Unit I Introduction to Quantum Computing

Quantum-Quantum mechanics- Postulates of quantum mechanics. -Quantum Bits- Quantum

Computation-Need for quantum computers- Quantum Algorithms- Quantum Information-
Principles of quantum computing- Quantum computing components -Types of quantum
technology- Companies use quantum computing- Uses and benefits of quantum computing .

1.1 Introduction to Quantum Computing

Quantum computing is an exciting and rapidly evolving field at the intersection of physics and computer
science. It offers the promise of revolutionizing the way we perform computations by harnessing the
principles of quantum mechanics to process information in fundamentally different ways than classical
computers.

Quantum computing is a groundbreaking technology that leverages the principles of quantum

mechanics to perform computations that are currently infeasible for classical computers. While it
remains a rapidly evolving field, the potential for quantum computing to solve complex problems and
revolutionize various industries is significant.

1.2 Quantum

Quantum" refers to the principles and phenomena associated with quantum mechanics, which is a
fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at the smallest scales,
such as atoms and subatomic particles. Quantum mechanics, often referred to simply as "quantum
physics" or "quantum theory," is one of the most successful and thoroughly tested scientific theories in
history.

1.3 Quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics, often referred to as quantum physics or quantum theory, is a fundamental branch
of physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at very small scales, such as atoms and
subatomic particles. It is a foundational theory that has revolutionized our understanding of the physical
world.

Here are some key concepts and principles of quantum mechanics:

1. Wave-Particle Duality: One of the central tenets of quantum mechanics is the wave-particle
duality. This principle asserts that particles like electrons and photons can exhibit both particle-
like and wave-like behaviors. The behavior of these particles is described by wave functions,
which represent the probability of finding a particle in a particular state.
 2. Superposition: In quantum mechanics, particles can exist in a superposition of states. This
means that they can simultaneously be in multiple energy levels or positions. For example, an
electron can exist in a combination of multiple energy states at the same time.

3. Quantization: Certain physical quantities, such as energy and angular momentum, are quantized
in quantum mechanics. This means that they can only take on discrete, specific values. This is in
contrast to classical physics, where such quantities are continuous.

4. Uncertainty Principle: Formulated by Werner Heisenberg, the uncertainty principle states that
there are inherent limits to the precision with which certain pairs of properties, such as a
particle's position and momentum, can be simultaneously known. The more accurately one
property is known, the less accurately the other can be determined.

5. Quantum States: Quantum systems are described by mathematical objects called quantum
states, often represented by wave functions or state vectors. These states encapsulate all the
information about the system and are used to calculate the probabilities of different outcomes
when measurements are made.

6. Entanglement: Quantum entanglement is a phenomenon where two or more particles become

correlated in such a way that the state of one is dependent on the state of the other, even when
they are separated by large distances. This property has been a subject of much scientific study
and has practical applications in quantum technologies.

7. Wavefunction Collapse: When a measurement is made on a quantum system, the superposition

of possible states collapses into a single definite state. The outcome of the measurement is
probabilistic, and the act of measurement itself changes the state of the system.

Quantum mechanics has profound implications for our understanding of the physical world and has led
to the development of numerous technologies and applications, including transistors, lasers, and
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging, among others. It plays a crucial role in various emerging
fields like quantum computing, quantum cryptography, and quantum communication.

1.4 Postulates of quantum mechanics

Quantum mechanics is based on a set of fundamental postulates, or principles, that provide the
foundation for the theory and guide its interpretation. These postulates, developed over the course of
the 20th century, describe how quantum systems behave and how measurements are made in the
quantum realm. Here are the key postulates of quantum mechanics:

1. State Postulate:
The state of a quantum system is described by a mathematical entity called a wave function or
quantum state. The wave function encodes all the information about the system's possible
quantum states and their probabilities.
2. Superposition Postulate:
The superposition postulate states that a quantum system can exist in a linear combination
(superposition) of multiple quantum states. This means that a quantum system can be in
multiple states simultaneously, each with its associated probability amplitude.

3. Wave function Collapse Postulate:

When a measurement is made on a quantum system, the system's wave function collapses from
a superposition of states into a single definite state. The outcome of the measurement is
probabilistic, and it is determined by the squared magnitudes of the probability amplitudes in
the wave function.
4. Measurement Postulate:
The measurement postulate provides a rule for how measurements in quantum mechanics
work. When a measurement is made on a quantum system, it yields one of the possible
eigenvalues of the corresponding observable (physical property) with probabilities determined
by the squared magnitudes of the coefficients in the wave function.

5. Time Evolution Postulate:

The time evolution postulate describes how the wave function of a quantum system changes
over time. It is governed by the Schrödinger equation, which describes the evolution of the
quantum state and how it is affected by the system's Hamiltonian operator (representing its
energy).

6. Probability Postulate:
The probability postulate states that the probability of finding a quantum system in a particular
state is given by the squared magnitude of the probability amplitude associated with that state
in the wave function.

7. Postulate of Quantum Entanglement (not always listed separately):

This postulate describes the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, where two or more
particles can become correlated in such a way that the measurement of one particle's state
instantaneously affects the state of another, even when they are separated by large distances.
These postulates form the core of quantum mechanics and are used to describe and predict the
behavior of quantum systems. They are consistent with a wide range of experimental observations and
have led to the development of numerous applications and technologies in the fields of physics,
chemistry, and information science. The postulates also highlight the probabilistic and non-intuitive
nature of quantum physics, which distinguishes it from classical physics.

1.5 Quantum computing

Quantum computing is a multidisciplinary field comprising aspects of computer science, physics, and
mathematics that utilizes quantum mechanics to solve complex problems faster than on classical
computers.

Quantum computing is a rapidly-emerging technology that harnesses the laws of quantum mechanics to
solve problems too complex for classical computers.

A computer that uses laws of quantum mechanics to perform massively parallel computing through
quantum phenomena superposition, entanglement, and decoherence.

1.6 Classical Computer

Classical computing is another name for binary computing. In this traditional approach to computing,
information is stored in bits that are represented logically by either a 0 (off) or a 1 (on)

1.7 Challenges in Quantum Computing

Quantum Computing is a revolutionary Technology that holds the promise of solving complex problems
at an unprecedented scale. By harnessing the principles of quantum mechanics, these computers can
perform computations that are practically impossible for classical machines. In this article, we delve into
ten key Challenges In Quantum Computing and explore the efforts being made to address them.

1. Quantum Decoherence:

One of the most significant hurdles in quantum computing is maintaining quantum bits or qubits’ fragile
states. Quantum decoherence occurs when qubits lose their Quantum properties due to environmental
interactions, leading to errors in calculations. Researchers are actively exploring error correction
techniques and quantum error-resistant algorithms to mitigate this challenge.

2. Qubit Scalability:

Building a quantum computer with a large number of qubits remains a formidable task. Scaling up
quantum processors is complicated by increased error rates and the need for robust control
mechanisms. Scientists are working on various qubit technologies, such as superconducting qubits,
trapped ions, and topological qubits, to achieve the scalability required for practical applications.
3. Quantum Hardware Reliability:

Quantum computers are highly sensitive to external influences, making them prone to hardware
failures. Ensuring reliability is crucial for stable quantum computations. Manufacturers are striving to
develop fault-tolerant quantum systems and resilient qubit architectures to enhance hardware
reliability.

4. Quantum Software Development:

Quantum algorithms are vastly different from classical ones, and developing efficient quantum software
poses a significant challenge. As quantum programming languages and software tools are still in their
nascent stages, researchers are exploring novel approaches to simplify quantum code development and
optimize performance.

5. Quantum Error Correction:

Quantum error correction is pivotal in maintaining the integrity of computations. However, error
correction requires additional qubits and complex encoding schemes, making it computationally
expensive. Advancements in error correction codes and quantum error mitigation techniques are being
pursued to address this challenge.

6. Noise and Interference:

Quantum systems are highly susceptible to external noise and interference, leading to inaccuracies in
calculations. Reducing noise and minimizing interference through quantum control techniques and
advanced isolation methods are vital to enhancing the reliability and accuracy of quantum
computations.

7. Quantum Communication and Networking:

Quantum computing’s potential can be truly harnessed through quantum communication and
networking. Securely transmitting quantum information over long distances and establishing quantum
networks require overcoming obstacles like quantum entanglement distribution and quantum
repeaters.

8. Quantum Software Verification:

Verifying the correctness of quantum software is intricate due to the nature of superposition and
entanglement. Developing robust verification methods and ensuring quantum software’s reliability are
essential to building trust in quantum computing systems.

9. Quantum Ethics and Security:

With the immense computing power of quantum machines, potential security threats arise, such as
breaking classical cryptographic algorithms. Addressing the ethical implications of quantum computing
and developing post-quantum cryptography are crucial to safeguarding sensitive information.

10. Quantum Supremacy and Benchmarking:

Demonstrating quantum supremacy, where quantum computers outperform classical computers in

specific tasks, is a key milestone. However, accurately benchmarking quantum devices and defining
meaningful metrics for quantum computing’s success remain challenging tasks for the research
community.

Steady progress may soon yield quantum machines with thousands of qubits and approach 1 million
qubits after 2030. Such advances will greatly expand deployment by cloud services providers, academic
institutions, and corporations.

The next table summarizes the challenges facing quantum developers. The lower section outlines
deployment challenges.
1.8 Need for quantum computers

Quantum computers are being developed to address certain types of problems that are currently
intractable or extremely time-consuming for classical computers. Quantum computers leverage the
principles of quantum mechanics, such as superposition and entanglement, to perform computations in
ways that classical computers cannot.

Here are some reasons why there is interest in and a need for quantum computers:

Speed for Specific Problems:

Quantum computers have the potential to solve certain problems much faster than classical computers.
For example, factoring large numbers, searching large databases, and simulating quantum systems are
tasks where quantum computers could provide significant speedup.

 Quantum Parallelism:

Quantum computers can perform many calculations simultaneously due to the principle of
superposition. Classical computers, on the other hand, can only perform one calculation at a time. This
inherent parallelism of quantum computers allows them to explore multiple possibilities and find
solutions more efficiently for certain types of problems.

 Optimization Problems:

Quantum computers are expected to excel in solving optimization problems, such as finding the most
efficient route for delivery trucks or optimizing complex systems. These types of problems involve
exploring a vast solution space, and quantum algorithms may provide a speedup over classical
algorithms.

 Cryptography:

Quantum computers pose a potential threat to widely used cryptographic systems. Shor's algorithm, a
quantum algorithm, can efficiently factor large numbers, which is the basis for breaking widely used
public-key cryptography schemes like RSA. The development of quantum-resistant cryptographic
algorithms is one of the areas where quantum computers are being explored to address security
concerns.

 Material Science and Drug Discovery:

Quantum computers have the potential to simulate quantum systems accurately. This could
revolutionize fields such as material science and drug discovery by allowing researchers to model and
understand complex molecular interactions, leading to the development of new materials and drugs.

 Machine Learning:
Quantum computers could enhance certain machine learning algorithms. Quantum machine learning
aims to leverage quantum computing's capabilities to speed up training and inference processes for
certain types of models.

 Random Number Generation:

Quantum computers can generate true random numbers, which is important for various cryptographic
applications and simulations.

It's important to note that quantum computers are still in the early stages of development, and large-
scale, fault-tolerant quantum computers are not yet widely available. Researchers are actively working
on overcoming technical challenges, such as maintaining the stability of quantum bits (qubits) and
minimizing errors in quantum computations. While progress is being made, quantum computers are not
expected to replace classical computers but rather complement them for specific types of problems.

1.9 Quantum algorithms

Quantum algorithms leverage the principles of quantum mechanics to perform specific computations
more efficiently than classical algorithms.

• The Key to Unlocking Quantum Computing's Potential

• These are algorithms designed to run on a quantum computer. Quantum algorithms are
expected to be much faster than classical algorithms for certain problems, such as factoring
large numbers.

Notable examples include Shor's algorithm for factoring large numbers, Grover's algorithm for database
search, and Quantum Fourier Transform. These algorithms have potential applications in cryptography,
optimization, and quantum simulation. However, practical, fault-tolerant quantum computers are still in
the early stages of development.

1.10 Quantum Information

Quantum information refers to the application of quantum mechanics principles to information

processing. Unlike classical bits, which can exist in a state of 0 or 1, quantum bits or qubits can exist in a
superposition of both 0 and 1 simultaneously. This unique property, along with entanglement and other
quantum phenomena, enables quantum information processing.

1.11 Brief History of Quantum Computers

1981: Richard Feynman proposed to use quantum computing to model quantum systems. He
also describe theoretical model of quantum computer

1985: David Deutsch described first universal quantum computer

1994: Peter Shor developed the first algorithm for quantum computer (factorization into
primes)

1995 Schumacher proposed “Quantum bit” or “qubit” as physical resource

1996: Lov Grover developed an algorithm for search in unsorted database

1998: the first quantum computers on two qubits, based on NMR (Oxford; IBM, MIT, Stanford)

2000: quantum computer on 7 qubits, based on NMR (Los-Alamos)

2001: 15 = 3 x 5 on 7- qubit quantum computer by IBM

2005-2006: experiments with photons; quantum dots; fullerenes and nanotubes as "particle
traps"

2007: D-Wave announced the creation of a quantum computer on 16 qubits

2012: D-Wave claimed a quantum computation using 84 qubits

2017: D-Wave Systems Inc. announced the D-Wave 2000Q quantum annealer with 2000 qubits

2017: Microsoft revealed Q Sharp with 32 qubits

2018: Google announced the creation of a 72-qubit quantum chip

2019: Google claimed quantum supremacy with 54 qubits to perform operations in 200 seconds
that would take a supercomputer about 10,000 years to complete

2019: IBM revealed 53 qubits

2020: Chinese researchers claimed to have achieved quantum supremacy using a photonic 76-
qubit system at 100 trillion times the speed of classical supercomputers.

2020: IBM will build 1121-qubit quantum computer in 2023, and 1 million-qubit quantum
computer in 2030.
1.12 Quantum Bits

Quantum bits, or qubits, are the fundamental units of quantum information in quantum computing.
Unlike classical bits, which can exist in one of two states (0 or 1), qubits can exist in multiple states
simultaneously, thanks to the principles of quantum superposition.

In classical computing, a bit is the basic unit of information. It can represent either a 0 or a 1.In contrast,
a Qubits is the basic unit of information in quantum computing. Quantum computing is based on qubit
which can be both 0 and 1.

• Quantum computing use Quantum bits or QUBITS

• A Qubit can be in linear quantum superposition of both the states at the same time.

• superposition of two quantum levels ,ie A qubit is a two-state quantum mechanical system.

one is the vertical polarization of the photon. another one is the horizontal polarization of the
photon

• We can label the states |0> and |1>, its superposition also describes the same state

• Each qubit can be represented as a linear combination of 0 and 1 in this way:

► Postulates of quantum mechanics, as applied to two-levelquantum systems (qubits!).

 ► Quantum states, operators and time-evolution.

► A brief glimpse into the mathematical framework of quantumtheory . . . and quantum

computing!

► A quantum bit is described by a general superposition of theform,

|ψ⟩ = α|0⟩ + β|1⟩, α, β ∈ C,

Satisfying |α|2 + |β|2 = 1.

► |0⟩, |1⟩ are a pair of orthogonal quantum states correspondingto the classical bits 0, 1.

► Matrix representation: we make the association

0 1
|1⟩ = |0⟩ =
1 0

► The bra-ket notation: Qubit states are represented asket-vectors (|.⟩).

|0⟩ is called “ket-0” and |1⟩ is called “ket-1”.

Bra-Ket Notation

Bra–ket notation, also called Dirac notation |ψ〉, is a notation for linear algebra and linear operators on
complex vector spaces together with their dual space both in the finite-dimensional and infinite-
dimensional case. It is specifically designed to ease the types of calculations that frequently come up in
quantum mechanics. Its use in quantum mechanics is quite widespread.

|.⟩ Ket is a d dimensional column vector d ∈ Cd

Bra <. | is a d dimensional row vector. which is the complex conjugate of the corresponding ket.

We can write this as a column vector like this:

Or we can write it as a "ket":

But kets are special:

  The values (a, b and c above) are complex numbers (they may be real numbers, imaginary
numbers or a combination of both)
 A ket is a quantum state
 Kets can have any number of dimensions, including infinite dimensions!

The "bra" is similar, but the values are in a row, and each element is the complex conjugate of the ket's
elements.

Example: This ket:

Has this bra:

The values are now in a row, and we also changed the sign (+ to −, and − to +) in the middle of each
element.

Multiplying

Multiplying a bra <a | and ket | b ⟩ looks like this:

We use matrix multiplication, in particluar the dot product:

The "Dot Product" is where we multiply matching members, then sum up:

In effect, the dot product "projects" one vector on to the other before multiplying the lengths:
When the two vectors are at right angles the dot product is zero:
This can be a simple test to see if vectors are orthogonal (the more general concept of "at right angles")

The dot product of a vector with itself is the length of the vector times the length of the vector. In other
words it is length2:
Key characteristics of qubits include:

 Superposition: Qubits can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1 states simultaneously. This
allows quantum computers to perform parallel computations, exploring multiple possibilities at
once.
 Entanglement: Qubits can be entangled, meaning the state of one qubit is directly related to the
state of another, regardless of the physical distance between them. Entanglement enables
correlations between qubits and is a crucial resource for certain quantum algorithms and
protocols.
 Quantum Gates: Quantum gates manipulate the quantum state of qubits, similar to classical
logic gates in classical computing. Quantum circuits are constructed using quantum gates to
perform specific operations on qubits.
 Measurement: When a qubit is measured, it collapses from its superposition state to either 0 or
1. The outcome of the measurement is probabilistic, influenced by the probabilities associated
with the superposition.
 Quantum Parallelism: Qubits enable quantum parallelism by representing and processing
multiple possibilities simultaneously. This is a key factor in the potential speedup of quantum
algorithms compared to classical algorithms for certain problems.
 Quantum State: The state of a qubit is described by a quantum state vector, which includes
information about the probability amplitudes for each possible state (0 or 1). The quantum state
evolves over time as qubits undergo quantum operations.
 No Cloning Theorem: Unlike classical bits, quantum bits cannot be perfectly copied. This is
known as the "no-cloning theorem," and it has implications for quantum information processing
and quantum communication protocols.
The combination of superposition, entanglement, and other quantum properties allows quantum
computers to perform certain calculations more efficiently than classical computers. However, building
and maintaining stable qubits, protecting quantum information from errors, and achieving fault-tolerant
quantum computation are significant challenges in the development of practical quantum computers.
Researchers are actively exploring various qubit technologies, including superconducting circuits,
trapped ions, and topological qubits, to address these challenges and advance the field of quantum
computing.

1.13 The Power of Qubits

• Mathematically, the number of bits required to match the computing power of qubits is as
follows:

n qubits = 2n bits or an exponential relationship

• If we consider two classical bits, we know that they can be either 1 or 0, so together they can
take on the following values:00,01,10,11

• However, two entangled qubits can take all of those values at once, because of the
entanglement, so in this case 2 qubits can take the value of 4 bits.

• If we consider three classical bits, they can be any of the following combined entries:

0, 0, 0 1, 0, 0

0, 1, 0 1, 1, 0

0, 0, 1 1, 0, 1

0, 1, 1 1, 1, 1

• So, in this case there are 8 combinations, but this can be fully described using 3 qubits (again
because they are entangled).

• To understand the power of qubits, let's consider a simple example. Suppose you have a
classical computer with 4 bits. It can represent numbers from 0 to 15 (2^4).

• However, a quantum computer with 4 qubits can represent all 16 possible states
simultaneously. This parallelism is what makes quantum computing so enticing for solving
complex problems that are infeasible for classical computers.
1.14 Difference between Bits and Quantum Bits

The important differences between bits and quantum bits are given in the
following table:

S.No Bits Quantum Bits

.
1. A Bit, also called Binary Digit or A Quantum Bit, also called Qubit, is the smallest
Classical Bit, is the smallest unit of unit of information measurement in quantum
information measurement in digital computing.
computing technology.
2. A bit can have only two values, i.e. 0 and A quantum bit can have multiple values
1. simultaneously.
3. Classical bit does not follow Quantum bit follows superposition property.
superposition property.
4. Computers that use bits are called Computers that use quantum bit are called
classical computers. quantum computers.
5.

Quantum gates are represented by unitary

matrices

5. Bits are inherently stable, i.e. they do not Quantum bits are inherently unstable, i.e. they
change their states in the absence of can change their states even no external force
external force. exists.
6. The value or state of a bit can be The value or state of a quantum bit cannot be
determined precisely. Hence, they are precisely determined. Hence, they are
deterministic. probabilistic.
7. Bits are physically implemented through Quantum bits are implemented by using quantum
electronic and optical devices. systems like ions, atoms, superconductors, etc.
8. Bits are used to specify information in Quantum bits are used to specify quantum
digital form. information.
9. Bits are almost completely developed and Quantum bits are in their development stage.
being used in almost all computing Hence, they are not being used in practical
technologies. applications.
10. Boolean operations are executed on bits. Quantum operations are executed on quantum
bits.
11. The processing of classical bits is The processing of quantum bits is faster.
comparatively slower in certain complex
problems.
12. Transmission of bits through Transmission of quantum bits through
communication channels is easier. communication channels is a more difficult task.
13. Bits can be copied perfectly. Quantum bits cannot be copied perfectly.
14. The circuit behavior of devices that use The circuit behavior of devices that use quantum
bits is based on the classical physics. bits is based on the quantum mechanics.
15. The operations on bits are performed The operations on quantum bits are performed
using digital logic gates, such as AND, using quantum logic gates.
OR, NOT, etc.
1.15 Quantum register vs classical register.

In quantum computing, a quantum register is a system comprising multiple QuBits. A quantum

computer stores its quantum data in one or more quantum registers. Note that quantum and classical
registers are conceptually different. A classical register of n bits is comprised of an array of n Flip-flops.

A quantum register of size n is simply a n QuBits array. A detailed overview of the n QuBits register
compared to a n bits register is given in Table
1.16 Difference between Traditional and Quantum Computers

Quantum computers are a really cool idea. They harness the unique behavior of quantum physics—such
as superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference—and apply it to computing.

In a classical computer transistors can represent two states – either a 0 or 1. Instead of transistors
Quantum computers use quantum bits (called qubits.) Qubits exist in superposition – both in 0 and 1
state simultaneously.
Principles of quantum computing- Quantum computing components -Types of quantum
technology

1.17 Principles of Quantum Computing

A quantum computer works using quantum principles. Quantum principles require a new
dictionary of terms to be fully understood, terms that include superposition, entanglement, and
decoherence. Let's understand these principles below.
Superposition

A qubit can be in both 0 and 1 state at the same time. When multiple qubits act together, they can
process multiple options simultaneously. This allows them to process information much faster
than a classical computer.

Superposition states that, much like waves in classical physics, you can add two or more
quantum states and the result will be another valid quantum state. Conversely, you can also
represent every quantum state as a sum of two or more other distinct states. This superposition of
qubits gives quantum computers their inherent parallelism, allowing them to process millions of
operations simultaneously.

Entanglement

Entanglement is integral to quantum computing power. Pairs of qubits can be made to become
entangled. This means that the two qubits then exist in a single state. In such a state, changing
one qubit directly affects the other in a manner that's predictable.

Quantum entanglement occurs when two or more particles become interconnected in such a way
that the state of one particle is instantly dependent on the state of another, irrespective of the
physical distance separating them. This remarkable interconnection can persist even if the
particles are separated by vast distances, defying conventional notions of space and causality.

Entanglement is an observed physical phenomenon where a pair or group of qubits can be in a

quantum state that cannot be described independently. The measurement of the physical
properties like momentum, position, spin, polarization are perfectly correlated among entangled
qubits; irrespective of the distance between them.
Quantum computing uses entangled qubits to gain a “quantum speedup” in processing capability.
Doubling the number of bits in a classical computer doubles its processing power. But in the case
of a quantum computer, increasing the number of entangled qubits triggers an exponential
increase in processing power.

Two entangled qubits can only be measured on the basis of a probability distribution of all the
possible states (corresponding to the values 00, 01, 10, 11).

When a quantum state is measured, the wavefunction collapses and you measure the state as
either a zero or a one. In this known or deterministic state, the qubit acts as a classical bit.
Entanglement is the ability of qubits to correlate their state with other qubits.

Quantum Interference

Interference is the phenomenon of quantum waves interacting with each other. In quantum
computing, interference has the potential to cause the wave functions of the qubits either to
reinforce or to cancel each other.

A wave function is the basic mathematical description of everything in quantum physics. To

measure the entangled qubits, we add the individual wave functions of each qubit, producing a
single wave function of a single quantum state. The adding together of the individual wave
functions gives us the interference pattern.
 Fig.Individual wave functions add up to the overall wave function of a single
quantum state.

Decoherence

Decoherence is the loss of the quantum state in a qubit. The quantum state can be disturbed
instantly by vibrations or temperature changes . Environmental factors, like radiation, can cause
the quantum state of the qubits to collapse. This can cause qubits to fall out of superposition and
cause errors to appear in computing. It's important that qubits be protected from such
interference by, for instance, supercooled refridgerators, insulation, and vacuum chambers
S.No Quantum Superposition Quantum Entanglement
1. Individual quantum states can exist in Correlation between the states of two or
multiple states simultaneously. more particles.
2. It allows a single quantum system to be It describes the strong connection
in a linear combination of multiple between the states of entangled
states. particles.
3. Superposition is about a single quantum Entanglement involves multiple quantum
system. systems.
4. Measurement of one entangled particle
Measurement collapses the superposed
instantly determines the state of its
state into one of its basis states with a
correlated partner, regardless of the
certain probability.
distance between them.
5. Entanglement can lead to seemingly
Superposition does not involve non-local
instantaneous correlations between
effects or faster-than-light
distant particles, violating classical
communication.
notions of locality.
6. Superposed states can be separated by Entangled particles cannot be
performing suitable operations on the individually separated without breaking
quantum system. the entanglement.
7. Described using wave functions and Described using quantum entangled
coefficients to represent the probability states, typically using the notation like
amplitudes of different states. "Ψ+".
8. Forms the basis for quantum
Utilized in quantum computing and
teleportation, quantum cryptography,
quantum algorithms.
and quantum key distribution.
9. Entanglement results in correlations
Superposition can lead to interference
between measurements on entangled
patterns, e.g., in the double-slit
particles that violate classical
experiment.
expectations.
10. Superposition is reversible, and a Entanglement, once broken, cannot be
quantum state can be restored with restored without creating a new
suitable operations. entangled state.
11. Entanglement can persist over large
Superposition doesn't depend on the
distances, sometimes even across the
spatial separation of states.
universe.

1.18 Quantum computing components

Quantum computers have hardware and software, similar to a classical computer. In classical
computers, bits, registers, and logic gates are the building blocks of the hardware. In quantum
computers it is qubits, quantum registers, and reversible gates.
These are expected to have an architecture like the one shown in Figure

FIGURE. Global architecture of a quantum computer.

Starting from the smallest components to higher level systems, quantum computers are made up
of:

Quantum hardware

Quantum hardware has three main components.

Quantum data plane

The quantum data plane is the core of the quantum computer and includes the physical qubits
and the structures required to hold them in place.

Qubits

Qubits are the basic units of the quantum memory which, in contrast to classical bits that can be
either 0 or 1, can hold both 0 and 1 state thanks to superposition. For example, 8 classical bits are
enough to represent any number between 0 and 255. On the other hand 8 qubits can represent all
numbers between 0 and 255 at the same time.

There are different approaches with different pros & cons to simulate qubits. These include:

Photonics

Photons have a natural isolation property due to their weak interactions with the surrounding
environment, which makes them a great candidate to carry information, represent qubits, and
operate at room temperature. Another advantage is that photonic quantum computers can be
integrated into existing fiber optic-based telecommunications infrastructure.

However, one of the challenges that face photonic quantum computing is the limitations in fault
tolerance and error correction.

Current companies developing photonic quantum computing technology include PsiQuantum,

Xanadu, and the Amazon Quantum Solutions Lab.

Trapped ions

Quantum hardware that uses trapped ion qubits typically rely upon microwave or optical signals
transmitted through free space or waveguides and delivered to the location of the qubits. Current
QC prototypes of trapped-ion consist of a chain of 5 to 20 static ions in a single potential well.
Challenges that face trapped-ion systems are:

 the difficulty of isolating individual ion motions as chain length increases

 the number of ions one can individually address with gate laser beams
 measuring individual qubits

Current companies that work on ion-trapped quantum technologies include Honeywell and IonQ,

Semiconducting material

Qubits can be simulated by manipulating individual electrons in semiconducting materials such

as selenium or germanium, or defected materials such as diamonds, aluminum nitride or silicon
carbide. Applying microwaves and magnetic fields to these materials will allow them to exhibit
superposition, entanglement, and other quantum properties.

Companies that rely on semiconducting technology for their QCs include Intel, Google, and IBM

Superconducting material

Superconducting qubit systems are controlled using microwave and low-frequency electrical
signals, both of which are communicated through wires that run into cooling refrigerators to
reach the qubits inside the controlled environment. In 2018, Intel announced the construction of a
49 qubit superconducting chip called Tangle Lake.

Control and measurement plane

The control and measurement plane converts digital signals into analog or wave control signals.
These analog signals perform the operations on the qubits in the quantum data plane.

Quantum registers
A quantum register is a set of qubits, and it holds all possible configurations of input data at the
same time. In other words, applying a quantum algorithm to an n-qubit register will get the QC
to compute all possible 2^n combinations of 0/1 states “in parallel”.

Quantum reversible gates

A reversible gate is the one whose input can be reconstructed just by looking at the output. For
example, in classical computation the NOT inverter gate is reversible, whereas the XOR gate is
irreversible because inputs cannot be identified by looking at the output. It is necessary for
quantum gates to be reversible because quantum mechanics is reversible and quantum operations
are unitary. Unitary operations are such that their inverses are also their conjugates.

Logical reversibility allows for:

Reversing quantum circuits: by applying the sequence of ’inverse’ quantum gates in reverse
order to the output.

Reducing computational power: since each input is associated with a unique output, no qubit can
be erased. Therefore, no energy would be lost during computation.

Quantum processing unit

A quantum processing unit (QPU) is a computational unit that relies on quantum principles to
perform a task. the QPU includes the:

Control processor plane and host processor

The control processor plane implements the quantum algorithm or sequence of operations. The
host processor interacts with the quantum software and provides a digital signal or classical bits
sequence to the control and measurement plane.

QRAM (register + gates)

Quantum control unit (QCU) which drives the system to the desired state.

Classical controller interface which defines the interaction between the host CPU and the QPU

Quantum software

Quantum software implements unique quantum algorithms using quantum circuits. A quantum
circuit is a computing routine that defines a series of logical quantum operations on the
underlying qubits. Developers can use various software development tools and libraries to code
quantum algorithms.
Software running quantum algorithms

Quantum software development kits and computational platforms provide solutions for end-
users. These help end users develop and test their quantum algorithms.

Software enabling quantum computers to perform

Quantum computers have performance issues due to random errors and error-correcting software
is built to correct such errors. An error-correcting software or firmware is a low-level program
that increases the stability of quantum computers.

1.19 Types of quantum technology

1. SUPERCONDUCTING

One of the most popular types of quantum computers is a superconducting qubit quantum
computer. Usually made from superconducting materials, these quantum computers utilize tiny
electrical circuits to produce and manipulate qubits. When using superconducting qubits, gate
operations can be performed quickly.

Superconductivity is a set of physical properties that you can observe in certain materials like
mercury and helium at very low temperatures. In these materials, you can observe a
characteristic critical temperature below which electrical resistance is zero and magnetic flux
fields are expelled. An electric current through a loop of superconducting wire can persist
indefinitely with no power source.

Superconducting quantum computing is an implementation of a quantum computer in

superconducting electronic circuits. Superconducting qubits are built with superconducting
electric circuits that operate at cryogenic temperatures.

Companies actively researching and manufacturing superconducting quantum computers include

Google, IBM, IQM and Rigetti Computing to name just a few.

2. PHOTONIC

A quantum photonic processor is a device that manipulates light for computations. Photonic
quantum computers use quantum light sources that emit squeezed-light pulses, with qubit
equivalents that correspond to modes of a continuous operator, such as position or momentum.

These types of quantum computers use photons (particles of light) to carry and process quantum
information, and there’s some nuance and complexity to how this works, which Richard
Murray — CEO of photonic-based ORCA Computing — explains here in an exclusive interview
with The Quantum Insider. For large-scale quantum computers, photonic qubits are a promising
alternative to trapped ions and neutral atoms that require cryogenic or laser cooling.

There are dozens of companies working with photonic quantum computing technology. Some of
these include Xanadu, ORCA Computing, Quantum Computing Inc and PsiQuantum.

Photonics is a very good example of how Photonics is a general category used to bucket quantum
computers. Xanadu’s “squeezed light” approach is materially different from PsiQuantum’s
approach, for example.

3. NEUTRAL ATOMS

Neutral atom qubit technology is similar to trapped ion technology. However, it uses light
instead of electromagnetic forces to trap the qubit and hold it in position. The atoms are not
charged and the circuits can operate at room temperatures

Quantum computing based on neutral atoms involves atoms suspended in an ultrahigh vacuum
by arrays of tightly focused laser beams called optical tweezers, though not all neutral atom
companies use optical tweezers. Neutral atom quantum computers are less sensitive to stray
electric fields, which makes them a good option for quantum processors.

A number of companies working with neutral (cold) atom quantum computing technology
include Pasqal (merged with Qu&Co), Atom Computing, ColdQuanta, and QuEra.

4. Rydberg atom processors

A Rydberg atom is an excited atom with one or more electrons that are further away from the
nucleus, on average. Rydberg atoms have a number of peculiar properties including an
exaggerated response to electric and magnetic fields, and long life. When used as qubits, they
offer strong and controllable atomic interactions that you can tune by selecting different states.

5.Quantum annealers

Quantum annealing uses a physical process to place a quantum system's qubits in an absolute
energy minimum. From there, the hardware gently alters the system's configuration so that its
energy landscape reflects the problem that needs to be solved. The advantage of quantum
annealers is that the number of qubits can be much larger than those available in a gate-based
system. However, their use is limited to specific cases only.

6. TRAPPED IONS
A trapped ion quantum computer involves using atoms or molecules with a net electrical charge
known as “ions” that are trapped and manipulated using electric and magnetic fields to store and
process quantum information. As trapped ions can be isolated from their environment, they are
useful for precision measurements and other applications requiring high levels of stability and
control. Also, the qubits can remain in a superposition state for a long time before becoming
decoherent.

Representing the trapped ions community of companies in the quantum space, we have
Quantinuum (a company that came out of the merger between Cambridge Quantum Computing
and Honeywell Quantum Solutions), IonQ, Quantum Factory, Alpine Quantum Technologies,
eleQtron amongst others

7. QUANTUM DOTS

A quantum dot quantum computer uses silicon qubits made up of pairs of quantum dots. In
theory for quantum computers, such ‘coupled’ quantum dots could be used as robust quantum
bits, or qubits.

Companies focused on this area include Diraq, Siquance and Quantum Motion.

1.20 Features of Quantum Computing

Quantum computing is also expected to bring a new era of secure communication. The classical
computer encryption techniques are no longer safe in the age of Quantum computing. Therefore, it also
has a number of qualities that are as follows:
  Superposition: Quantum computers have the capacity for simultaneous
existence in numerous states.
 Entanglement: A phenomenon where particles connect to one another
regardless of their distance.
 Quantum Parallelism: The ability to process multiple instructions
simultaneously.
 Quantum Interference: Interference between the quantum states of
particles enables their interaction.
 Quantum Error Correction: Error-correction codes that improve the
dependability and precision of quantum computing.
 Quantum Simulations: Simulations that use quantum computers to model
physical systems.

1.21 Advantages and Disadvantages

Armed with the landscape analogy, let’s explore the advantages and potential challenges associated
with quantum computing.

Advantages

Quantum computing is a new and revolutionary technology that has the potential to revolutionize the
world of computing.

The technology is based on the principles of quantum mechanics and uses quantum bits (qubits) instead
of traditional binary bits.
Like the bird in our analogy, the ability of quantum computers to simultaneously explore multiple
solutions gives them a significant edge over traditional computers in certain computational tasks. Here
are some notable advantages:

 Superior Speed and Efficiency: Quantum computers, due to superposition, can process a vast
number of possibilities all at once, potentially solving complex problems much faster than
traditional computers.
Quantum computers use quantum parallelism, which allows them to perform multiple
calculations at the same time. Even with the help of Quantum computing it is possible to
process large amounts of data much faster than traditional computing.
 Complex Simulations: Quantum computers can simulate complex quantum systems, such as
modeling molecular interactions or predicting material properties, tasks that are currently
intractable for classical machines.
 Optimization Problems: Quantum computers are promising for solving optimization issues, such
as finding the most efficient delivery routes for logistics or the best investment strategy in
finance.
 Cryptography: Quantum computers could revolutionize cryptography, both positively, by
providing quantum encryption techniques, and disruptively, by potentially breaking current
encryption algorithms.
 Better problem solving: Quantum computers can explore all possible solutions to a problem
simultaneously. This makes it possible to find the most optimal solution in a fraction of the time.
 High-Level Security: Quantum computers use quantum encryption, which is virtually
unbreakable, making them ideal for sensitive applications such as financial transactions and
government communications.
 Increased accuracy: Quantum computing algorithms are able to operate in quantum
superpositions, which results in increased accuracy in solving complex problems.
 Improved machine learning: Quantum computing can be used to train machine learning models
faster and more accurately than traditional computing methods.

Disadvantages
However, just as training a bird can be a challenging task, there are significant hurdles to building
practical, scalable quantum computers. Here are a few key challenges:

 Error Correction : Quantum systems are highly susceptible to environmental noise, leading to
errors in computation. Developing effective quantum error correction methods is a significant
ongoing research area.
 Scalability: Building a large-scale quantum computer is a formidable challenge due to the
delicate nature of maintaining quantum states.
 Cooling Requirements: Quantum computers need to be cooled to near absolute zero
temperatures to minimize environmental noise, making them expensive and difficult to
maintain.
 Programming Complexity: Quantum algorithms fundamentally differ from classical ones,
requiring a new approach to programming and problem-solving.
1.22 Quantum Computing Applications

Applications of quantum computing are being explored in numerous industries,

including banking and healthcare, and they promise to deliver unheard levels of
effectiveness and precision. Let’s discuss the applications of Quantum Computing
one by one in the incoming section:

 Research in High Energy Physics

One of the top applications of quantum computing is its utility in research in the
field of particle physics or high energy physics. Particle physics models are highly
complex. Hence, require lengthy computing time and a vast number of resources
for numerical simulations.

Quantum computers enable physicists to deal with vast experimental data with
accuracy and speed. They also allow one to simulate nuclear experiments and
fundamental interactions, including scattering the nuclei and quarks. The
computing power required to process LHC data is expected to increase by a factor
of a hundred by 2027. In 2019, CERN initiated its collaboration with IBM to work on
quantum computers.

 Training Artificial Intelligence

Quantum computing applications include the crucial task of training artificial

intelligence. The intelligence demonstrated by machines requires training; quantum
computing can simplify the task of analyzing millions or even billions of data points
with accuracy and speed. In 2020, Google, in collaboration with Volkswagen and the
University of Waterloo, launched TensorFlow Quantum to accelerate development
in quantum computing. TensorFlow Quantum is an open-source library used for
prototyping quantum machine learning models.

For specific artificial intelligence models, quantum machine learning is much more
suitable than classic machine learning. Quantum machine learning explores
methodological and structural similarities between specific learning and physical
systems, specifically neural networks.

 Drug discovery and development

Drug development can be boosted and prediction accuracy is being improved by

using Quantum computing to model and analyze chemical interactions.

The development of drugs is on the list of top applications of quantum computing.

It can take over ten years and billions of dollars for pharmaceutical companies to
discover or develop a new drug, for which scientists run hundreds of millions of
comparisons on conventional computers.

As quantum computing algorithms and hardware become more prevalent, they will
make the comparison of much larger molecules possible. This can drastically
reduce the time and costs involved in drug development, thus empowering
scientists to find cures for various diseases faster than expected.

 Advertising and Marketing

Applications of quantum computing in advertising and marketing are revolutionary.

Quantum algorithms can help create and deliver better advertisements by
interpreting associations influencing purchasing patterns. Instead of just using
browser history for ad delivery, quantum algorithms focus on factors like how users
feel after looking at an advertisement and what types of ads could help make long-
term relations with the customers.

 Discovery of New Materials

Applications of quantum computing include the discovery of new materials.

Quantum computing is based on quantum-mechanical phenomena; hence, it can
represent other quantum systems more efficiently than conventional computers.
For instance, consider Schrödinger’s equation. A quantum machine can solve
Schrödinger’s equation for a molecule to accurately calculate its allowed energy
states. Quantum computers can also simulate complex molecules that conventional
computers are unable to.

 Development of Nitrogen Fertilizers

The development of clean fertilizers is one of the quantum computing applications.

Quantum computers are gearing up to model the primary cofactor of nitrogenase,
i.e., the FeMo cofactor. This advancement can enable chemists to develop energy-
efficient industrial processes for synthesizing nitrogen or clean fertilizers.
  Cybersecurity

Enhancement of cybersecurity is one of the most crucial applications of quantum

computing. Quantum computers can crack encryption algorithms that protect the
infrastructure and sensitive data of the internet. Estimates predict that a quantum
computer with 20 million qubits is capable of breaking such encryptions in less than
8 hours.

Moreover, quantum computing can also be used to build much more secure
encryption systems. Companies like Google and Microsoft have initiated their work
on quantum-safe encryption algorithms.

 Financial modeling

Quantum computing is a useful tool for financial organizations since it can be used
to address complicated financial issues including predicting market risk and pricing
derivatives.

 Weather forecasting

Large volumes of weather data can be processed using Quantum computing, which
will improve disaster preparedness and weather predictions.

One of many applications of quantum computing is mapping complicated weather

patterns. Unlike traditional weather forecast systems, quantum computers can
provide forecasts for much smaller and more specific areas. This can assist farmers
in preparing for weather changes efficiently and allow airlines to minimize fight
disruption.
In collaboration with the National Center for Atmospheric Research, The Weather
Company, and the University Corporation For Atmospheric Research in the United
States, IBM is building a quantum computing model that can estimate
thunderstorms at a regional level.

 Traffic management

It is possible to simulate and analyze traffic patterns using quantum computing,

which will enhance traffic management and lessen congestion.

Quantum computers can also help tackle the problem of traffic control, which is a
result of the increasing population. Technology using quantum computing can be
used to mitigate traffic jams and thus shorten waiting periods.

 Environmental modeling

Complex environmental systems may be modeled using quantum computing,

enhancing forecasts and assisting in the solution of environmental problems.

 Enhanced Batteries

Researchers at IBM and Daimler AG are testing how quantum computers can
simulate the behavior of chemical compounds in Lithium-ion batteries. They were
able to simulate dipole moments of four industrially relevant molecules, viz. lithium
sulfide, hydrogen sulfide, lithium hydride, and lithium hydrogen sulfide, using a 21-
qubit quantum computer. As scientists increase the qubit states, they will be able to
test more complex compounds to develop next-generation batteries that would be
more powerful and inexpensive.