation
from water bodies for H₂O, and industrial processes for CFCs.
4. The two predominant naturally occurring greenhouse gases are water vapor (H₂O) and
carbon dioxide (CO₂). Water vapor is the most abundant greenhouse gas, but its
concentration is largely controlled by temperature, while carbon dioxide has a more
direct anthropogenic source.
5. In the last forty years, four greenhouse gases that have increased include carbon dioxide
(CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These
gases have been linked to human activities, such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture, and
industrial processes.
6. Human activities that contribute to greenhouse gas emissions include burning fossil fuels
for energy and transportation, deforestation, agricultural practices (such as livestock
farming and rice cultivation), and industrial processes (like cement production and
chemical manufacturing).
7. Since 1860, the general trend for the mean global temperature has been an increase,
particularly accelerating after the mid-20th century. This warming has been primarily
driven by human-induced emissions of greenhouse gases.
8. A seemingly small range of temperature change can lead to significant alterations in
ecosystems because even minor shifts can disrupt species' habitats, food availability, and
migration patterns. For instance, warming can increase the frequency of extreme weather
events, such as droughts and storms, which can further stress ecosystems.
9. Five factors that contribute uncertainty to climate models and projections include climate
sensitivity (the degree of warming per unit increase in greenhouse gases), feedback
mechanisms (such as water vapor and ice-albedo feedback), natural climate variability
(like volcanic eruptions and solar activity), regional climate variations (which are harder
to predict than global trends), and human behavior (such as emissions, policy decisions,
and technological advancements).
10. Food production may be reduced, especially in regions already vulnerable to climate
stresses.

Water supplies could be affected by altered precipitation patterns and reduced glacier
melt.

Forests could face dieback and increased vulnerability to wildfires due to higher
temperatures and changing rainfall patterns.

Sea levels could rise due to melting ice caps and the thermal expansion of oceans.

Weather extremes, such as more frequent heatwaves, storms, and floods, may become
more common.
 Biodiversity could suffer as species fail to adapt quickly to climate changes, leading to
extinctions.

Environmental refugees could increase as people are displaced by rising sea levels,
droughts, and other climate-related disasters.

Human health may be impacted by heat-related illnesses, the spread of diseases, and food
and water scarcity.

11. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by transitioning to renewable energy sources

(preventative).

Switching to clean energy sources such as solar and wind (preventative).

Using carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies (cleanup).

Reforestation and afforestation to absorb CO₂ (preventative).

12. Stratospheric ozone is formed when ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun interacts with
oxygen molecules, splitting them into individual oxygen atoms, which then combine with
other oxygen molecules to form ozone (O₃). Ozone in the stratosphere plays a vital role
in protecting life on Earth by absorbing most of the Sun's harmful UV radiation.
13. The ozone layer in the lower stratosphere has been significantly depleted, particularly
over the polar regions, due to the release of chlorine-containing compounds like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This depletion has led to an increase in the amount of UV
radiation reaching Earth's surface.
14. The major potential consequences of ozone depletion include increased skin cancer and
cataracts in humans, harm to marine ecosystems, especially phytoplankton, and reduced
crop yields due to higher levels of UV radiation.
15. CFCs and other chlorine-containing compounds destroy stratospheric ozone through a
series of chemical reactions. When CFCs are broken down by UV light in the
stratosphere, they release chlorine atoms, which then react with ozone molecules (O₃),
breaking them apart into oxygen molecules (O₂) and oxygen atoms, thereby reducing
ozone concentrations.
16. The major characteristics of CFCs that made them attractive for use include their
stability, non-toxicity, non-flammability, and effectiveness as refrigerants and solvents.
These properties made them ideal for use in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol
products.
17. Prior to their phase-out, CFCs were used as refrigerants in air conditioners and
refrigerators, solvents in electronics manufacturing, and propellants in aerosol sprays.
18. It takes several years for a CFC molecule to reach the stratosphere, typically around 1 to
2 years for the slow-moving gases to rise to these higher atmospheric layers.
19. A CFC molecule can last in the stratosphere for decades, with an estimated lifespan of up
to 100 years, which contributes to their long-lasting impact on ozone depletion.
20. The two University of California - Irvine chemists who, in 1974, linked CFC use to
stratospheric ozone depletion were Frank Sherwood Rowland and Mario Molina.
21. Three potential human health impacts of stratospheric ozone depletion include an
increased incidence of skin cancer (particularly melanoma), higher rates of cataracts, and
weakened immune systems, making individuals more vulnerable to infections.
22. Three additional non-human health impacts of ozone depletion include the disruption of
marine ecosystems (especially affecting plankton and other UV-sensitive species),
damage to terrestrial plant life, leading to reduced crop yields, and harm to aquatic
ecosystems, especially fish larvae, due to increased UV exposure.

23. Stratospheric ozone depletion has been greatest over Antarctica.

24. The most pronounced ozone thinning over Antarctica occurs during the Southern
Hemisphere’s spring, from September to November.
25. This region has experienced the greatest ozone loss due to extremely cold temperatures in
the stratosphere, which lead to the formation of polar stratospheric clouds. These clouds
facilitate chemical reactions that activate chlorine and bromine compounds, which then
destroy ozone when sunlight returns in the spring.
26. Three ways to potentially slow ozone thinning include phasing out ozone-depleting
substances like CFCs, enforcing international agreements like the Montreal Protocol, and
promoting alternatives to ozone-depleting chemicals in industry and consumer products.
27. Squamous cell carcinoma is a common skin cancer that begins in the squamous cells of
the epidermis and can spread if untreated; it often appears as a red, scaly patch or sore.

Basal cell carcinoma arises in the basal cells of the skin, is the most common type of skin
cancer, and typically appears as a pearly or waxy bump; it grows slowly and rarely
spreads.

Melanoma is the most dangerous form of skin cancer, originating in melanocytes; it can
rapidly spread to other organs and often appears as an irregularly shaped, multicolored
mole or lesion.

28. Four CFC substitutes include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFCs), hydrocarbons (like propane or isobutane), and carbon dioxide used in
refrigeration.
29. Ray Turner contributed to preserving stratospheric ozone by pioneering the use of non-
CFC refrigerants and promoting environmentally friendly cooling technologies within the
HVAC industry.
30. The heat-trapping ability per molecule increases in the following order: CO₂ < CH₄ <
N₂O < CFCs, with CFCs having the greatest heat-trapping ability per molecule.
31. The aerosol effect refers to the cooling impact on Earth’s climate due to aerosols (tiny
particles) in the atmosphere reflecting sunlight away from Earth, thereby counteracting
some of the warming from greenhouse gases.
32. The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty signed in 1987 that aims to phase out the
production and use of ozone-depleting substances, such as CFCs, to protect the
stratospheric ozone layer.
33. UVA: lowest energy, longest wavelength (320–400 nm); mostly reaches Earth’s surface.
UVB: medium energy, medium wavelength (280–320 nm); mostly absorbed by ozone,
but some reaches the surface.
 UVC: highest energy, shortest wavelength (100–280 nm); completely absorbed by the
ozone layer and atmosphere.
34. The main factors that determine Earth’s surface temperature are the solar radiation
received, the reflectivity (albedo) of Earth's surface, atmospheric greenhouse gas
concentrations, and the heat retained by the atmosphere and oceans.
35. Halons (used in fire extinguishers)

Methyl bromide (used as a pesticide/fumigant)

Carbon tetrachloride (used as a solvent and in chemical manufacturing)

Methyl chloroform (used as an industrial cleaning agent)

Nitrous oxide (from agriculture and industrial activities)

36. The Kyoto Agreement, adopted in 1997, was an international treaty that committed
industrialized countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions based on the premise that
global warming exists and human-made CO₂ emissions have caused it. It set legally
binding targets for emissions reductions but allowed flexibility through mechanisms like
emissions trading.