NETWORK DEVICES
Device OSI Layer Function Key Feature Use Case
Broadcasts data to all devices in No intelligence, no
Hub Physical (Layer 1) Small simple networks; rarely used today
the network filtering
Forwards data only to the
Learns MAC addresses; Used in LANs to connect multiple devices
Switch Data Link (Layer 2) intended device using MAC
reduces traffic efficiently
address
Connects two LAN segments and Divides network to
Bridge Data Link (Layer 2) Connects two similar network segments
filters traffic reduce collisions
Routes data between different Finds best path for data Connects different networks (e.g., home
Router Network (Layer 3)
networks using IP addresses across networks LAN to the internet)
Connects networks with different
All 7 layers (mainly Converts data between different
Gateway Protocol translator architectures (e.g., LAN to cloud, VoIP to
Application) protocols
phone)
TOPOLOGIES
Feature Star Topology Bus Topology Ring Topology
All devices connect to a central hub All devices connect to a single central Each device connects to two others,
Structure
or switch cable (backbone) forming a circle
Data Flow Through the central hub/switch In both directions along the bus In one direction (or both in dual ring)
Cable High (each device has its own cable Moderate (each device connects to
Low (one main cable)
Requirement to hub) two others)
Performance High (if hub/switch is fast) Slows down with more devices Moderate; affected by network size
Moderate to High (more cable +
Cost Low (less cable, no hub/switch) Moderate
central device)
High — if one device fails, others Low — if main cable fails, entire network Low — one break can disable the
Fault Tolerance
unaffected goes down whole network
Troubleshooting Easy Difficult Difficult
Old token ring networks, rarely used
Common Usage LANs, schools, offices Small, temporary networks
now
GUIDED MEDIA
Feature Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable
Two insulated copper wires Central copper core with insulating
Structure Core made of glass or plastic fibers
twisted together layer and shielding
Up to 1 Gbps (Cat5e), 10 Gbps Up to 100 Mbps or higher (depending
Speed/Bandwidth Very high (Gbps to Tbps)
(Cat6/Cat6a) on type)
Up to 100 meters (without Many kilometers (40 km or more with
Distance Up to 500 meters (approximate)
repeater) amplifiers)
Low (susceptible to EMI and Better than twisted pair due to Very high — immune to
Interference Resistance
RFI) shielding electromagnetic interference
Cost Least expensive Moderate cost Most expensive
Installation & Difficult and requires special
Easy to install and maintain Moderate difficulty
Maintenance equipment
Long-distance communication,
Usage LAN, telephone lines Cable TV, internet, CCTV
internet backbone
Signal Type Electrical Electrical Light (optical signals)
Security Low (easily tapped) Moderate High (difficult to tap)
Protocol Full Form Layer Function / Use Port Number Secure? Example Use Case
HyperText Transfer Transfer of web pages
HTTP Application 80 ❌ No Browsing websites
Protocol and content
HyperText Transfer Secure transfer of web Secure online banking or
HTTPS Application 443 ✅ Yes
Protocol Secure pages using encryption shopping
Transfer of files between 20 (data), 21 Uploading files to a web
FTP File Transfer Protocol Application ❌ No
computers (control) server
Simple Mail Transfer ❌ No (Yes with Sending outgoing mail
SMTP Application Sending emails 25
Protocol STARTTLS on 587) from an email client
Post Office Protocol Receiving emails Downloading emails to
POP3 Application 110 ❌ No (Yes on 995)
version 3 (download and delete) local computer
Transmission Control Ensures reliable
Transport / Basis of Internet
TCP/IP Protocol / Internet communication over the Various Depends on protocol
Network communication
Protocol internet
Establishes a direct
Dial-up Internet
PPP Point-to-Point Protocol Data Link connection between 2 N/A ❌ No
connections
nodes
Remote admin access
Terminal Network Remote login to another
TELNET Application 23 ❌ No (now mostly replaced by
Protocol computer
SSH)
Protocol Full Form Layer Function / Use Port Number Secure? Example Use Case
Voice over Internet Transmits voice data Varies (e.g., ❓ Depends on Internet-based voice calls
VoIP Application
Protocol over internet 5060 for SIP) implementation (e.g., WhatsApp, Skype)
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Feature Satellite Communication Microwave Communication Infrared Communication Radio Wave Communication
Medium Wireless Wireless Wireless Wireless
Frequency 1 – 40 GHz (typically Ku, Ka, C 1 – 300 GHz (typically 2–40
300 GHz – 400 THz 3 kHz – 300 GHz
Range bands) GHz)
Long (Line-of-sight up to ~50 Long (from local to national
Range Very long (Global coverage) Very short (a few meters)
km) coverage)
Not always required
Line of Sight Required Required Required
(especially in lower bands)
Speed / Moderate to High (depends
High High Moderate to High
Bandwidth on frequency)
Affected by obstacles, Affected by electrical
Interference Affected by weather, rain fade Affected by buildings, terrain
sunlight interference
Very high (launch, setup,
Cost Moderate to High Low Low to Moderate
maintenance)
Feature Satellite Communication Microwave Communication Infrared Communication Radio Wave Communication
High (due to long distance to
Latency Low Very low Low to moderate
satellite)
Common Use TV broadcasting, GPS, remote Cellular networks, Wi-Fi Remote controls, short- AM/FM radio, Wi-Fi, mobile
Cases area communication backhaul, satellite uplinks range data transfer communication
TYPES OF NETWORK
Type Full Form Coverage Area Typical Range Ownership Example Devices / Use Speed
Bluetooth devices,
Personal Area Very small – Up to 10 Low to Medium (e.g.,
PAN Individual smartwatches, AirDrop, IR
Network personal space meters Bluetooth ~1 Mbps)
devices
Local Area Building or Up to a few Organization / High (100 Mbps to 10
LAN Home Wi-Fi, Office Ethernet
Network campus kilometers Individual Gbps)
Metropolitan Area City-wide or 5 to 50 City-wide Wi-Fi, Cable TV Medium to High (~100
MAN Organization / ISP
Network campus-wide kilometers Network Mbps to 1 Gbps)
Multiple Medium to Low (varies
Wide Area
WAN Global Unlimited organizations / Internet, Bank networks based on connection
Network
Telecoms type)
SWITCHING TECHNOLOGY
Feature Circuit Switching Message Switching Packet Switching
A dedicated communication path is Entire message is sent as a whole, Message is broken into packets; each
Definition
established before data transfer stored and forwarded sent independently
No fixed path; path can vary per
Path Fixed, reserved for entire session No fixed path
packet
Low after setup (constant during High (due to store-and-forward Low to Moderate (depends on
Delay
communication) delays) network congestion)
Better than circuit; waits for free
Efficiency Low (idle time wastes bandwidth) High (efficient use of bandwidth)
route
Storage Requires large buffer to store
Minimal (since data flows continuously) Requires buffers for small packets
Requirement whole message
Medium (entire message must be High (retransmission possible for lost
Reliability High (once established, stable path)
received correctly) packets)
Telegraph systems (not commonly Internet data (e.g., email, web
Example Use Traditional telephone networks
used now) browsing)
Real-time
Excellent (constant, ordered stream) Poor (due to delay) Good (with QoS and protocols)
Suitability
