Algebra I

CK-12 Foundation
June 1, 2010
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Contents
1 Equations and Functions 9
1.1 Variable Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 Order of Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3 Patterns and Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.4 Equations and Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.5 Functions as Rules and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.6 Functions as Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.7 Problem-Solving Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
1.8 Problem-Solving Strategies: Make a Table and Look for a Pattern . . . . . 88
1.9 Additional Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2 Real Numbers 101
2.1 Integers and Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.2 Addition of Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
2.3 Subtraction of Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.4 Multiplication of Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.5 The Distributive Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
2.6 Division of Rational Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.7 Square Roots and Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8 Problem-Solving Strategies: Guess and Check, Work Backward . . . . . . . 165
3 Equations of Lines 177
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3.1 One-Step Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.2 Two-Step Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.3 Multi-Step Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.4 Equations with Variables on Both Sides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
3.5 Ratios and Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.6 Scale and Indirect Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
3.7 Percent Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
3.8 Problem Solving Strategies: Use a Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4 Graphs of Equations and Functions 265
4.1 The Coordinate Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.2 Graphs of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4.3 Graphing Using Intercepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.4 Slope and Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
4.5 Graphs Using Slope-Intercept Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.6 Direct Variation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
4.7 Linear Function Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
4.8 Problem-Solving Strategies - Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
5 Writing Linear Equations 363
5.1 Linear Equations in Slope-Intercept Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
5.2 Linear Equations in Point-Slope Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
5.3 Linear Equations in Standard Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
5.4 Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
5.5 Fitting a Line to Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
5.6 Predicting with Linear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
5.7 Problem Solving Strategies: Use a Linear Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
6 Graphing Linear Inequalities; Introduction to Probability 457
6.1 Inequalities Using Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
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6.2 Inequalities Using Multiplication and Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
6.3 Multi-Step Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
6.4 Compound Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
6.5 Absolute Value Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
6.6 Absolute Value Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
6.7 Linear Inequalities in Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
7 Solving Systems of Equations and Inequalities 529
7.1 Linear Systems by Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
7.2 Solving Linear Systems by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
7.3 Solving Linear Systems by Elimination through Addition or Subtraction . . 551
7.4 Solving Systems of Equations by Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
7.5 Special Types of Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
7.6 Systems of Linear Inequalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
8 Exponential Functions 599
8.1 Exponent Properties Involving Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
8.2 Exponent Properties Involving Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
8.3 Zero, Negative, and Fractional Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
8.4 Scientic Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
8.5 Exponential Growth Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
8.6 Exponential Decay Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
8.7 Geometric Sequences and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
8.8 Problem-Solving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
9 Factoring Polynomials; More on Probability 675
9.1 Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
9.2 Multiplication of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
9.3 Special Products of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
9.4 Polynomial Equations in Factored Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707
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9.5 Factoring Quadratic Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
9.6 Factoring Special Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
9.7 Factoring Polynomials Completely . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
10 Quadratic Equations and Quadratic Functions 753
10.1 Graphs of Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
10.2 Quadratic Equations by Graphing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
10.3 Quadratic Equations by Square Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
10.4 Solving Quadratic Equations by Completing the Square . . . . . . . . . . . 805
10.5 Solving Quadratic Equations by the Quadratic Formula . . . . . . . . . . . 820
10.6 The Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
10.7 Linear, Exponential and Quadratic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
10.8 Problem Solving Strategies: Choose a Function Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
11 Algebra and Geometry Connections; Working with Data 881
11.1 Graphs of Square Root Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
11.2 Radical Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
11.3 Radical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
11.4 The Pythagorean Theorem and Its Converse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
11.5 Distance and Midpoint Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
11.6 Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
11.7 Stem-and-Leaf Plots and Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
11.8 Box-and-Whisker Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
12 Rational Equations and Functions; Topics in Statistics 999
12.1 Inverse Variation Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
12.2 Graphs of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1009
12.3 Division of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032
12.4 Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
12.5 Multiplication and Division of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1051
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12.6 Addition and Subtraction of Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059
12.7 Solutions of Rational Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1075
12.8 Surveys and Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089
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Chapter 1
Equations and Functions
1.1 Variable Expressions
Learning Objectives
Evaluate algebraic expressions.
Evaluate algebraic expressions with exponents.
Introduction The Language of Algebra
Do you like to do the same problem over and over again? No? Well, you are not alone.
Algebra was invented by mathematicians so that they could solve a problem once and
then use that solution to solve a group of similar problems. The big idea of algebra is that
once you have solved one problem you can generalize that solution to solve other similar
problems.
In this course, well assume that you can already do the basic operations of arithmetic. In
arithmetic, only numbers and their arithmetical operations (such as +, , , ) occur. In
algebra, numbers (and sometimes processes) are denoted by symbols (such as x, y, a, b, c, . . .).
These symbols are called variables.
The letter x, for example, will often be used to represent some number. The value of x,
however, is not xed from problem to problem. The letter x will be used to represent
a number which may be unknown (and for which we may have to solve) or it may even
represent a quantity which varies within that problem.
Using variables oers advantages over solving each problem from scratch:
It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws such as a +b = b +a for all real
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numbers a and b.
It allows the reference to unknown numbers, for instance: Find a number x such
that 3x + 1 = 10.
It allows short-hand writing about functional relationships such as, If you sell x tickets,
then your prot will be 3x 10 dollars, or f(x) = 3x 10, where f is the prot
function, and x is the input (i.e. how many tickets you sell).
Example 1
Write an algebraic expression for the perimeter and area of the rectangle as follows.
To nd the perimeter, we add the lengths of all 4 sides. We can start at the top-left and
work clockwise. The perimeter, P, is therefore:
P = l +w +l +w
We are adding 2 ls and 2 ws. Would say that:
P = 2 l + 2 w
You are probably familiar with using instead of for multiplication, so you may prefer to
write:
P = 2 l + 2 w
Its customary in algebra to omit multiplication symbols whenever possible. For example,
11x means the same thing as 11 x or 11 x. We can therefore write the expression for P
as:
P = 2l + 2w
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Area is length multiplied by width. In algebraic terms we get the expression:
A = l w A = l w A = lw
Note: An example of a variable expression is 2l + 2w; an example of an equation is
P = 2l + 2w. The main dierence between equations and expressions is the presence of an
equals sign (=).
In the above example, there is no simpler form for these equations for the perimeter and area.
They are, however, perfectly general forms for the perimeter and area of a rectangle. They
work whatever the numerical values of the length and width of some particular rectangle
are. We would simply substitute values for the length and width of a real rectangle into our
equation for perimeter and area. This is often referred to as substituting (or plugging in)
values. In this chapter we will be using the process of substitution to evaluate expressions
when we have numerical values for the variables involved.
Evaluate Algebraic Expressions
When we are given an algebraic expression, one of the most common things we will have
to do with it is evaluate it for some given value of the variable. The following example
illustrates this process.
Example 2
Let x = 12. Find the value of 2x 7.
To nd the solution, substitute 12 for x in the given expression. Every time we see x we will
replace it with 12. Note: At this stage we place the value in parentheses:
2x 7 = 2(12) 7
= 24 7
= 17
The reason we place the substituted value in parentheses is twofold:
1. It will make worked examples easier for you to follow.
2. It avoids any confusion that would arise from dropping a multiplication sign: 2 12 =
2(12) = 212.
Example 3
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Let x = 1. Find the value of 9x + 2.
Solution
9(1) + 2 = 9 + 2
= 11
Example 4
Let y = 2. Find the value of
7
y
11y + 2.
Solution
7
(2)
11(2) + 2 = 3
1
2
+ 22 + 2
= 24 3
1
2
= 20
1
2
Many expressions have more than one variable in them. For example, the formula for the
perimeter of a rectangle in the introduction has two variables: length (l) and width (w). In
these cases be careful to substitute the appropriate value in the appropriate place.
Example 5
The area of a trapezoid is given by the equation A =
h
2
(a + b). Find the area of a trapezoid
with bases a = 10 cm, b = 15 cm and height h = 8 cm.
To nd the solution to this problem we simply take the values given for the variables, a, b
and h, and plug them in to the expression for A:
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A =
h
2
(a +b) Substitute 10 for a, 15 for b and 8 for h.
A =
8
2
(10 + 15) Evaluate piece by piece. (10 + 15) = 25;
8
2
= 4
A = 4(25) = 100
Solution: The area of the trapezoid is 100 square centimeters.
Example 6
Find the value of
1
9
(5x + 3y +z) when x = 7, y = 2 and z = 11.
Lets plug in values for x, y and z and then evaluate the resulting expression.
1
9
(5(7) + 3(2) + (11)) Evaluate the individual terms inside the parentheses.
1
9
(35 + (6) + 11) Combine terms inside parentheses.
1
9
(40) =
40
9
4.44
Solution 4.44(rounded to the nearest hundredth) Example 7
The total resistance of two electronics components wired in parallel is given by
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
where R
1
and R
2
are the individual resistances (in ohms) of the two components. Find the
combined resistance of two such wired components if their individual resistances are 30 ohms
and 15 ohms.
Solution
R
1
R
2
R
1
+R
2
Substitute the values R
1
= 30 and R
2
= 15.
(30)(15)
30 + 15
=
450
45
= 10 ohms
The combined resistance is 10 ohms.
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Evaluate Algebraic Expressions with Exponents
Many formulas and equations in mathematics contain exponents. Exponents are used as a
short-hand notation for repeated multiplication. For example:
2 2 = 2
2
2 2 2 = 2
3
The exponent stands for how many times the number is used as a factor (multiplied). When
we deal with integers, it is usually easiest to simplify the expression. We simplify:
2
2
= 4
and
2
3
= 8
However, we need exponents when we work with variables, because it is much easier to write
x
8
than x x x x x x x x.
To evaluate expressions with exponents, substitute the values you are given for each variable
and simplify. It is especially important in this case to substitute using parentheses in order
to make sure that the simplication is done correctly.
Example 8
The area of a circle is given by the formula A = r
2
. Find the area of a circle with radius
r = 17 inches.
Substitute values into the equation.
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A = r
2
Substitute 17 for r.
A = (17)
2
17 17 = 907.9202 . . . Round to 2 decimal places.
The area is approximately 907.92 square inches.
Example 9
Find the value of 5x
2
4y for x = 4 and y = 5.
Substitute values in the following:
5x
2
4y = 5(4)
2
4(5) Substitute x = 4 and y = 5.
= 5(16) 4(5) Evaluate the exponent (4)
2
= 16.
= 80 20
= 60
Example 10
Find the value of 2x
2
3x
2
+ 5, for x = 5.
Substitute the value of x in the expression:
2x
2
3x
2
+ 5 = 2(5)
3
3(5)
2
+ 5 Substitute 5 for x.
= 2(125) 3(25) + 5 Evaluate exponents (5)
3
= (5)(5)(5) = 125 and (5)
2
= (5)(5) = 25
= 250 75 + 5
= 320
Example 11
Find the value of
x
2
y
3
x
3
+y
2
, for x = 2 and y = 4.
Substitute the values of x and y in the following.
x
2
y
3
x
3
+y
2
=
(2)
2
(4)
3
(2)
3
+ (4)
2
Substitute 2 for x and 4 for y.
4(64)
8 + 16
=
256
24
=
32
3
Evaluate expressions : (2)
2
= (2)(2) = 4 and (2)
3
= (2)(2)(2) = 8.
(4)
2
= (4)(4) = 16 and (4)
3
= (4)(4)(4) = 64.
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Example 12
The height (h) of a ball in ight is given by the formula: h = 32t
2
+ 60t + 20, where the
height is given in feet and the time (t) is given in seconds. Find the height of the ball at time
t = 2 seconds.
Solution
h = 32t
2
+ 60t + 20 Substitute 2 for t.
= 32(2)
2
+ 60(2) + 20
= 32(4) + 60(2) + 20
= 12 feet
Review Questions
Write the following in a more condensed form by leaving out a multiplication symbol.
1. 2 11x
2. 1.35 y
3. 3
1
4
4.
1
4
z
Evaluate the following expressions for a = 3, b = 2, c = 5 and d = 4.
5. 2a + 3b
6. 4c +d
7. 5ac 2b
8.
2a
cd
9.
3b
d
10.
a4b
3c+2d
11.
1
a+b
12.
ab
cd
Evaluate the following expressions for x = 1, y = 2, z = 3, and w = 4.
13. 8x
3
14.
5x
2
6z
3
15. 3z
2
5w
2
16. x
2
y
2
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17.
z
3
+w
3
z
3
w
3
18. 2x
2
3x
2
+ 5x 4
19. 4w
3
+ 3w
2
w + 2
20. 3 +
1
z
2
21. The weekly cost C of manufacturing x remote controls is given by the formula C =
2000 + 3x, where the cost is given in dollars.
(a) What is the cost of producing 1000 remote controls?
(b) What is the cost of producing 2000 remote controls?
22. The volume of a box without a lid is given by the formula: V = 4x(10 x)
2
where x
is a length in inches and V is the volume in cubic inches.
(a) What is the volume when x = 2?
(b) What is the volume when x = 3?
Review Answers
1. 22x
2. 1.35y
3.
3
4
4.
z
4
5. 0
6. 16
7. 79
8.
2
3
9.
3
2
10.
11
7
11. 1
12.
3
10
13. 8
14.
5
162
15. 53
16. 3
17.
37
91
18. 14
19. 302
20. 3
1
9
21. (a) $5000;
(b) $8000
22. (a) 512 in
3
;
(b) 588 in
3
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1.2 Order of Operations
Learning Objectives
Evaluate algebraic expressions with grouping symbols.
Evaluate algebraic expressions with fraction bars.
Evaluate algebraic expressions with a graphing calculator.
Introduction
Look at and evaluate the following expression:
2 + 4 7 1 =?
How many dierent ways can we interpret this problem, and how many dierent answers
could someone possibly nd for it?
The simplest way to evaluate the expression is simply to start at the left and work your way
across, keeping track of the total as you go:
2 + 4 = 6
6 7 = 42
42 1 = 41
If you enter the expression into a non-scientic, non-graphing calculator you will probably
get 41 as the answer. If, on the other hand, you were to enter the expression into a scientic
calculator or a graphing calculator you would probably get 29 as an answer.
In mathematics, the order in which we perform the various operations (such as adding,
multiplying, etc.) is important. In the expression above, the operation of multiplication
takes precedence over addition so we evaluate it rst. Lets re-write the expression, but put
the multiplication in brackets to indicate that it is to be evaluated rst.
2 + (4 7) 1 =?
So we rst evaluate the brackets: 4 7 = 28. Our expression becomes:
2 + (28) 1 =?
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When we have only addition and subtraction, we start at the left and keep track of the total
as we go:
2 + 28 = 30
30 1 = 29
Algebra students often use the word PEMDAS to help remember the order in which we
evaluate the mathematical expressions: Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication, Division,
Addition and Subtraction.
Order of Operations
1. Evaluate expressions within Parentheses (also all brackets [ ] and braces { } ) rst.
2. Evaluate all Exponents (squared or cubed terms such as 3
2
or x
3
) next.
3. Multiplication and Division is next work from left to right completing both multi-
plication and division in the order that they appear.
4. Finally, evaluate Addition and Subtraction work from left to right completing both
addition and subtraction in the order that they appear.
Evaluate Algebraic Expressions with Grouping Symbols
The rst step in the order of operations is called parentheses, but we include all grouping
symbols in this step. While we will mostly use parentheses ( ) in this book, you may also
see square brackets [ ] and curly braces { } and you should include them as part of the rst
step.
Example 1
Evaluate the fol lowing:
a) 4 7 11 2
b) 4 (7 11) + 2
c) 4 [7 (11 + 2)]
Each of these expressions has the same numbers and the same mathematical operations, in
the same order. The placement of the various grouping symbols means, however, that we
must evaluate everything in a dierent order each time. Lets look at how we evaluate each
of these examples.
a) This expression doesnt have parentheses. PEMDAS states that we treat addition and
subtraction as they appear, starting at the left and working right (its NOT addition then
subtraction).
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Solution
4 7 11 + 2 = 3 11 + 2
= 14 + 2
= 12
b) This expression has parentheses. We rst evaluate 7 11 = 4. Remember that when
we subtract a negative it is equivalent to adding a positive:
Solution
4 (7 11) + 2 = 4 (4) + 2
= 8 + 2
= 10
c) Brackets are often used to group expressions which already contain parentheses. This
expression has both brackets and parentheses. Do the innermost group rst, (11 + 2) = 13.
Then complete the operation in the brackets.
Solution
4 [7 (11 + 2)] = 4 [7 (13)]
= 4 [6]
= 10
Example 2
Evaluate the following:
a) 3 5 7 2
b) 3 (5 7) 2
c) (3 5) (7 2)
a) There are no grouping symbols. PEMDAS dictates that we evaluate multiplication and
division rst, working from left to right: 3 5 = 15; 7 2 = 3.5. (NOTE: Its not multipli-
cation then addition) Next we perform the subtraction:
Solution
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3 5 7 2 = 15 3.5
= 11.5
b) First, we evaluate the expression inside the parentheses: 5 7 = 2. Then work from
left to right.
Solution
3 (5 7) 2 = 3 (2) 2
= (6) 2
= 3
c) First, we evaluate the expressions inside parentheses: 3 5 = 15, 7 2 = 3.5. Then work
from left to right.
Solution
(3 5) (7 2) = 15 3.5
= 11.5
Note that in part (c), the result was unchanged by adding parentheses, but the expression
does appear easier to read. Parentheses can be used in two distinct ways:
To alter the order of operations in a given expression
To clarify the expression to make it easier to understand
Some expressions contain no parentheses, others contain many sets. Sometimes expressions
will have sets of parentheses inside other sets of parentheses. When faced with nested
parentheses, start at the innermost parentheses and work outward.
Example 3
Use the order of operations to evaluate:
8 [19 (2 + 5) 7)]
Follow PEMDAS rst parentheses, starting with innermost brackets rst:
21 www.ck12.org
Solution
8 (19 (2 + 5) 7) = 8 (19 7 7)
= 8 5
= 3
In algebra, we use the order of operations when we are substituting values into expressions for
variables. In those situations we will be given an expression involving a variable or variables,
and also the values to substitute for any variables in that expression.
Example 4
Use the order of operations to evaluate the fol lowing:
a) 2 (3x + 2) when x = 2
b) 3y
2
+ 2y 1 when y = 3
c) 2 (t 7)
2
(u
3
v) when t = 19, u = 4 and v = 2
a) The rst step is to substitute in the value for x into the expression. Lets put it in
parentheses to clarify the resulting expression.
Solution
2 (3(2) + 2) 3(2) is the same as 3 2
Follow PEMDAS rst parentheses. Inside parentheses follow PEMDAS again.
2 (3 2 + 2) = 2 (6 + 2) Inside the parentheses, we evaluate the multiplication rst.
2 8 = 6 Now we evaluate the parentheses.
b) The rst step is to substitute in the value for y into the expression.
Solution
3 (3)
2
+ 2 (3) 1
Follow PEMDAS: we cannot simplify parentheses.
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= 3 (3)
2
+ 2 (3) 1 Evaluate exponents : (3)
2
= 9
= 3 9 + 2 (3) 1 Evaluate multiplication : 3 9 = 27; 2 3 = 6
= 27 + (6) 1 Evaluate addition and subtraction in order from left to right.
= 27 6 1
= 20
c) The rst step is to substitute the values for t, u, and v into the expression.
Solution:
2 (19 7)
2
(4
3
2)
Follow PEMDAS:
= 2 (19 7)
2
(4
3
2) Evaluate parentheses : (19 7) = 12; (4
3
2) = (64 2) = 62
= 2 12
2
62 Evaluate exponents : 12
2
= 144
= 2 144 62 Evaluate the multiplication : 144 62 = 8928
= 2 8928 Evaluate the subtraction.
= 8926
In parts (b) and (c) we left the parentheses around the negative numbers to clarify the
problem. They did not aect the order of operations, but they did help avoid confusion
when we were multiplying negative numbers.
Part (c) in the last example shows another interesting point. When we have an expression
inside the parentheses, we use PEMDAS to determine the order in which we evaluate the
contents.
Evaluating Algebraic Expressions with Fraction Bars
Fraction bars count as grouping symbols for PEMDAS, and should therefore be evaluated in
the rst step of solving an expression. All numerators and all denominators can be treated
as if they have invisible parentheses. When real parentheses are also present, remember
that the innermost grouping symbols should be evaluated rst. If, for example, parentheses
appear on a numerator, they would take precedence over the fraction bar. If the parentheses
appear outside of the fraction, then the fraction bar takes precedence.
23 www.ck12.org
Example 5
Use the order of operations to evaluate the fol lowing expressions:
a)
z+3
4
1 When z = 2
b)
_
a+2
b+4
1
_
+b When a = 3 and b = 1
c) 2
_
w+(x2z)
(y+2)
2
1
_
When w = 11, x = 3, y = 1 and z = 2
a) We substitute the value for z into the expression.
Solution:
2 + 3
4
1
Although this expression has no parentheses, we will rewrite it to show the eect of the
fraction bar.
(2 + 3)
4
1
Using PEMDAS, we rst evaluate the expression on the numerator.
5
4
1
We can convert
5
4
to a mixed number:
5
4
= 1
1
4
Then evaluate the expression:
5
4
1 = 1
1
4
1 =
1
4
b) We substitute the values for a and b into the expression:
Solution:
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_
3 + 2
1 + 4
1
_
1
This expression has nested parentheses (remember the eect of the fraction bar on the
numerator and denominator). The innermost grouping symbol is provided by the fraction
bar. We evaluate the numerator (3 + 2) and denominator (1 + 4) rst.
_
5
5
1
_
1 Now we evaluate the inside of the parentheses, starting with division.
(1 1) 1 Next the subtraction.
0 1 = 1
c) We substitute the values for w, x, y and z into the expression:
Solution:
This complicated expression has several layers of nested parentheses. One method for en-
suring that we start with the innermost parentheses is to make use of the other types of
brackets. We can rewrite this expression, putting brackets in for the fraction bar. The out-
ermost brackets we will leave as parentheses ( ). Next will be the invisible brackets from the
fraction bar, these will be written as [ ]. The third level of nested parentheses will be the {
}. We will leave negative numbers in round brackets.
2
_
[11 +{ 3 2(2) }]
[{ 1 + 2 }
2
]
1
_
We start with the innermost grouping sign {} .
{ 1 + 2 } = 3; { 3 2(2) } = 3 + 4 = 7
2
_
[11 + 7]
[3
2
]
1
_
The next level has two square brackets to evaluate.
2
_
18
9
1
_
We now evaluate the round brackets, starting with division.
2(2 1) Finally, we complete the addition and subtraction.
2(1) = 2
Evaluate Algebraic Expressions with a TI-83/84 Family Graph-
ing Calculator
A graphing calculator is a very useful tool in evaluating algebraic expressions. The graphing
calculator follows PEMDAS. In this section we will explain two ways of evaluating expressions
with the graphing calculator.
25 www.ck12.org
Method 1: Substitute for the variable rst. Then evaluate the numerical expression with
the calculator.
Example 6
Evaluate [3(x
2
1)
2
x
4
+ 12] + 5x
3
1 when x = 3
Solution:
Substitute the value x = 3 into the expression.
[3((3)
2
1)
2
(3)
4
+ 12] + 5(3)
3
1
Input this in the calculator just as it is and press [ENTER]. (Note, use for exponents)
The answer is 13.
Method 2: Input the original expression in the calculator rst and then evaluate. Lets
look at the same example.
Evaluate [3(x
2
1)
2
x
4
+ 12] + 5x
3
1 when x = 3
First, store the value x = 3 in the calculator. Type 3 [STO] x (The letter x can be
entered using the x-[VAR] button or [ALPHA] + [STO]). Then type in the expression in
the calculator and press [ENTER].
The answer is 13.
The second method is better because you can easily evaluate the same expression for any
value you want. For example, lets evaluate the same expression using the values x =
2 and x =
2
3
.
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For x = 2, store the value of x in the calculator: 2 [STO] x. Press [2nd] [ENTER] twice
to get the previous expression you typed in on the screen without having to enter it again.
Press [ENTER] to evaluate.
The answer is 62.
For x =
2
3
, store the value of x in the calculator:
2
3
[STO] x. Press [2nd] [ENTER] twice
to get the expression on the screen without having to enter it again. Press [ENTER] to
evaluate.
The answer is 13.21 or
1070
81
in fraction form.
Note: On graphing calculators there is a dierence between the minus sign and the negative
sign. When we stored the value negative three, we needed to use the negative sign which
is to the left of the [ENTER] button on the calculator. On the other hand, to perform
the subtraction operation in the expression we used the minus sign. The minus sign is right
above the plus sign on the right.
You can also use a graphing calculator to evaluate expressions with more than one variable.
Example 7
Evaluate the expression:
3x
2
4y
2
+x
4
(x+y)
1/2
for x = 2, y = 1.
Solution
Store the values of x and y. 2 [STO] x, 1 [STO] y. The letters x and y can be entered using
[ALPHA] + [KEY]. Input the expression in the calculator. When an expression shows the
division of two expressions be sure to use parentheses: (numerator) (denominator)
Press [ENTER] to obtain the answer .8

8 or
8
9
.
Review Questions
1. Use the order of operations to evaluate the following expressions.
27 www.ck12.org
(a) 8 (19 (2 + 5) 7)
(b) 2 + 7 11 12 3
(c) (3 + 7) (7 12)
(d)
2(3+(21))
4(6+2)
(3 5)
2. Evaluate the following expressions involving variables.
(a)
jk
j+k
when j = 6 and k = 12.
(b) 2y
2
when x = 1 and y = 5
(c) 3x
2
+ 2x + 1 when x = 5
(d) (y
2
x)
2
when x = 2 and y = 1
3. Evaluate the following expressions involving variables.
(a)
4x
9x
2
3x+1
when x = 2
(b)
z
2
x+y
+
x
2
xy
when x = 1, y = 2, and z = 4.
(c)
4xyz
y
2
x
2
when x = 3, y = 2, and z = 5
(d)
x
2
z
2
xz2x(zx)
when x = 1 and z = 3
4. Insert parentheses in each expression to make a true equation.
(a) 5 2 6 4 + 2 = 5
(b) 12 4 + 10 3 3 + 7 = 11
(c) 22 32 5 3 6 = 30
(d) 12 8 4 5 = 8
5. Evaluate each expression using a graphing calculator.
(a) x
2
+ 2x xy when x = 250 and y = 120
(b) (xy y
4
)
2
when x = 0.02 and y = 0.025
(c)
x+yz
xy+yz+xz
when x =
1
2
, y =
3
2
, and z = 1
(d)
(x+y)
2
4x
2
y
2
when x = 3 and y = 5d
Review Answers
1. (a) 3
(b) 75
(c) 2
(d) 2
2. (a) 4
(b) 300
(c) 86
(d) 3
3. (a)
8
31
(b)
47
3
(c) 24
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(d)
8
5
4. (a) (5 2) (6 5) + 2 = 5
(b) (12 4) + 10 (3 3) + 7 = 11
(c) (22 32 5) (3 6) = 30
(d) 12 (8 4) 5 = 8
5. (a) 93000
(b) 0.00000025
(c)
12
5
(d)
4
11
1.3 Patterns and Equations
Learning Objectives
Write an equation.
Use a verbal model to write an equation.
Solve problems using equations.
Introduction
In mathematics, and especially in algebra, we look for patterns in the numbers that we see.
The tools of algebra assist us in describing these patterns with words and with equations
(formulas or functions). An equation is a mathematical recipe that gives the value of one
variable in terms of the other.
For example, if a theme park charges $12 admission, then the number of people who enter the
park every day and the amount of money taken by the ticket oice are related mathematically.
We can write a rule to nd the amount of money taken by the ticket oice.
In words, we might say The money taken in dol lars is (equals) twelve times the number of
people who enter the park.
We could also make a table. The following table relates the number of people who visit the
park and the total money taken by the ticket oice.
Number of visitors 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Money taken($) 12 24 36 48 60 72 84
Clearly, we will need a big table if we are going to be able to cope with a busy day in the
middle of a school vacation!
29 www.ck12.org
A third way we might relate the two quantities (visitors and money) is with a graph. If we
plot the money taken on the vertical axis and the number of visitors on the horizontal
axis, then we would have a graph that looks like the one shown as follows. Note that this
graph shows a smooth line for non-whole number values of x (e.g., x = 2.5). But, in real life
this would not be possible because you cannot have half a person enter the park. This is an
issue of domain and range, something we will talk about in the following text.
The method we will examine in detail in this lesson is closer to the rst way we chose to
describe the relationship. In words we said that The money taken in dollars is twelve times
the number of people who enter the park. In mathematical terms we can describe this sort of
relationship with variables. A variable is a letter used to represent an unknown quantity.
We can see the beginning of a mathematical formula in the words.
The money taken in dollars is twelve times the number of people who enter the park.
This can be translated to:
the money taken in dol lars = 12 (the number of people who enter the park)
To make the quantities more visible they have been placed in parentheses. We can now see
which quantities can be assigned to letters. First we must state which letters (or variables)
relate to which quantities. We call this dening the variables:
Let x = the number of people who enter the theme park.
Let y = the total amount of money taken at the ticket oice.
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We can now show the fourth way to describe the relationship, with our algebraic equation.
y = 12x
Writing a mathematical equation using variables is very convenient. You can perform all of
the operations necessary to solve this problem without having to write out the known and
unknown quantities in long hand over and over again. At the end of the problem, we just
need to remember which quantities x and y represent.
Write an Equation
An equation is a term used to describe a collection of numbers and variables related
through mathematical operators. An algebraic equation will contain letters that relate
to real quantities or to numbers that represent values for real quantities. If, for example,
we wanted to use the algebraic equation in the example above to nd the money taken for
a certain number of visitors, we would substitute that value in for x and then solve the
resulting equation for y.
Example 1
A theme park charges $12 entry to visitors. Find the money taken if 1296 people visit the
park.
Lets break the solution to this problem down into a number of steps. This will help us solve
all the problems in this lesson.
Step 1 Extract the important information.
(money taken in dollars) = 12 (number of visitors)
(number of visitors) = 1296
Step 2 Translate into a mathematical equation.
We do this by dening variables and by substituting in known values.
Let y = (money taken in dollars)
y = 12 1296 THIS IS OUR EQUATION.
Step 3 Solve the equation.
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y = 15552 Answer: The money taken is $15552
Step 4 Check the result.
If $15552 is taken at the ticket oice and tickets are $12, then we can divide the total amount
of money collected by the price per individual ticket.
(number of people) =
15552
12
= 1296
Our answer equals the number of people who entered the park. Therefore, the answer checks
out.
Example 2
The fol lowing table shows the relationship between two quantities. First, write an equation
that describes the relationship. Then, nd out the value of b when a is 750.
a : 0 10 20 30 40 50
b : 20 40 60 80 100 120
Step 1 Extract the important information. We can see from the table that every time a
increases by 10, b increases by 20. However, b is not simply twice the value of a. We can see
that when a = 0, b = 20 so this gives a clue as to what rule the pattern follows. Hopefully
you should see that the rule linking a and b.
To nd a, double the value of a and add 20.
Step 2 Translate into a mathematical equation:
Table 1.1:
Text Translates to Mathematical Expression
To nd b b =
double the value of a 2a
add 20 +20
b = 2a + 20 THIS IS OUR EQUATION.
Step 3 Solve the equation.
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Go back to the original problem. We substitute the values we have for our known variable
and rewrite the equation.
when a is 750 b = 2(750) + 20
Follow the order of operations to solve
b = 2(750) + 20
b = 1500 + 20 = 1520
Step 4 Check the result.
In some cases you can check the result by plugging it back into the original equation. Other
times you must simply double-check your math. Double-checking is always advisable. In
this case, we can plug our answer for b into the equation, along with the value for a and see
what comes out. 1520 = 2(750) + 20 is TRUE because both sides of the equation are equal
and balance. A true statement means that the answer checks out.
Use a Verbal Model to Write an Equation
In the last example we developed a rule, written in words, as a way to develop an algebraic
equation. We will develop this further in the next few examples.
Example 3
The fol lowing table shows the values of two related quantities. Write an equation that describes
the relationship mathematically.
x value y value
2 10
0 0
2 10
4 20
6 30
Step 1 Extract the important information.
We can see from the table that y is ve times bigger than x. The value for y is negative
when x is positive, and it is positive when x is negative. Here is the rule that links x and y.
33 www.ck12.org
y is the negative of ve times the value of x
Step 2 Translate this statement into a mathematical equation.
Table 1.2:
Text Translates to Mathematical Expression
y is y =
negative 5 times the value
of x
5x
y = 5x THIS IS OUR EQUATION.
Step 3 There is nothing in this problem to solve for. We can move to Step 4.
Step 4 Check the result.
In this case, the way we would check our answer is to use the equation to generate our own
xy pairs. If they match the values in the table, then we know our equation is correct. We
will substitute x values of 2, 0, 2, 4, 6 in and solve for y.
x = 2 : y = 5(2) y = +10
x = 0 : y = 5(0) y = 0
x = 2 : y = 5(2) y = 10
x = 4 : y = 5(4) y = 20
x = 6 : y = 5(6) y = 30
Each xy pair above exactly matches the corresponding row in the table.
The answer checks out.
Example 4
Zarina has a $100 gift card, and she has been spending money on the card in small regular
amounts. She checks the balance on the card weekly, and records the balance in the following
table.
Table 1.3:
Week Number Balance ($)
1 100
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Table 1.3: (continued)
Week Number Balance ($)
2 78
3 56
4 34
Write an equation for the money remaining on the card in any given week.
Step 1 Extract the important information.
We can see from the table that Zarina spends $22 every week.
As the week number increases by 1, the balance decreases by 22.
The other information is given by any point (any week, balance pair). Lets take week
1:
When (week number) = 1, (balance) = 100
Step 2 Translate into a mathematical equation.
Dene variables:
Let week number = n
Let Balance = b
Table 1.4:
Text Translates to Mathematical Expression
As n increases by 1, b de-
creases by 22
b = 22n+?
The ? indicates that we need another term. Without another term the balance would be
22, 44, 66, . . . We know that the balance in week 1 is 100. Lets substitute that value.
100 = 22(1)+?
The ? number that gives 100 when 22 is subtracted from it is 122. equation is therefore:
b = 22n + 122 THIS IS OUR EQUATION.
35 www.ck12.org
Step 3 All we were asked to nd was the expression. We werent asked to solve it, so we
can move to Step 4.
Step 4 Check the result.
To check that this equation is correct, we see if it really reproduces the data in the table.
To do that we plug in values for n
n = 1 b = 22(1) + 122 b = 122 22 = 100
n = 2 b = 22(2) + 122 b = 122 44 = 78
n = 3 b = 22(3) + 122 b = 122 66 = 56
n = 4 b = 22(4) + 122 b = 122 88 = 34
The equation perfectly reproduces the data in the table.
The answer checks out.
Note: Zarina will run out of money on her gift card (i.e. her balance will be 0) between
weeks 5 and 6.
Solve Problems Using Equations
Lets solve the following real-world problem by using the given information to write a math-
ematical equation that can be solved for a solution.
Example 5
A group of students are in a room. After 25 students leave, it is found that
2
3
of the original
group is left in the room. How many students were in the room at the start?
Step 1 Extract the important information
We know that 25 students leave the room.
We know that
2
3
of the original number of students are left in the room.
We need to nd how many students were in the room at the start.
Step 2 Translate into a mathematical equation. Initially we have an unknown number of
students in the room. We can refer to them as the original number.
Lets dene the variable x = the original number of students in the room.
25 students leave the room. The number of students left in the room is:
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Table 1.5:
Text Translates to Mathematical Expression
the original number of stu-
dents in the room
x
25 students leave the room x 25
2
3
of the original number is
left in the room

2
3
x
x 25 =
2
3
x THIS IS OUR EQUATION.
Step 3 Solve the equation.
Add 25 to both sides.
x 25 =
2
3
x
x 25 + 25 =
2
3
x + 25
x =
2
3
x + 25
Subtract
2
3
x from both sides.
x
2
3
x =
2
3
x
2
3
x + 25
1
3
x = 25
Multiply both sides by 3.
3
1
3
x = 25 3
x = 75
Remember that x represents the original number of students in the room. So,
37 www.ck12.org
Answer There were 75 students in the room to start with.
Step 4 Check the answer:
If we start with 75 students in the room and 25 of them leave, then there are 75 25 = 50
students left in the room.
2
3
of the original number is
2
3
75 = 50
This means that the number of students who are left over equals to
2
3
of the original number.
The answer checks out.
The method of dening variables and writing a mathematical equation is the method you will
use the most in an algebra course. This method is often used together with other techniques
such as making a table of values, creating a graph, drawing a diagram and looking for a
pattern.
Review Questions
Table 1.6:
Day Prot
1 20
2 40
3 60
4 80
5 100
1. (a) Write a mathematical equation that describes the relationship between the vari-
ables in the table:
(b) what is the prot on day 10?
2. (a) Write a mathematical equation that describes the situation: A full cookie jar has
24 cookies. How many cookies are left in the jar after you have eaten some?
(b) How many cookies are in the jar after you have eaten 9 cookies?
3. Write a mathematical equation for the following situations and solve.
(a) Seven times a number is 35 . What is the number?
(b) One number is 25 more than 2 times another number. If each number is multiplied
by ve, their sum would be 350 . What are the numbers?
(c) The sum of two consecutive integers is 35 . What are the numbers?
(d) Peter is three times as old as he was six years ago. How old is Peter?
4. How much water should be added to one liter of pure alcohol to make a mixture of
25% alcohol?
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5. Mia drove to Javiers house at 40 miles per hour. Javiers house is 20 miles away. Mia
arrived at Javiers house at 2:00 pm. What time did she leave?
6. The price of an mp3 player decreased by 20% from last year to this year. This year
the price of the Player is $120 . What was the price last year?
Review Answers
1. (a) P = 20t; P = prot; t = number of days. P = prot; t = number of days
(b) Prot = 200
2. (a) y = 24 x; y = number of cookies in the jar; x = number of cookies eaten
(b) 15 cookies
3. (a) x = the number; 7x = 35 ; number = 5
(b) x = another number; 2x+25 = another number; 5x+5(2x+25) = 350; numbers
= 15 and 55
(c) x = rst integer; x+1 = second integer; x+x+1 = 35 ; rst integer = 17, second
integer = 18
(d) x = Peters age; x = 3(x 6) ; Peter is 9 years old.
4. 3 liters
5. 1:30 pm
6. $150
1.4 Equations and Inequalities
Learning Objectives
Write equations and inequalities.
Check solutions to equations.
Check solutions to inequalities.
Solve real-world problems using an equation.
Introduction
In algebra, an equation is a mathematical expression that contains an equal sign. It tells
us that two expressions represent the same number. For example, y = 12x is an equation.
An inequality is a mathematical expression that contains inequality signs. For example
y 12x is an inequality. Inequalities are used to tell us that an expression is either larger
or smaller than another expression. Equations and inequalities can contain variables and
constants.
Variables are usually given a letter and they are used to represent unknown values.
39 www.ck12.org
These quantities can change because they depend on other numbers in the problem.
Constants are quantities that remain unchanged.
Equations and inequalities are used as a short hand notation for situations that involve
numerical data. They are very useful because most problems require several steps to arrive
at a solution, and it becomes tedious to repeatedly write out the situation in words.
Write Equations and Inequalities
Here are some examples of equations.
a) 3x 2 = 5
b) x + 9 = 2x + 5
c)
x
3
= 15
d) x
2
+ 1 = 10
To write an inequality, we use the following symbols.
> greater than
greater than or equal to
< less than
less than or equal to
= not equal to
Here are some examples of inequalities.
a) 3x < 5
b) 4 x 2x
c) x
2
+ 2x 1 > 0
d)
3x
4

x
2
3
The most important skill in algebra is the ability to translate a word problem into the correct
equation or inequality so you can nd the solution easily. Going from a word problem to
the solution involves several steps. Two of the initial steps are dening the variables and
translating the word problem into a mathematical equation.
Dening the variables means that we assign letters to any unknown quantities in the
problem.
Translating means that we change the word expression into a mathematical expression
containing variables and mathematical operations with an equal sign or an inequality sign.
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Example 1
Dene the variables and translate the fol lowing expressions into equations.
a) A number plus 12 is 20.
b) 9 less than twice a number is 33.
c) Five more than four times a number is 21.
d) $20 was one quarter of the money spent on the pizza.
Solution
a)
Dene
Let n = the number we are seeking
Translate
A number plus 12 is 20
n + 12 = 20
Answer
The equation is: n + 12 = 20
b)
Dene:
Let n = the number we are seeking
Translate
9 less than twice a number is 33
This means that twice a number minus 9 is 33
2 n 9 = 33
Answer
The equation is: 2n 9 = 33
c)
Dene
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Let n = the number we are seeking
Translate
Five more than four times a number is 21.
This means that four times a number plus ve is 21.
4 n + 5 = 21
Answer
The equation is: 4n + 5 = 21
d)
Dene
Let m = the money spent on the pizza
Translate
$20 was one quarter of the money spent on the pizza.
Translate
20 =
1
4
m
Answer
The equation is:
1
4
m = 20
Often word problems need to be reworded before you can write an equation.
Example 2
Find the solution to the fol lowing problems.
a) Shyam worked for two hours and packed 24 boxes. How much time did he spend on packing
one box?
b) After a 20% discount, a book costs $12. How much was the book before the discount?
Solution
a)
Dene
Let t = time it take to pack one box
Translate
Shyam worked for two hours and packed 24 boxes.
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This means that two hours is 24 times the time it takes to pack one book.
2 = 24 t
Solve
t =
2
24
so t =
1
12
hours or t =
1
12
60 minutes = 5 minutes
Answer
Shyam takes 5 minutes to pack a box.
b)
Dene:
Let p = the price of the book before the discount.
Translate
After a 20% discount, a book costs $12.
This means that the price 20% of price is $12
p 0.20p = 12
Solve
0.8p = 12 so p =
12
0.8
and p = 15
Answer
The price of the book before the discount was $15.
Check
20% discount means: 0.20 $15 = $3
Price after discount: $18 $3 = $15
The answer checks out.
Example 3
Dene the variables and translate the following expressions into inequalities.
a) The sum of 5 and a number is less than or equal to 2.
b) The distance from San Diego to Los Angeles is less than 150 miles.
c) Diego needs to earn more than an 82 on his test to receive a B in his algebra class.
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d) A child needs to be 42 inches or more to go on the roller coaster.
Solution
a)
Dene
Let n = the unknown number.
Translate
5 +n 2
b)
Dene
Let d = the distance from San Diego to Los Angeles in miles.
Translate
d < 150
c)
Dene
Let x = Diegos test grade.
Translate
x > 82
d)
Dene
Let h = the height of child in inches.
Translate:
h 42
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Check Solutions to Equations
You will often need to check solutions to equations in order to check your work. In a math
class, checking that you arrived at the correct solution is very good practice. We check
the solution to an equation by replacing the variable in an equation with the value of the
solution. A solution should result in a true statement when plugged into the equation.
Example 4
Check that x = 5 is the solution to the equation 3x + 2 = 2x + 27.
Solution
To check that x = 5 is the solution to the equation, we plug in the value of 5 for the
variable, x:
3x + 2 = 2x + 27
3 x + 2 = 2 x + 27
3 5 + 2 = 2 5 + 27
15 + 2 = 10 + 27
17 = 17
This is a true statement.
This means that x = 5 is the solution to equation 3x + 2 = 2x + 27.
Example 5
Check that the given number is a solution to the corresponding equation.
a) y = 1;3y + 5 = 2y
b) z = 3;z
2
+ 2z = 8
c) x =
1
2
;3x + 1 = x
Solution
Replace the variable in each equation with the given value.
a)
3(1) + 5 = 2(1)
3 + 5 = 2
2 = 2
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This is a true statement. This means that y = 1 is a solution to 3y + 5 = 2y.
b)
3
2
+ 2(3) = 8
9 + 6 = 8
15 = 8
This is not a true statement. This means that z = 3 is not a solution to z
2
+ 2z = 8.
c)
3
_

1
2
_
+ 1 =
1
2
_

3
2
_
+ 1 =
1
2

1
2
=
1
2
This is a true statement. This means that x =
1
2
is a solution to 3x + 1 = x.
Check Solutions to Inequalities
To check the solution to an inequality, we replace the variable in the inequality with the value
of the solution. A solution to an inequality produces a true statement when substituted into
the inequality.
Example 6
Check that the given number is a solution to the corresponding inequality.
a) a = 10;20a 250
b) b = 2;
3b
b
> 4
c) x =
3
4
;4x + 5 8
d) z = 25;
z
5
+ 1 < z 20
Solution
Replace the variable in each inequality with the given value.
a) 20(10) 250
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200 250
This statement is true. This means that a = 10 is a solution to the inequality 20a 250.
Note that a = 10 is not the only solution to this inequality. If we divide both sides of the
inequality by 20 we can write that
a 12.5.
So any number equal to or less than 12.5 is going to be a solution to this inequality.
b)
3 (2)
(2)
>4
3 + 2
2
>4

5
2
>4
2.5 >4
This statement is true. This means that b = 2 is a solution to the inequality
3b
b
> 4.
c)
4
_
3
4
_
+ 5 8
3 + 5 8
8 8
This statement is true. It is true because the equal sign is included in the inequality.
This means that x =
3
4
is a solution to the inequality 4x + 5 8.
d)
25
5
+ 1 < 25 20
5 + 1 < 5
6 < 5
This statement is not true. This means that z = 25 is not a solution to
z
5
+ 1 < z 20.
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Solve Real-World Problems Using an Equation
Lets use what we have learned about dening variables, writing equations and writing
inequalities to solve some real-world problems.
Example 7
Tomatoes cost $0.50 each and avocados cost $2.00 each. Anne buys six more tomatoes than
avocados. Her total bil l is $8. How many tomatoes and how many avocados did Anne buy?
Solution
Dene
Let a = number of avocados Anne buys
Translate
Anne buys six more tomatoes than avocados
This means that a + 6 = number of tomatoes
Translate
Tomatoes cost $0.50 each and avocados cost $2.00 each. Her total bill is $8.
This means that $0.50 times the number of tomatoes plus $2 times the number of avocados
equals $8
0.5 (a + 6) + 2 a = 8
0.5a + 0.5 6 + 2a = 8 THIS IS OUR EQUATION.
2.5a + 3 = 8 Simplify
2.5a = 5
a = 2
Remember that a = the number of avocados, so Anne buys two avocados.
We also know that the number of tomatoes is given by a + 6 = 2 + 6 = 8
Answer
Anne bought 2 avocados and 8 tomatoes.
Check
If Anne bought two avocados and eight tomatoes, the total cost is:
2 $2 + 8 $0.50 = $4 + $4 = $8
The answer checks out.
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Example 8
To organize a picnic Peter needs at least two times as many hamburgers as hotdogs. He has
24 hotdogs. What is the possible number of hamburgers Peter has?
Solution
Dene
Let x = number of hamburgers
Translate
Peter needs at least two times as many hamburgers as hot dogs. He has 24 hot dogs.
This means that twice the number of hot dogs is less than or equal to the number of ham-
burgers.
2 24 x
Simplify
48 x
Answer
Peter needs at least 48 hamburgers
Check We found x = 48. 48 hamburgers is twice the number of hot dogs. So more than 48
hamburgers is more than twice the number of hot dogs.
The answer checks out.
Review Questions
1. Dene the variables and translate the following expressions into equations.
(a) Peters Lawn Mowing Service charges $10 per job and $0.20 per square yard.
Peter earns $25 for a job.
(b) Renting the ice-skating rink for a birthday party costs $200 plus $4 per person.
The rental costs $324 in total.
(c) Renting a car costs $55 per day plus $0.45 per mile. The cost of the rental is
$100.
(d) Nadia gave Peter 4 more blocks than he already had. He already had 7 blocks.
2. Dene the variables and translate the following expressions into inequalities.
49 www.ck12.org
(a) A bus can seat 65 passengers or fewer.
(b) The sum of two consecutive integers is less than 54.
(c) An amount of money is invested at 5% annual interest. The interest earned at
the end of the year is greater than or equal to $250.
(d) You buy hamburgers at a fast food restaurant. A hamburger costs $0.49. You
have at most $3 to spend. Write an inequality for the number of hamburgers you
can buy.
3. Check that the given number is a solution to the corresponding equation.
(a) a = 3; 4a + 3 = 9
(b) x =
4
3
;
3
4
x +
1
2
=
3
2
(c) y = 2; 2.5y 10.0 = 5.0
(d) z = 5; 2(5 2z) = 20 2(z 1)
4. Check that the given number is a solution to the corresponding inequality.
(a) x = 12; 2(x + 6) 8x
(b) z = 9; 1.4z + 5.2 > 0.4z
(c) y = 40;
5
2
y +
1
2
< 18
(d) t = 0.4; 80 10(3t + 2)
5. The cost of a Ford Focus is 27% of the price of a Lexus GS 450h. If the price of the
Ford is $15000, what is the price of the Lexus?
6. On your new job you can be paid in one of two ways. You can either be paid $1000
per month plus 6% commission of total sales or be paid $1200 per month plus 5%
commission on sales over $2000. For what amount of sales is the rst option better
than the second option? Assume there are always sales over $2000.
Review Answers
1. (a) x = number of square yards of lawn; 25 = 10 + 0.2x
(b) p = number of people at the party; 324 = 200 + 4p
(c) m = number of miles; 55 + 0.45m = 100
(d) n = number of blocks; n = 4 + 7
2. (a) x = number of passengers; x 65
(b) n = the rst integer; 2n + 1 < 54
(c) P = amount of money invested; 0.05P 250
(d) n = number of hamburgers; 0.49n 3
3. (a) 4(3) + 3 = 9 so 12 + 3 = 9 so 9 = 9. This is a true statement.
(b)
3
4
_
4
3
_
+
1
2
=
3
2
so 1 +
1
2
=
3
2
so
3
2
=
3
2
This is a true statement.
(c) 2.5(2)10.0 = 5.0 so 5.010.0 = 5.0 so 5.0 = 5.0. This is a true statement.
(d) 2(5 2(5)) = 20 2((5) 1) so 2(5 + 10) = 20 2(6) so 2(15) = 20 + 12 so
30 = 32. This is not a true statement.
4. (a) 2(12 + 6) 8(12) so 2(18) 96 so 36 96. This is true statement.
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(b) 1.4(9) + 5.2 > 0.4(9) so 12.6 + 5.2 > 3.6 so 7.4 > 3.6. This is not a
true statement.
(c)
5
2
(40) < 18 so 100 +
1
2
< 18 so 99.5 < 18. This is a true statement.
(d) 80 10(3(0.4) +2) so 80 10(1.2 +2) so 80 10(3.2) so 80 32. This is a true
statement.
5. x = price of a Lexus; 0.27x = 15000; x = $55556
6. x = total sales; 1000 + 0.06x > 1200 + 0.05(x 2000) so x > 10000.
1.5 Functions as Rules and Tables
Learning Objectives
Identify the domain and range of a function.
Make a table for a function.
Write a function rule.
Represent a real-world situation with a function.
Introduction
A function is a rule for relating two or more variables. For example, the price a person
pays for phone service may depend on the number of minutes he/she talks on the phone. We
would say that the cost of phone service is a function of the number of minutes she talks.
Consider the following situation.
Josh goes to an amusement park where he pays $2 per ride.
There is a relationship between the number of rides on which Josh goes and the total cost
for the day. To gure out the cost you multiply the number of rides by two. A function
is the rule that takes us from the number of rides to the cost. Functions usually, but not
always are rules based on mathematical operations. You can think of a function as a box or
a machine that contains a mathematical operation.
A set of numbers is fed into the function box. Those numbers are changed by the given
operation into a set of numbers that come out from the opposite side of the box. We can
input dierent values for the number of rides and obtain the cost.
51 www.ck12.org
The input is called the independent variable because its value can be any possible number.
The output results from applying the operation and is called the dependent variable
because its value depends on the input value.
Often functions are more complicated than the one in this example. Functions usually
contain more than one mathematical operation. Here is a situation that is slightly more
complicated.
Jason goes to an amusement park where he pays $8 admission and $2 per ride.
This function represents the total amount Jason pays. The rule for the function is multiply
the number of rides by 2 and add 8.
We input dierent values for the number of rides and we arrive at dierent outputs (costs).
These ow diagrams are useful in visualizing what a function is. However, they are cumber-
some to use in practice. We use the following short-hand notation instead.
First, we dene the variables.
x = the number of rides Josh goes on
y = the total amount of money Jason paid at the amusement park.
So, x represents the input and y represents the output. The notation: f() represents the
function or the mathematical operations we use on the input to obtain the output. In the last
example, the cost is 2 times the number of rides plus 8. This can be written as a function.
f(x) = 2x + 8
The output is given by the formula f(x) = 2x + 8 . The notations y and f(x) are used
interchangeably but keep in mind that y represents output value and f(x) represents the
mathematical operations that gets us from the input to the output.
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Identify the Domain and Range of a Function
In the last example, we saw that we can input the number of rides into the function to give
us the total cost for going to the amusement park. The set of all values that are possible for
the input is called the domain of the function. The set of all values that are possible for
the output is called the range of function. In many situations the domain and range of
a function is the set of all real numbers, but this is not always the case. Lets look at our
amusement park example.
Example 1
Find the domain and range of the function that describes the situation:
Jason goes to an amusement park where he pays $8 admission and $2 per ride.
Solution
Here is the function that describes this situation.
f(x) = 2x + 8 = y
In this function, x is the number of rides and y is the total cost. To nd the domain of the
function, we need to determine which values of x make sense as the input.
The values have to be zero or positive because Jason cant go on a negative number of
rides.
The values have to be integers because, for example, Jason could not go on 2.25 rides.
Realistically, there must be a maximum number of rides that Jason can go on because
the park closes, he runs out of money, etc. However, since we are not given any
information about this we must consider that all non-negative integers could be possible
regardless of how big they are.
Answer For this function, the domain is the set of all non-negative integers.
To nd the range of the function we must determine what the values of y will be when we
apply the function to the input values. The domain is the set of all non-negative integers
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6...). Next we plug these values into the function for x.
f(x) = 2x + 8 = y
Then, y = 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, . . .
Answer The range of this function is the set of all even integers greater than or equal to 8.
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Example 2
Find the domain and range of the following functions.
a) A ball is dropped from a height and it bounces up to 75% of its original height.
b) y = x
2
Solution
a) Lets dene the variables:
x = original height
y = bounce height
Here is a function that describes the situation. y = f(x) = 0.75x.
The variable x can take any real value greater than zero.
The variable y can also take any real value greater than zero.
Answer The domain is the set of all real numbers greater than zero.
The range is the set of all real numbers greater than zero.
b) Since we dont have a word-problem attached to this equation we can assume that we can
use any real number as a value of x.
Since y = x
2
, the value of y will always be non-negative whether x is positive, negative, or
zero.
Answer The domain of this function is all real numbers.
The range of this function is all non-negative real numbers
As we saw, for a function, the variable x is called the independent variable because it can
be any of the values from the domain. The variable y is called the dependent variable
because its value depends on x. Any symbols can be used to represent the dependent and
independent variables. Here are three dierent examples.
y = f(x) = 3x
R = f(w) = 3w
v = f(t) = 3t
These expressions all represent the same function. The dependent variable is three times
the independent variable. In practice, the symbols used for the independent and dependent
variables are based on common usage. For example: t for time, d for distance, v for velocity,
etc. The standard symbols to use are y for the dependent variable and x for the independent
variable.
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A Function:
Only accepts numbers from the domain.
For each input, there is exactly one output. All the outputs form the range.
Multimedia Link For another look at the domain of a function, see the following video
where the narrator solves a sample problem from the California Standards Test about nding
the domain of an unusual function Khan Academy CA Algebra I Functions (6:34) .
Figure 1.1: 79-80, functions, domain and range (Watch on Youtube)
Make a Table For a Function
A table is a very useful way of arranging the data represented by a function. We can match
the input and output values and arrange them as a table. Take the amusement park example
again.
Jason goes to an amusement park where he pays $8 admission and $2 per ride.
We saw that to get from the input to the output we perform the operations 2 input +
8. For example, we input the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and we obtain the output values
8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20. Next, we can make the following table of values.
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x y
0 8
1 10
2 12
3 14
4 16
5 18
6 20
A table allows us organize out data in a compact manner. It also provides an easy reference
for looking up data, and it gives us a set of coordinate points that we can plot to create a
graphical representation of the function.
Example 3
Make a table of values for the following functions.
a) f(x) = 5x 9 Use the following numbers for input values: 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4.
b) f(x) =
1
x
Use the following numbers for input values: 1, 0.5, 0.2, 0.1, 0.01, 0.01, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1.
Solution
Make a table of values by lling the rst column with the input values and the second column
with the output values calculated using the given function.
a)
x f(x) = 5x 9 = y
4 5(4) 9 = 29
3 5(3) 9 = 24
2 5(2) 9 = 19
1 5(1) 9 = 14
0 5(0) 9 = 9
1 5(1) 9 = 4
2 5(2) 9 = 1
3 5(3) 9 = 6
4 5(4) 9 = 11
b)
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x f(x) =
1
x
= y
1
1
1
= 1
0.5
1
0.5
= 2
0.2
1
0.2
= 5
0.1
1
0.1
= 10
0.01
1
0.01
= 100
0.01
1
0.01
= 100
0.1
1
0.1
= 10
0.2
1
0.2
= 5
0.5
1
0.5
= 2
1.0
1
1
= 1
You are not usually given the input values of a function. These are picked based on the
particular function or circumstance. We will discuss how we pick the input values for the
table of values throughout this book.
Write a Function Rule
In many situations, we collect data by conducting a survey or an experiment. Then we
organize the data in a table of values. Most often, we would like to nd the function rule or
formula that ts the set of values in the table. This way we can use the rule to predict what
could happen for values that are not in the table.
Example 4
Write a function rule for the table.
Number of CDs 2 4 6 8 10
Cost($) 24 48 72 86 120
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Solution
You pay $24 for 2 CDs, $48 for 4 CDs, $120 for 10 CDs. That means that each CD costs
$12.
We can write the function rule.
Cost = $12 number of CDs or f(x) = 12x
Example 5
Write a function rule for the table.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Solution
You can see that a negative number turns in the same number but a positive and a non-
negative number stays the same. This means that the output values are obtained by applying
the absolute value function to the input values: f(x) = |x|.
Writing a functional rule is probably the hardest thing to do in mathematics. In this book,
you will write functional rules mostly for linear relationships which are the simplest type of
function.
Represent a Real-World Situation with a Function
Lets look at a few real-world situations that can be represented by a function.
Example 5
Maya has an internet service that currently has a monthly access fee of $11.95 and a con-
nection fee of $0.50 per hour. Represent her monthly cost as a function of connection time.
Solution
Dene Let x = the number of hours Maya spends on the internet in one month
Let y = Mayas monthly cost
Translate There are two types of cost at fee of $11.95 and charge per hour of $0.50
The total cost = at fee + hourly fee number of hours
Answer The function is y = f(x) = 11.95 + 0.50x
Example 6
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Alfredo wants a deck build around his pool. The dimensions of the pool are 12 feet 24 feet.
He does not want to spend more than a set amount and the decking costs $3 per square
foot. Write the cost of the deck as a function of the width of the deck.
Solution
Dene Let x = width of the deck
Let y = cost of the deck
Make a sketch and label it
Translate You can look at the decking as being formed by several rectangles and squares.
We can nd the areas of all the separate pieces and add them together:
Area of deck = 12x + 12x + 24x + 24x +x
2
+x
2
+x
2
+x
2
+ 72x + 4x
2
To nd the toal cost we multiply the area by the cost per square foot.
Answer f(x) = 3(72x + 4x
2
) = 216x + 12x
2
Example 7
A cell phone company sel ls two mil lion phones in their rst year of business. The number
of phones they sel l doubles each year. Write a function that gives the number of phones that
are sold per year as a function of how old the company is.
Solution
Dene Let x = age of company in years
Let y = number of phones that are sold per year
Make a table
Age (years) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of phones (millions) 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Write a function rule
The number of phones sold per year doubles every year. We start with one million the rst
year:
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Year1 : 2 million
Year2 : 2 2 = 4 million
Year3 : 2 2 2 = 8 million
Year4 : 2 2 2 2 = 16 million
We can keep multiplying by two to nd the number of phones sold in the next years. You
might remember that when we multiply a number by itself several times we can use expo-
nential notation.
2 = 2
1
2 2 = 2
2
2 2 2 = 2
3
In this problem, the exponent represents the age of the company.
Answer y = f(x) = 2
x
Review Questions
Identify the domain and range of the following functions.
1. Dustin charges $10 per hour for mowing lawns.
2. Maria charges $25 per hour for tutoring math, with a minimum charge of $15.
3. f(x) = 15x 12
4. f(x)2x
2
+ 5
5. f(x) =
1
x
6. What is the range of the function y = x
2
5 when the domain is 2, 1, 0, 1, 2?
7. What is the range of the function y = 2x
3
4
when the domain is 2.5, 1.5, 5?
8. Angie makes $6.50 per hour working as a cashier at the grocery store. Make a table of
values that shows her earning for input values 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30.
9. The area of a triangle is given by: A =
1
2
bh. If the height of the triangle is 8 centimeters,
make a table of values that shows the area of the triangle for heights 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6
centimeters.
10. Make a table of values for the function f(x) =

2x + 3 for input values 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

11. Write a function rule for the table
x 3 4 5 6
y 9 16 25 36
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12. Write a function rule for the table
hours 0 1 2 3
cost 15 20 25 30
13. Write a function rule for the table
x 0 1 2 3
y 24 12 6 3
14. Write a function that represents the number of cuts you need to cut a ribbon in x
number of pieces.
15. Solomon charges a $40 at rate and $25 per hour to repair a leaky pipe. Write a
function that represents the total fee charge as a function of hours worked. How much
does Solomon earn for a 3 hour job?
16. Rochelle has invested $2500 in a jewelry making kit. She makes bracelets that she can
sell for $12.50 each. How many bracelets does Rochelle need to make before she breaks
even?
Review Answers
1. Domain: non-negative rational numbers; Range: non-negative rational numbers.
2. Domain: non-negative rational numbers; Range: rational numbers greater than 15.
3. Domain: all real numbers; Range: all real numbers.
4. Domain: all real numbers; Range: real number greater than or equal to 5.
5. Domain: all real numbers except 0; Range: all real numbers except 0.
6. 1, 4, 5
7. 2, 0,
7
4
8.
hours 5 10 15 20 25 30
earnings $32.50 $65 $97.50 $130 $162.50 $195
9.
height (cm) 1 2 3 4 5 6
Area 4 8 12 16 20 24
10.
x 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 1 1.73 2.24 2.65 3 3.32 3.6
11. y = x
2
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12. y = 15 + 5x
13. y =
24
2
x
14. f(x) = x 1
15. y = 40 + 25x; $115
16. 200 bracelets
1.6 Functions as Graphs
Learning Objectives
Graph a function from a rule or table.
Write a function rule from a graph.
Analyze the graph of a real world situation.
Determine whether a relation is a function.
Introduction
We represent functions graphically by plotting points on a Coordinate Plane (this is
also sometimes called the Cartesian plane). The coordinate plane is a grid formed by a
horizontal number line and a vertical number line that cross at a point called the origin.
The origin is point (0, 0) and it is the starting location. In order to plot points on the grid,
you are told how many units you go right or left and how many units you go up or down
from the origin. The horizontal line is called the xaxis and the vertical line is called the
yaxis. The arrows at the end of each axis indicate that the plane continues past the end
of the drawing.
From a function, we can gather information in terms of pairs of points. For each value of
the independent variable in the domain, the function is used to calculate the value of the
dependent variable. We call these pairs of points coordinate points or x, y values and
they are written as (x, y).
To graph a coordinate point such as (4, 2) we start at the origin.
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Then we move 4 units to the right.
And then we move 2 units up from the last location.
Example 1
Plot the following coordinate points on the Cartesian plane.
(a) (5, 3)
(b) (2, 6)
(c) (3, 4)
(d) (5, 7)
Solution
We show all the coordinate points on the same plot.
Notice that:
For a positive x value we move to the right.
For a negative x value we move to the left.
For a positive y value we move up.
For a negative y value we move down.
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The xaxis and yaxis divide the coordinate plane into four quadrants. The quadrants
are numbered counter-clockwise starting from the upper right. The plotted point for (a) is
in the First quadrant, (b) is in the Second quadrant, (c) is in the Fourth quadrant, and
(d) is in the Third quadrant.
Graph a Function From a Rule or Table
Once a rule is known or if we have a table of values that describes a function, we can draw
a graph of the function. A table of values gives us coordinate points that can be plotted on
the Cartesian plane.
Example 2
Graph the function that has the fol lowing table of values.
x 2 1 0 1 2
y 6 8 10 12 14
Solution
The table gives us ve sets of coordinate points (2, 6), (1, 8), (0, 10), (1, 12), (2, 14).
To graph the function, we plot all the coordinate points. Since we are not told the domain
of the function or the context where it appears we can assume that the domain is the set of
all real numbers. To show that the function holds for all values in the domain, we connect
the points with a smooth line. Also, we must realize that the line continues innitely in both
directions.
Example 3
Graph the function that has the fol lowing table of values.
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Side of the Square 0 1 2 3 4
Area of the Square 0 1 4 9 16
The table gives us ve sets of coordinate points: (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16).
To graph the function, we plot all the coordinate points. Since we are not told the domain
of the function, we can assume that the domain is the set of all non-negative real numbers.
To show that the function holds for all values in the domain, we connect the points with a
smooth curve. The curve does not make sense for negative values of the independent variable
so it stops at x = 0 but it continues innitely in the positive direction.
Example 4
Graph the function that has the fol lowing table of values.
Number of Balloons 12 13 14 15 16
Cost 41 44 47 50 53
This function represents the total cost of the balloons delivered to your house. Each balloon
is $3 and the store delivers if you buy a dozen balloons or more. The delivery charge is a $5
at fee.
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Solution
The table gives us ve sets of coordinate points (12, 41), (13, 44), (14, 47), (15, 50), (16, 53).
To graph the function, we plot all the coordinate points. Since the xvalues represent the
number of balloons for 12 balloons or more, the domain of this function is all integers greater
than or equal to 12. In this problem, the points are not connected by a line or curve because
it does not make sense to have non-integer values of balloons.
In order to draw a graph of a function given the function rule, we must rst make a table
of values. This will give us a set of coordinate points that we can plot on the Cartesian
plane. Choosing the values of the independent variables for the table of values is a skill you
will develop throughout this course. When you pick values here are some of the things you
should keep in mind.
Pick only values from the domain of the function.
If the domain is the set of real numbers or a subset of the real numbers, the graph will
be a continuous curve.
If the domain is the set of integers of a subset of the integers, the graph will be a set
of points not connected by a curve.
Picking integers is best because it makes calculations easier, but sometimes we need
to pick other values to capture all the details of the function.
Often we start with a set of values. Then after drawing the graph, we realize that we
need to pick dierent values and redraw the graph.
Example 5
Graph the following function f(x) = |x 2|
Solution
Make a table of values. Pick a variety of negative and positive integer values for the inde-
pendent variable. Use the function rule to nd the value of the dependent variable for each
value of the independent variable. Then, graph each of the coordinate points.
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x y = f(x) = |x 2|
4 | 4 2| = | 6| = 6
3 | 3 2| = | 5| = 5
2 | 2 2| = | 4| = 4
1 | 1 2| = | 3| = 3
0 |0 2| = | 2| = 2
1 |1 2| = | 1| = 1
2 |2 2| = |0| = 0
3 |3 2| = |1| = 1
4 |4 2| = |2| = 2
5 |5 2| = |3| = 3
6 |6 2| = |4| = 4
7 |7 2| = |5| = 5
8 |8 2| = |6| = 6
It is wise to work with a lot of values when you begin graphing. As you learn about dierent
types of functions, you will nd that you will only need a few points in the table of values
to create an accurate graph.
Example 6
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Graph the following function: f(x) =

x
Solution
Make a table of values. We cannot use negative numbers for the independent variable because
we cant take the square root of a negative number. The square root doesnt give real answers
for negative inputs. The domain is all positive real numbers, so we pick a variety of positive
integer values for the independent variable. Use the function rule to nd the value of the
dependent variable for each value of the independent variable.
x y = f(x) =

x
0

0 = 0
1

1 = 1
2

2 1.41
3

3 1.73
4

4 = 2
5

5 2.24
6

6 2.45
7

7 2.65
8

8 2.83
9

9 = 3
Note that the range is all positive real numbers.
Example 7
The post oice charges 41 cents to send a letter that is one ounce or less and an extra 17
cents for any amount up to and including an additional ounce. This rate applies to letters
up to 3.5 ounces.
Solution
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Make a table of values. We cannot use negative numbers for the independent variable because
it does not make sense to have negative weight. We pick a variety of positive integer values
for the independent variable but we also need to pick some decimal values because prices
can be decimals too. This will give us a clear picture of the function. Use the function rule
to nd the value of the dependent variable for each value of the independent variable.
x y
0 0
0.2 41
0.5 41
0.8 41
1 41
1.2 58
1.5 58
1.8 58
2 58
2.2 75
2.5 75
2.8 75
3.0 75
3.2 92
3.5 92
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Write a Function Rule from a Graph
Sometimes you will need to nd the equation or rule of the function by looking at the graph
of the function. From a graph, you can read pairs of coordinate points that are on the curve
of the function. The coordinate points give values of dependent and independent variables
that are related to each other by the rule. However, we must make sure that this rule works
for all the points on the curve. In this course you will learn to recognize dierent kinds of
functions. There will be specic methods that you can use for each type of function that
will help you nd the function rule. For now we will look at some simple examples and
nd patterns that will help us gure out how the dependent and independent variables are
related.
Example 8
The graph to the right shows the distance that an ant covers over time. Find the function
rule that shows how distance and time are related to each other.
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Solution
We make table of values of several coordinate points to see if we can identify a pattern of
how they are related to each other.
Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Distance 0 1.5 3 4.5 6 7.5 9
We can see that for every second the distance increases by 1.5 feet. We can write the function
rule as:
Distance = 1.5 time
The equation of the function is f(x) = 1.5x
Example 9
Find the function rule that describes the function shown in the graph.
Solution:
We make a table of values of several coordinate points to see if we can identify a pattern of
how they are related to each other.
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x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y 8 4.5 2 .5 0 .5 2 4.5 8
We notice that the values of y are half of perfect squares. Re-write the table of values as:
x 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
y
16
2
9
2
4
2
1
2
0
2
1
2
4
2
9
2
16
2
We can see that to obtain y, we square x and divide by 2.
The function rule is y =
1
2
x
2
and the equation of the function is f(x) =
1
2
x
2
.
Example 10
Find the function rule that shows what is the volume of a balloon at dierent times.
Solution
We make table of values of several coordinate points to see if we can identify a pattern of
how they are related to each other.
Time 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Volume 10 5 2.5 1.2 0.6 0.3 0.15
We can see that for every day the volume of the balloon is cut in half. Notice that the graph
shows negative time. The negative time can represent what happened on days before you
started measuring the volume.
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Day0 : Volume = 5
Day1 : Volume = 5
1
2
Day2 : Volume = 5
1
2

1
2
Day3 : Volume = 5
1
2

1
2

1
2
The equation of the function is f(x) = 5
_
1
2
_
x
Analyze the Graph of a Real-World Situation
Graphs are used to represent data in all areas of life. You can nd graphs in newspapers,
political campaigns, science journals and business presentations.
Here is an example of a graph you might see reported in the news. Most mainstream
scientists believe that increased emissions of greenhouse cases, particularly carbon dioxide,
are contributing to the warming of the planet. This graph shows how carbon dioxide levels
have increased as the world has industrialized.
From this graph, we can nd the concentration of carbon dioxide found in the atmosphere
in dierent years.
1900 285 part per million
1930 300 part per million
1950 310 parts per million
1990 350 parts per million
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We can nd approximate function rules for these types of graphs using methods that you learn
in more advanced math classes. The function f(x) = 0.0066x
2
24.9x+23765 approximates
this graph very well.
Determine Whether a Relation is a Function
You saw that a function is a relation between the independent and the dependent variables.
It is a rule that uses the values of the independent variable to give the values of the dependent
variable. A function rule can be expressed in words, as an equation, as a table of values
and as a graph. All representations are useful and necessary in understanding the relation
between the variables. Mathematically, a function is a special kind of relation.
In a function, for each input there is exactly one output.
This usually means that each xvalue has only one yvalue assigned to it. But, not all
functions involve x and y.
Consider the relation that shows the heights of all students in a class. The domain is the set
of people in the class and the range is the set of heights. Each person in the class cannot be
more than one height at the same time. This relation is a function because for each person
there is exactly one height that belongs to him or her.
Notice that in a function, a value in the range can belong to more than one element in the
domain, so more than one person in the class can have the same height. The opposite is not
possible, one person cannot have multiple heights.
Example 11
Determine if the relation is a function.
a) (1, 3), (1, 2), (3, 5), (2, 5), (3, 4)
b) (3, 20), (5, 25), (1, 5), (7, 12), (9, 2)
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c)
x 2 4 6 8 10
y 41 44 47 50 53
d)
x 2 1 0 1 2
y 12 10 8 6 4
Solution
The easiest way to gure out if a relation is a function is to look at all the xvalues in the
list or the table. If a value of x appears more than once and the yvalues are dierent then
the relation is not a function.
a) (1, 3), (1, 2), (3, 5), (2, 5), (3, 4)
You can see that in this relation there are two dierent yvalues that belong to the xvalue
of 3. This means that this relation in not a function.
b) (3, 20), (5, 25), (1, 5), (7, 12), (9, 2)
Each value of x has exactly one yvalue. The relation is a function.
c)
x 2 4 6 8 10
y 4 4 4 4 4
Each value of x appears only once. The relation is a function.
d)
x 2 1 0 1 2
y 12 10 8 6 4
In this relation there are two yvalues that belong to the xvalue of 2 and two yvalues
that belong to the xvalue of 1. The relation is not a function.
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When a relation is represented graphically, we can determine if it is a function by using the
vertical line test. If you can draw a vertical line that crosses the graph in more than one
place, then the relation is not a function. Here are some examples.
Not a function. It fails the vertical line test.
A function. No vertical line will cross more than one point on the graph.
A function. No vertical line will cross more than one point on the graph.
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Not a function. It fails the vertical line test.
Review Questions
1. Plot the coordinate points on the Cartesian plane.
(a) (4, 4)
(b) (2, 7)
(c) (3, 5)
(d) (6, 3)
(e) (4, 3)
2. Give the coordinates for each point in the Cartesian plane.
3. Graph the function that has the following table of values.
(a)
x 10 5 0 5 10
y 3 0.5 2 4.5 7
(b)
side of cube (in) 0 1 2 3
volume(in
3
) 0 1 8 27
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(c)
time (hours) 2 1 0 1 2
distance from town center (miles) 50 25 0 25 50
4. Graph the following functions.
(a) Brandon is a member of a movie club. He pays a $50 annual membership and $8
per movie.
(b) f(x) = (x 2)
2
(c) f(x) = 3.2
x
5. Determine whether each relation is a function:
(a) (1, 7), (2, 7), (3, 8), (4, 8), (5, 9)
(b) (1, 1), (1, 1), (4, 2), (4, 2), (9, 3), (9, 3)
(c)
x 4 3 2 1 0
y 16 9 4 1 0
(d)
Age 20 25 25 30 35
Number of jobs by that age 3 4 7 4 2
6. Write the function rule for each graph.
(a)
(b)
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7. The students at a local high school took The Youth Risk Behavior Survey. The graph
below shows the percentage of high school students who reported that they were current
smokers. A person qualies as a current smoker if he/she has smoked one or more
cigarettes in the past 30 days. What percentage of high-school students were current
smokers in the following years?
(a) 1991
(b) 1996
(c) 2004
(d) 2005
8. The graph below shows the average life-span of people based on the year in which they
were born. This information comes from the National Vital Statistics Report from
the Center for Disease Control. What is the average life-span of a person born in the
following years?
(a) 1940
(b) 1955
(c) 1980
(d) 1995
9. The graph below shows the median income of an individual based on his/her number of
years of education. The top curve shows the median income for males and the bottom
curve shows the median income for females. (Source: US Census, 2003.) What is the
median income of a male that has the following years of education?
(a) 10 years of education
(b) 17 years of education
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(c) What is the median income of a female that has the same years of education?
(d) 10 years of education
(e) 17 years of education
(f)
10. Use the vertical line test to determine whether each relation is a function.
(a)
(b)
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Review Answers
1.
2. (a) (6, 4);
(b) (7, 6);
(c) (8, 2);
(d) (4, 7);
(e) (5, 0)
3. (a)
(b)
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(c)
4. (a)
(b)
(c)
5. (a) function
(b) not a function
(c) function
(d) not a function
6. (a) f(x) =
1
2
|x|
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(b) f(x) =

x
7. (a) 27.5%
(b) 35.6%
(c) 22.2%
(d) 23%
8. (a) 63 years
(b) 69 years
(c) 74 years
(d) 76 years
9. (a) $19, 500
(b) $56, 000
(c) $10, 000
(d) $35, 000
10. (a) function
(b) not a function
1.7 Problem-Solving Plan
Learning Objectives
Read and understand given problem situations.
Make a plan to solve the problem.
Solve the problem and check the results.
Compare alternative approaches to solving the problem.
Solve real-world problems using a plan.
Introduction
We always think of mathematics as the subject in school where we solve lots of problems.
Throughout your experience with mathematics you have solved many problems and you will
certainly encounter many more. Problem solving is necessary in all aspects of life. Buying
a house, renting a car, guring out which is the better sale are just a few examples where
people use problem solving techniques. In this book, you will use a systematic plan to solve
real-world problem and learn dierent strategies and approaches to solving problems. In this
section, we will introduce a problem-solving plan that will be useful throughout this book.
Read and Understand a Given Problem Situation
The rst step to solving a word problem is to read and understand the problem. Here
are a few questions that you should be asking yourself.
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What am I trying to nd out?
What information have I been given?
Have I ever solved a similar problem?
This is also a good time to dene any variables. When you identify your knowns and
unknowns, it is often useful to assign them a letter to make notation and calculations
easier.
Make a Plan to Solve the Problem
The next step in the problem-solving plan is to make a plan or develop a strategy. How
can the information you know assist you in guring out the unknowns?
Here are some common strategies that you will learn.
Drawing a diagram.
Making a table.
Looking for a pattern.
Using guess and check.
Working backwards.
Using a formula.
Reading and making graphs.
Writing equations.
Using linear models.
Using dimensional analysis.
Using the right type of function for the situation.
In most problems, you will use a combination of strategies. For example, drawing a diagram
and looking for patterns are good strategies for most problems. Also, making a table and
drawing a graph are often used together. The writing an equation strategy is the one you
will work with the most in your study of algebra.
Solve the Problem and Check the Results
Once you develop a plan, you can implement it and solve the problem. That means using
tables, graph and carrying out all operations to arrive at the answer you are seeking.
The last step in solving any problem should always be to check and interpret the answer.
Here are some questions to help you to do that.
Does the answer make sense?
If you plug the solution back into the problem do all the numbers work out?
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Can you use another method to arrive at the same answer?
Compare Alternative Approaches to Solving the Problem
Sometimes a certain problem is best solved by using a specic method. Most of the time,
however, it can be solved by using several dierent strategies. When you are familiar with
all of the problem-solving strategies, it is up to you to choose the methods that you are most
comfortable with and that make sense to you. In this book, we will often use more than one
method to solve a problem. This way we can demonstrate the strengths and weakness of
dierent strategies when applied to dierent types of problems.
Regardless of the strategy you are using, you should always implement the problem-solving
plan when you are solving word problems. Here is a summary of the problem-solving plan.
Step 1
Understand the problem
Read the problem carefully. Once the problem is read, list all the components and data that
are involved. This is where you will be assigning your variables.
Step 2
Devise a plan Translate
Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation, draw a diagram, make a
chart or construct a table as a start to solve your problem solving plan.
Step 3
Carry out the plan Solve
This is where you solve the equation you developed in Step 2.
Step 4
Look Check and Interpret
Check to see if you used all your information. Then look to see if the answer makes sense.
Solve Real-World Problems Using a Plan
Lets now apply this problem solving plan to a problem.
Example 1
A coee maker is on sale at 50% o the regular ticket price. On the Sunday Super Sale
the same coee maker is on sale at an additional 40% o. If the nal price is $21, what
was the original price of the coee maker?
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Solution:
Step 1
Understand
We know: A coee maker is discounted 50% and then 40%
The nal price is $21.
We want: The original price of the coee maker.
Step 2
Strategy
Lets look at the given information and try to nd the relationship between the information
we know and the information we are trying to nd.
50% o the original price means that the sale price is half of the original or 0.5 original
price
So, the rst sale price = 0.5 original price
A savings of 40% o the new price means you pay 60% of the new price 0.6 new price
= 0.6 (0.5 original price) = 0.3 original price
So, the price after the second sale = 0.3 original price
We know that after two sales, the nal price is $21
0.3 original price = $21
Step 3
Solve
Since 0.3 original price = $21
We can nd the original price by dividing $21 by 0.3.
Original price = $21 0.3 = $70
Answer The original price of the coee maker was $70.
Step 4
Check
We found that the original price of the coee maker is $70.
To check that this is correct lets apply the discounts.
50% of $70 = .5 $70 = $35 savings.
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So, after the rst sale you pay: original price savings = $70 $35 = $35.
40% of $35 = .4 $35 = $14 savings.
So, after the second sale you pay: $35 $14 = $21.
The answer checks out.
Review Questions
1. A sweatshirt costs $35. Find the total cost if the sales tax is 7.75%.
2. This year you got a 5% raise. If your new salary is $45, 000, what was your salary
before the raise?
3. It costs $250 to carpet a room that is 14 ft 18 ft. How much does it cost to carpet a
room that is 9 ft 10 ft?
4. A department store has a 15% discount for employees. Suppose an employee has a
coupon worth $10 o any item and she wants to buy a $65 purse. What is the nal
cost of the purse if the employee discount is applied before the coupon is subtracted?
5. To host a dance at a hotel you must pay $250 plus $20 per guest. How much money
would you have to pay for 25 guests?
6. It costs $12 to get into the San Diego County Fair and $1.50 per ride. If Rena spent
$24 in total, how many rides did she go on?
7. An ice cream shop sells a small cone for $2.95, a medium cone for $3.50 and a large
cone for $4.25. Last Saturday, the shop sold 22 small cones, 26 medium cones and 15
large cones. How much money did the store earn?
8. The sum of angles in a triangle is 180 degrees. If the second angle is twice the size of
the rst angle and the third angle is three times the size of the rst angle, what are
the measures of the angles in the triangle?
Review Answers
1. $37.71
2. $42857
3. $89.29
4. $45.25
5. $750
6. 8 rides
7. $219.65
8. 30

, 60

, 90

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1.8 Problem-Solving Strategies: Make a Table and Look
for a Pattern
Learning Objectives
Read and understand given problem situations.
Develop and use the strategy: make a table.
Develop and use the strategy: look for a pattern.
Plan and compare alternative approaches to solving the problem.
Solve real-world problems using selected strategies as part of a plan.
Introduction
In this section, we will apply the problem-solving plan you learned about in the last section
to solve several real-world problems. You will learn how to develop and use the methods
make a table and look for a pattern. Lets review our problem-solving plan.
Step 1
Understand the problem Read the problem carefully. Once the problem is read, list
all the components and data that are involved. This is where you will be assigning your
variables.
Step 2
Devise a plan Translate
Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation, draw a diagram, make a
chart or construct a table as a start to solving your problem.
Step 3
Carry out the plan Solve
This is where you solve the equation you developed in Step 2.
Step 4
Look Check and Interpret
Check to see if you used all your information. Then look to see if the answer makes sense.
Read and Understand Given Problem Situations
The most diicult parts of problem-solving are most often the rst two steps in our problem-
solving plan. You need to read the problem and make sure you understand what you are
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being asked. If you do not understand the question, then you can not solve the problem.
Once you understand the problem, you can devise a strategy that uses the information you
have been given to arrive at a result.
Lets apply the rst two steps to the following problem.
Example 1:
Six friends are buying pizza together and they are planning to split the check equally. After
the pizza was ordered, one of the friends had to leave suddenly, before the pizza arrived.
Everyone left had to pay $1 extra as a result. How much was the total bill?
Step 1
Understand
We want to nd how much the pizza cost.
We know that ve people had to pay an extra $1 each when one of the original six friends
had to leave.
Step 2
Strategy
We can start by making a list of possible amounts for the total bill.
We divide the amount by six and then by ve. The total divided by ve should equal $1
more than the total divided by six.
Look for any patterns in the numbers that might lead you to the correct answer.
In the rest of this section you will learn how to make a table or look for a pattern to
gure out a solution for this type of problem. After you nish reading the rest of the section,
you can nish solving this problem for homework.
Develop and Use the Strategy: Make a Table
The method Make a Table is helpful when solving problems involving numerical relation-
ships. When data is organized in a table, it is easier to recognize patterns and relationships
between numbers. Lets apply this strategy to the following example.
Example 2
Josie takes up jogging. On the rst week she jogs for 10 minutes per day, on the second
week she jogs for 12 minutes per day. Each week, she wants to increase her jogging time by
2 minutes per day. If she jogs six days per week each week, what will be her total jogging
time on the sixth week?
Solution
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Step 1
Understand
We know in the rst week Josie jogs 10 minutes per day for six days.
We know in the second week Josie jogs 12 minutes per day for six days.
Each week, she increases her jogging time by 2 minutes per day and she jogs 6 days per
week.
We want to nd her total jogging time in week six.
Step 2
Strategy
A good strategy is to list the data we have been given in a table and use the information we
have been given to nd new information. We can make a table with the following headings.
Table 1.7:
Week Minutes per Day Minutes per Week
We are told that Josie jogs 10 minutes per day for six days in the rst week and 12 minutes
per day for six days in the second week. We can enter this information in our table:
Table 1.8:
Week Minutes per Day Minutes per Week
1 10 60
2 12 72
You are told that each week Josie increases her jogging time by 2 minutes per day and jogs
6 times per week. We can use this information to continue lling in the table until we
get to week six.
Table 1.9:
Week Minutes per Day Minutes per Week
1 10 60
2 12 72
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Table 1.9: (continued)
Week Minutes per Day Minutes per Week
3 14 84
4 16 96
5 18 108
6 20 120
Step 3
Apply strategy/solve
To get the answer we read the entry for week six.
Answer In week six Josie jogs a total of 120 minutes .
Step 4
Check
Josie increases her jogging time by two minutes per day. She jogs six days per week.
This means that she increases her jogging time by 12 minutes per week.
Josie starts at 60 minutes per week and she increases by 12 minutes per week for ve weeks.
That means the total jogging time = 60 + 12 5 = 120 minutes
The answer checks out.
You can see that by making a table we were able to organize and clarify the information
we were given. It also helped guide us in the next steps of the problem. This problem was
solved solely by making a table. In many situations, this strategy would be used together
with others to arrive at the solution.
Develop and Use the Strategy: Look for a Pattern
Look for a pattern is a strategy that you can use to look for patterns in the data in order
to solve problems. The goal is to look for items or numbers that are repeated or a series of
events that repeat. The following problem can be solved by nding a pattern.
Example 3
You arrange tennis balls in triangular shapes as shown. How many balls will there be in a
triangle that has 8 layers?
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Solution
Step 1
Understand
We know that we arrange tennis balls in triangles as shown.
We want to know how many balls there are in a triangle that has 8 layers.
Step 2
Strategy
A good strategy is to make a table and list how many balls are in triangles of dierent layers.
One layer It is simple to see that a triangle with one layer has only one ball.
Two layers For a triangle with two layers we add the balls from the top layer to the balls
of the bottom layer. It is useful to make a sketch of the dierent layers in the triangle.
= 2 + 1 = 3
Three layers we add the balls from the top triangle to the balls from the bottom layer.
= 3 + 3 = 6
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We can ll the rst three rows of the table.
Table 1.10:
Number of Layers Number of Balls
1 1
2 3
3 6
We can see a pattern.
To create the next triangle, we add a new bottom row to the existing triangle.
The new bottom row has the same number of balls as there are layers.
- A triangle with 3 layers has 3 balls in the bottom layer.
To get the total balls for the new triangle, we add the number of balls in the old triangle to
the number of rows in the new bottom layer.
Step 3
Apply strategy/solve:
We can complete the table by following the pattern we discovered.
Number of balls = number of balls in previous triangle + number of layers in the new triangle
Table 1.11:
Number of Layers Number of Balls
1 1
2 3
3 6
4 6 + 4 = 10
5 10 + 5 = 15
6 15 + 6 = 21
7 21 + 7 = 28
8 28 + 8 = 36
Answer There are 36 balls in a triangle arrangement with 8 layers.
Step 4
Check
Each layer of the triangle has one more ball than the previous one. In a triangle with 8
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layers,
layer 1 has 1 ball, layer 2 has 2 balls, layer 3 has 3 balls, layer 4 has 4 balls, layer 5 has 5
balls, layer 6 has 6balls, layer 7 has 7 balls, layer 8 has 8 balls.
When we add these we get: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 36 balls
The answer checks out.
Notice that in this example we made tables and drew diagrams to help us organize our
information and nd a pattern. Using several methods together is a very common practice
and is very useful in solving word problems.
Plan and Compare Alternative Approaches to Solving Prob-
lems
In this section, we will compare the methods of Making a Table and Looking for a Pattern
by using each method in turn to solve a problem.
Example 4
Andrew cashes a $180 check and wants the money in $10 and $20 bills. The bank teller gives
him 12 bills. How many of each kind of bil l does he receive?
Solution
Method 1: Making a Table
Step 1
Understand
Andrew gives the bank teller a $180 check.
The bank teller gives Andrew 12 bills. These bills are mixed $10 bills and $20 bills.
We want to know how many of each kind of bill Andrew receives.
Step 2
Strategy
Lets start by making a table of the dierent ways Andrew can have twelve $10 bills and $20
bills.
Andrew could have twelve $10 bills and zero $20 bills or eleven $10 bills and one $20 bills,
so on.
We can calculate the total amount of money for each case.
Step 3
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Apply strategy/solve
Table 1.12:
$10 bills $20 bills Total amount
12 0 $10(12) + $20(0) = $120
11 1 $10(11) + $20(1) = $130
10 2 $10(10) + $20(2) = $140
9 3 $10(9) + $20(3) = $150
8 4 $10(8) + $20(4) = $160
7 5 $10(7) + $20(5) = $170
6 6 $10(6) + $20(6) = $180
5 7 $10(5) + $20(7) = $190
4 8 $10(4) + $20(8) = $200
3 9 $10(3) + $20(9) = $210
2 10 $10(2) + $20(10) = $220
1 11 $10(1) + $20(11) = $230
0 12 $10(0) + $20(12) = $240
In the table we listed all the possible ways you can get twelve $10 bills and $20 bills and the
total amount of money for each possibility. The correct amount is given when Andrew
has six $10 bills and six $20 bills.
Answer: Andrew gets six $10 bills and six $20 bills.
Step 4
Check
Six $10 bills and six $20 bills = 6($10) + 6($20) = $60 + $120 = $180.
The answer checks out.
Lets solve the same problem using the method Look for a Pattern.
Method 2: Looking for a Pattern
Step 1
Understand
Andrew gives the bank teller a $180 check.
The bank teller gives Andrew 12 bills. These bills are mixed $10 bills and $20 bills.
We want to know how many of each kind of bill Andrew receives.
Step 2
95 www.ck12.org
Strategy
Lets start by making a table of the dierent ways Andrew can have twelve $10 bills and $20
bills.
Andrew could have twelve $10 bills and zero $20 bills or eleven $10 bills and one $20 bill, so
on.
We can calculate the total amount of money for each case.
Look for patterns appearing in the table that can be used to nd the solution.
Step 3
Apply strategy/solve
Lets ll the rows of the table until we see a pattern.
Table 1.13:
$10 bills $20 bills Total amount
12 0 $10(12) + $20(0) = $120
11 1 $10(11) + $20(1) = $130
10 2 $10(10) + $20(2) = $140
We see that every time we reduce the number of $10 bills by one and increase the number of
$20 bills by one, the total amount increased by $10. The last entry in the table gives a total
amount of $140 so we have $40 to go until we reach our goal. This means that we should
reduce the number of $10 bills by four and increase the number of $20 bills by four. We have
Six $10 bills and six $20 bills
6($10) + 6($20) = $180
Answer: Andrew gets six $10 bills and six $20 bills
Step 4
Check
Six $10 bills and six $20 bills = 6($10) + 6($20) = $60 + $120 = $180.
The answer checks out.
You can see that the second method we used for solving the problem was less tedious. In the
rst method, we listed all the possible options and found the answer we were seeking. In the
second method, we started with listing the options but we looked for a pattern that helped
www.ck12.org 96
us nd the solution faster. The methods of Making a Table and Look for a Pattern are
both more powerful if used alongside other problem-solving methods.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Selected Strategies as Part
of a Plan
Example 5:
Anne is making a box without a lid. She starts with a 20 in 20 in square piece of cardboard
and cuts out four equal squares from each corner of the cardboard as shown. She then folds
the sides of the box and glues the edges together. How big does she need to cut the corner
squares in order to make the box with the biggest volume?
Solution
Step 1
Understand
Anne makes a box out a 20 in 20 in piece of cardboard.
She cuts out four equal squares from the corners of the cardboard.
She folds the sides and glues them to make a box.
How big should the cut out squares be to make the box with the biggest volume?
Step 2
Strategy
We need to remember the formula for the volume of a box.
Volume = Area of base height
Volume = width length height
Make a table of values by picking dierent values for the side of the squares that we are
97 www.ck12.org
cutting out and calculate the volume.
Step 3
Apply strategy/solve
Lets make a box by cutting out four corner squares with sides equal to 1 inch. The
diagram will look like this:
You see that when we fold the sides over to make the box, the height becomes 1 inch, the
width becomes 18 inches and the length becomes 18 inches.
Volume = width length height
Volume = 18 18 1 = 324 in
3
Lets make a table that shows the value of the box for dierent square sizes:
Table 1.14:
Side of Square Box Height Box Width Box Length Volume
1 1 18 18 18181 = 324
2 2 16 16 16162 = 512
3 3 14 14 14143 = 588
4 4 12 12 12124 = 576
5 5 10 10 10105 = 500
6 6 8 8 8 8 6 = 384
7 7 6 6 6 6 7 = 252
8 8 4 4 4 4 8 = 128
9 9 2 2 2 2 9 = 36
10 10 0 0 0 0 10 = 0
We stop at a square of 10 inches because at this point we have cut out all of the cardboard
and we cannot make a box anymore. From the table we see that we can make the biggest
box if we cut out squares with a side length of three inches. This gives us a volume of 588
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in
3
.
Answer The box of greatest volume is made if we cut out squares with a side length of
three inches.
Step 4 Check
We see that 588 in
3
is the largest volume appearing in the table. We picked integer values
for the sides of the squares that we are cut out. Is it possible to get a larger value for the
volume if we pick non-integer values? Since we get the largest volume for the side length
equal to three inches, lets make another table with values close to three inches that is split
into smaller increments:
Table 1.15:
Side of Square Box Height Box Width Box Length Volume
2.5 2.5 15 15 15 15 2.5 =
562.5
2.6 2.6 14.8 14.8 14.8 14.8
2.6 = 569.5
2.7 2.7 14.6 14.6 14.6 14.6
2.7 = 575.5
2.8 2.8 14.4 14.4 14.4 14.4
2.8 = 580.6
2.9 2.9 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2
2.9 = 584.8
3 3 14 14 14143 = 588
3.1 3.1 13.8 13.8 13.8 13.8
3.1 = 590.4
3.2 3.2 13.6 13.6 13.6 13.6
3.2 = 591.9
3.3 3.3 13.4 13.4 13.4 13.4
3.3 = 592.5
3.4 3.4 13.2 13.2 13.2 13.2
3.4 = 592.4
3.5 3.5 13 13 13 13 3.5 =
591.5
Notice that the largest volume is not when the side of the square is three inches, but rather
when the side of the square is 3.3 inches .
Our original answer was not incorrect but it was obviously not as accurate as it could be.
You can get an even more accurate answer if we take even smaller increments of the
side length of the square. We can choose measurements that are smaller and larger
than 3.3 inches .
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The answer checks out if we want it rounded to zero decimal places but, A more accurate
answer is 3.3 inches .
Review Questions
1. Go back and nd the solution to the problem in Example 1.
2. Britt has $2.25 in nickels and dimes. If she has 40 coins in total how many of each
coin does she have?
3. A pattern of squares is out together as shown. How many squares are in the 12
th
diagram?
4. Oswald is trying to cut down on drinking coee. His goal is to cut down to 6 cups per
week. If he starts 24 cups the rst week, cuts down to 21 cups the second week, and
18 cups the third week, how many weeks will it take him to reach his goal?
5. Taylor checked out a book from the library and it is now 5 days late. The late fee is
10 cents per day. How much is the ne?
6. How many hours will a car traveling at 75 miles per hour take to catch up to a car
traveling at 55 miles per hour if the slower car starts two hours before the faster car?
7. Grace starts biking at 12 miles per hour. One hour later, Dan starts biking at 15 miles
per hour, following the same route. How long would it take him to catch up with Grace?
8. Lemuel wants to enclose a rectangular plot of land with a fence. He has 24 feet of
fencing. What is the largest possible area that he could enclose with the fence?
Review Answers
1. $30
2. 5 dimes and 35 nickels
3. 23 squares
4. 7 weeks
5. 50 cents
6. 5.5 hours
7. 5 hours
8. 3 ft in
3
1.9 Additional Resources
For more on problem solving, see this George Plya Wikipedia http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/George_P%C3%B3lya Wikipedia entry
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Chapter 2
Real Numbers
2.1 Integers and Rational Numbers
Learning Objectives
Graph and compare integers.
Classify and order rational numbers.
Find opposites of numbers.
Find absolute values.
Compare fractions to determine which is bigger.
Graph and Compare Integers
Integers are the counting numbers (1, 2, 3 . . .), the negative counting numbers (1, 2, 3 . . .),
and zero. There are an innite number of integers. Examples of integers are 0, 3, 76, 2, 11, 995, . . .
and you may know them by the name whole numbers. When we represent integers on the
number line they fall exactly on the whole numbers.
Example 1
Compare the numbers 2 and 5
First, we will plot the two numbers on a number line.
We can compare integers by noting which is the greatest and which is the least. The
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greatest number is farthest to the right, and the least is farthest to the left.
In the diagram above, we can see that 2 is farther to the right on the number line than 5,
so we say that 2 is greater than 5. We use the symbol > to mean greater than.
Solution
2 > 5
Example 2
A frog is sitting perfectly on top of number 7 on a number line. The frog jumps randomly to
the left or right, but always jumps a distance of exactly 2. Describe the set of numbers that
the frog may land on, and list al l the possibilities for the frogs position after exactly 5 jumps.
Solution
We will graph the frogs position, and also indicate what a jump of 2 looks like. We see that
one possibility is that the frog lands on 5. Another possibility is that it lands on 9. It is
clear that the frog will always land on an odd number.
After one jump the frog could be on either the 9 or the 5 (but not on the 7). After two
jumps the frog could be on 11, 7 or 3. By counting the number of times the frog jumps to
the right or left, we may determine where the frog lands. After ve jumps, there are many
possible locations for the frog. There is a systematic way to determine the possible locations
by how many times the frog jumped right, and by how many times the frog jumped left.
RRRRR = 5 jumps right location = 7 + (5 2) = 17
RRRRL = 4 jumps right, 1 jump left location = 7 + (3 2) = 13
RRRLL = 3 jumps right, 2 jumps left location = 7 + (1 2) = 9
RRLLL = 2 jumps right, 3 jumps left location = 7 (1 2) = 5
RLLLL = 1 jump right, 3 jumps left location = 7 (3 2) = 1
LLLLL = 5 jumps left location = 7 (5 2) = 3
These are the possible locations of the frog after exactly ve jumps. Notice that the order
does not matter: three jumps right, one left and one right is the same as four jumps to the
right and one to the left.
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Classifying Rational Numbers
When we divide an integer by another integer (not zero) we get what we call a rational
number. It is called this because it is the ratio of one number to another. For example,
if we divide one integer a by a second integer b the rational number we get is
a
b
, provided
that b is not zero. When we write a rational number like this, the top number is called the
numerator. The bottom number is called the denominator. You can think of the rational
number as a fraction of a cake. If you cut the cake into b slices, your share is a of those
slices.
For example, when we see the rational number
1
2
, we imagine cutting the cake into two parts.
Our share is one of those parts. Visually, the rational number
1
2
looks like this.
With the rational number
3
4
, we cut the cake into four parts and our share is three of those
parts. Visually, the rational number
3
4
looks like this.
The rational number
9
10
represents nine slices of a cake that has been cut into ten pieces.
Visually, the rational number
9
10
looks like this.
Proper fractions are rational numbers where the numerator (the number on the top) is less
than the denominator (the number on the bottom). A proper fraction represents a number
less than one. With a proper fraction you always end up with less than a whole cake!
Improper fractions are rational numbers where the numerator is greater than the denom-
inator. Improper fractions can be rewritten as a mixed number an integer plus a proper
fraction. An improper fraction represents a number greater than one.
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Equivalent fractions are two fractions that give the same numerical value when evaluated.
For example, look at a visual representation of the rational number
2
4
.
You can see that the shaded region is identical in size to that of the rational number one-half
1
2
. We can write out the prime factors of both the numerator and the denominator and
cancel matching factors that appear in both the numerator and denominator.
_
2
4
_
=
_

2 1

2 2 1
_
We then re-multiply the remaining factors.
_
2
4
_
=
_
1
2
_
This process is called reducing the fraction, or writing the fraction in lowest terms. Reduc-
ing a fraction does not change the value of the fraction. It just simplies the way we write
it. When we have canceled all common factors, we have a fraction in its simplest form.
Example 3
Classify and simplify the fol lowing rational numbers
a)
_
3
7
_
b)
_
9
3
_
c)
_
50
60
_
a) 3 and 7 are both prime there is no simpler form for this rational number so...
Solution
3
7
is already in its simplest form.
b) 9 = 3 3 and 3 is prime. We rewrite the fraction as:
_
9
3
_
=
_

331

31
_
. 9 > 3 so
Solution
9
3
is an improper fraction and simplies to
3
1
or simply 3.
c) 50 = 5 5 2 and 60 = 5 3 2 2. We rewrite the fraction thus:
50
60
=
_

55

21

55

221
_
. 50 < 60
so
Solution
50
60
is a proper fraction and simplies to
5
6
.
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Order Rational Numbers
Ordering rational numbers is simply a case of arranging numbers in order of increasing value.
We write the numbers with the least (most negative) rst and the greatest (most positive)
last.
Example 4
Put the following fractions in order from least to greatest:
1
2
,
3
4
,
2
3
Lets draw out a representation of each fraction.
We can see visually that the largest number is
3
4
and the smallest is
1
2
:
Solution
1
2
<
2
3
<
3
4
With simple fractions, it is easy to order them. Think of the example above. We know that
one-half is greater than one quarter, and we know that two thirds is bigger than one-half.
With more complex fractions, however we need to nd a better way to compare.
Example 5
Which is greater,
3
7
or
4
9
?
In order to determine this we need to nd a way to rewrite the fractions so that we can
better compare them. We know that we can write equivalent fractions for both of these. If
we make the denominators in our equivalent fractions the same, then we can compare them
directly. We are looking for the lowest common multiple of each of the denominators. This
is called nding the lowest common denominator (LCD).
The lowest common multiple of 7 and 9 is 63. Our fraction will be represented by a shape
divided into 63 sections. This time we will use a rectangle cut into 9 by 7 = 63 pieces:
7 divides into 63 nine times so:
_
3
7
_
=
9
9
_
3
7
_
=
_
27
63
_
Note that multiplying by
9
9
is the same as multiplying by 1. Therefore,
27
63
is an equivalent
fraction to
3
7
. Here it is shown visually.
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9 divides into 63 seven times so:
_
4
9
_
=
7
7
_
4
9
_
=
_
28
63
_
28
63
is an equivalent fraction to
4
9
. Here it is shown visually.
By writing the fractions over a common denominator of 63, you can easily compare them.
Here we take the 28 shaded boxes out of 63 (from our image of
4
9
above) and arrange them
in a way that makes it easy to compare with our representation of
3
7
. Notice there is one
little square left over.
Solution
Since
28
63
is greater than
27
63
,
4
9
is greater than
3
7
.
Remember
To compare rational numbers re-write them with a common denominator.
Find the Opposites of Numbers
Every number has an opposite. On the number line, a number and its opposite are opposite
each other. In other words, they are the same distance from zero, but they are on opposite
www.ck12.org 106
sides of the number line.
By denition, the opposite of zero is zero.
Example 6
Find the value of each of the fol lowing.
a) 3 + (3)
b) 5 + (5)
c) (11.5) + (11.5)
d)
3
7
+
3
7
Each of the pairs of numbers in the above example are opposites. The opposite of 3 is
(3), the opposite of 5 is (5), the opposite of (11.5) is 11.5 and the opposite of
3
7
is
3
7
.
Solution
The value of each and every sum in this problem is 0.
Example 7
Find the opposite of each of the fol lowing:
a) 19.6
b)
4
9
c) x
d) xy
2
e) (x 3)
Since we know that opposite numbers are on opposite sides of zero, we can simply multiply
each expression by 1. This changes the sign of the number to its opposite.
a) Solution
The opposite of 19.6 is 19.6.
b) Solution
The opposite of is
4
9
is
4
9
.
c) Solution
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The opposite of x is x.
d) Solution
The opposite of xy
2
is xy
2
.
e) Solution
The opposite of (x 3) is (x 3) = 3 x.
Note: With the last example you must multiply the entire expression by 1. A common
mistake in this example is to assume that the opposite of (x 3) is (x + 3). DO NOT
MAKE THIS MISTAKE!
Find absolute values
When we talk about absolute value, we are talking about distances on the number line. For
example, the number 7 is 7 units away from zero. The number 7 is also 7 units away from
zero. The absolute value of a number is the distance it is from zero, so the absolute value of
7 and the absolute value of 7 are both 7.
We write the absolute value of 7 like this | 7|
We read the expression |x| like this the absolute value of x.
Treat absolute value expressions like parentheses. If there is an operation inside the
absolute value symbols evaluate that operation rst.
The absolute value of a number or an expression is always positive or zero. It cannot
be negative. With absolute value, we are only interested in how far a number is from
zero, and not the direction.
Example 8
Evaluate the fol lowing absolute value expressions.
a) |5 + 4|
b) 3 |4 9|
c) | 5 11|
d) |7 22|
Remember to treat any expressions inside the absolute value sign as if they were inside
parentheses, and evaluate them rst.
Solution
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a)
|5 + 4| = |9|
= 9
b)
3 |4 9| = 3 | 5|
= 3 5
= 2
c)
| 5 11| = | 16|
= 16
d)
|7 22| = | 15|
= (15)
= 15
Lesson Summary
Integers (or whole numbers) are the counting numbers (1, 2, 3 . . .), the negative
counting numbers (1, 2, 3 . . .), and zero.
A rational number is the ratio of one integer to another, like
a
b
or
3
5
. The top
number is called the numerator and the bottom number (which can not be zero) is
called the denominator.
Proper fractions are rational numbers where the numerator is less than the denom-
inator.
Improper fractions are rational numbers where the numerator is greater than the
denominator.
Equivalent fractions are two fractions that give the same numerical value when evalu-
ated.
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To reduce a fraction (write it in simplest form) write out all prime factors of the
numerator and denominator, cancel common factors, then recombine.
To compare two fractions it helps to write them with a common denominator: the
same integer on the bottom of each fraction.
The absolute value of a number is the distance it is from zero on the number line.
The absolute value of a number or expression will always be positive or zero.
Two numbers are opposites if they are the same distance from zero on the number
line and on opposite sides of zero. The opposite of an expression can be found by
multiplying the entire expression by 1.
Review Questions
1. The tick-marks on the number line represent evenly spaced integers. Find the values
of a, b, c, d and e.
2. Determine what fraction of the whole each shaded region represents.
(a)
(b)
(c)
3. Place the following sets of rational numbers in order, from least to greatest.
(a)
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
(b)
11
12
,
12
11
,
13
10
(c)
39
60
,
49
80
,
59
100
(d)
7
11
,
8
13
,
12
19
4. Find the simplest form of the following rational numbers.
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(a)
22
44
(b)
9
27
(c)
12
18
(d)
315
420
5. Find the opposite of each of the following.
(a) 1.001
(b) (5 11)
(c) (x +y)
(d) (x y)
6. Simplify the following absolute value expressions.
(a) 11 | 4|
(b) |4 9| | 5|
(c) | 5 11|
(d) 7 |22 15 19|
(e) | 7|
(f) | 2 88| |88 + 2|
Review Answers
1. a = 3; b = 3; c = 9; d = 12; e = 15
2. a =
1
3
; b =
7
12
; c =
22
35
3. (a)
1
4
<
1
3
<
1
2
(b)
11
12
<
12
11
<
13
10
(c)
59
100
<
49
80
<
39
60
(d)
8
13
<
12
19
<
7
11
4. (a)
1
2
(b)
1
3
(c)
2
3
(d)
3
4
5. (a) 1.001
(b) 6 (x +y)
(c) (y x)
6. (a) 7
(b) 0
(c) 16
(d) 5
(e) 7
(f) 0
111 www.ck12.org
2.2 Addition of Rational Numbers
Learning Objectives
Add using a number line.
Add rational numbers.
Identify and apply properties of addition.
Solve real-world problems using addition of fractions.
Add Using a Number Line
In Lesson one, we learned how to represent numbers on a number line. When we perform
addition on a number line, we start at the position of the rst number, and then move to
the right by the number of units shown in the sum.
Example 1
Represent the sum 2 + 3 on a number line.
We start at the number 2, and then move 3 to the right. We end at the number 5.
Solution
2 + 3 = 5
Example 2
Represent the sum 2 + 3 on a number line.
We start at the number 2, and then move 3 to the right. We thus end at +1.
Solution
2 + 3 = 1
www.ck12.org 112
Example 3
Represent the sum 2 3 on a number line.
We are now faced with a subtraction. When subtracting a number, an equivalent action is
adding a negative number. Either way, we think of it, we are moving to the left. We
start at the number 2, and then move 3 to the left. We end at 1.
Solution
2 3 = 1
We can use the number line as a rudimentary way of adding fractions. The enlarged number
line below has a number of common fractions marked. The markings on a ruler or a tape
measure follow the same pattern. The two shaded bars represent the lengths
1
3
and
1
4
.
To nd the dierence between the two fractions look at the dierence between the two
lengths. You can see the red is
1
12
longer than the yellow. You could use this as an estimate
of the dierence.
equation =
1
3

1
4
=
1
12
.
To nd the sum of the two fractions, we can lay them end to end. You can see that the sum
1
3
+
1
4
is a little over one half.
113 www.ck12.org
Adding Rational Numbers
We have already seen the method for writing rational numbers over a common denominator.
When we add two fractions we need to ensure that the denominators match before we can
determine the sum.
Example 4
Simplify
3
5
+
1
6
To combine these fractions, we need to rewrite them over a common denominator. We are
looking for the lowest common denominator (LCD). We need to identify the lowest
common multiple or least common multiple (LCM) of 5 and 6. That is the smallest
number that both 5 and 6 divide into without remainder.
The lowest number that 5 and 6 both divide into without remainder is 30. The LCM
of 5 and 6 is 30, so the lowest common denominator for our fractions is also 30.
We need to rewrite our fractions as new equivalent fractions so that the denominator in
each case is 30.
If you think back to our idea of a cake cut into a number of slices,
3
5
means 3 slices of a
cake that has been cut into 5 pieces. You can see that if we cut the same cake into 30 pieces
(6 times as many) we would need 18 slices to have an equivalent share, since 18 = 3 6.
3
5
is equivalent to
18
30
By a similar argument, we can rewrite the fraction
1
6
as a share of a cake that has been cut
into 30 pieces. If we cut it into 5 times as many pieces we require 5 times as many slices.
1
6
is equivalent to
5
30
Now that both fractions have the same common denominator, we can add the fractions. If
we add our 18 smaller pieces of cake to the additional 5 pieces you see that we get a total of
23 pieces. 23 pieces of a cake that has been cut into 30 pieces means that our answer is.
Solution
www.ck12.org 114
3
5
+
1
6
=
18
30
+
5
30
=
23
30
You should see that when we have fractions with a common denominator, we add the
numerators but we leave the denominators alone. Here is this information in algebraic
terms.
When adding fractions:
a
c
+
b
c
=
a+b
c
Example 5
Simplify
14
11
+
1
9
The lowest common denominator in this case is 99. This is because the lowest common mul-
tiple of 9 and 11 is 99. So we write equivalent fractions for both
14
11
and
1
9
with denominators
of 99.
11 divides into 99 nine times so
14
11
is equivalent to
149
119
=
126
99
We can multiply the numerator and denominator by 9 (or by any number) since 9/9 = 1
and 1 is the multiplicative identity.
9 divides into 99 eleven times so
1
9
is equivalent to
111
911
=
11
99
.
Now we simply add the numerators.
Solution
14
11
+
1
9
=
126
99
+
11
99
=
137
99
Example 6
Simplify
1
12
+
2
9
The least common denominator in this case is 36. This is because the LCM of 12 and 9 is
36. We now proceed to write the equivalent fractions with denominators of 36.
12 divides into 35 three times so
1
12
is equivalent to
13
123
=
3
36
.
9 divides into 36 four times so
2
9
is equivalent to
24
94
=
8
36
.
115 www.ck12.org
Solution
1
12
+
2
9
=
11
36
You can see that we quickly arrive at an equivalent fraction by multiplying the numerator
and the denominator by the same non-zero number.
The fractions
a
b
and
_
ac
bc
_
are equivalent when c = 0
Identify and Apply Properties of Addition
The three mathematical properties which involve addition are the commutative, associa-
tive, and the additive identity properties.
Commutative property When two numbers are added, the sum is the same even if
the order of the items being added changes.
Example 3 + 2 = 2 + 3
On a number line this means move 3 units to the right then 2 units to the right. The
commutative property says this is equivalent of moving 2 units to the right then 3 units to
the right. You can see that they are both the same, as they both end at 5.
Associative Property When three or more numbers are added, the sum is the same
regardless of how they are grouped.
Example (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4)
Additive Identity Property The sum of any number and zero is the original number.
Example 5 + 0 = 5
Example 7
Nadia and Peter are building sand castles on the beach. Nadia built a castle two feet tall,
stopped for ice-cream and then added one more foot to her castle. Peter built a castle one
www.ck12.org 116
foot tal l before stopping for a sandwich. After his sandwich, he built up his castle by two
more feet. Whose castle is the tal ler?
Solution
Nadias castle is (2 + 1) feet tall. Peters castle is (1 + 2) feet tall. According to the
Commutative Property of Addition, the two castles are the same height.
Example 8
Nadia and Peter each take candy from the candy jar. Peter reaches in rst and grabs one
handful. He gets seven pieces of candy. Nadia grabs with both hands and gets seven pieces in
one hand and ve in the other. The fol lowing day Peter gets to go rst. He grabs with both
hands and gets ve pieces in one hand and six in the other. Nadia, grabs all the remaining
candy, six pieces, in one hand. In total, who got the most candy?
Solution
On day one, Peter gets 7 candies, and on day two he gets (5+6) pieces. His total is 7+(5+6).
On day one, Nadia gets (7 + 5) pieces. On day two, she gets 6. Nadias total is therefore
(7 + 5) + 6. According to the Associative Property of Addition they both received
exactly the same amount.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Addition
Example 9
Peter is hoping to travel on a school trip to Europe. The ticket costs $2400. Peter has several
relatives who have pledged to help him with the ticket cost. His parents have told him that
they will cover half the cost. His grandma Zenoviea will pay one sixth, and his grandparents
in Florida wil l send him one fourth of the cost. What fraction of the cost can Peter count
on his relatives to provide?
The rst thing we need to do is extract the relevant information. Here is what Peter can
count on.
_
1
2
_
From parents
_
1
6
_
From grandma
_
1
4
_
From grandparents in Florida
Here is out problem.
1
2
+
1
6
+
1
4
117 www.ck12.org
To determine the sum, we rst need to nd the LCD. The LCM of 2, 6 and 4 is 12. This is
our LCD.
2 divides into 12 six times :
1
2
=
6 1
6 2
=
6
12
6 divides into 12 two times :
1
6
=
2 1
2 6
=
2
12
4 divides into 12 six times :
1
4
=
3 1
3 4
=
3
12
So an equivalent sum for our problem is
6
12
+
2
12
+
3
12
=
(6 + 2 + 3)
12
=
11
12
Solution
Peter can count on eleven-twelfths of the cost of the trip ($2, 200 out of $2, 400).
Lesson Summary
To add fractions, rewrite them over the lowest common denominator (LCD). The
lowest common denominator is the lowest (or least) common multiple (LCM) of
the two denominators.
When adding fractions:
a
c
+
b
c
=
a+b
c
The fractions
a
b
and
ac
bc
are equivalent when c = 0
The additive properties are:
Commutative property the sum of two numbers is the same even if the order of the
items to be added changes.
Ex: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2
Associative Property When three or more numbers are added, the sum is the same
regardless of how they are grouped.
Ex: (2 + 3) + 4 = 2 + (3 + 4)
Additive Identity Property The sum of any number and zero is the original number.
www.ck12.org 118
Review Question
1. Write the sum that the following moves on a number line represent.
(a)
(b)
2. Add the following rational numbers and write the answer in its simplest form.
(a)
3
7
+
2
7
(b)
3
10
+
1
5
(c)
5
16
+
5
12
(d)
3
8
+
9
16
(e)
8
25
+
7
10
(f)
1
6
+
1
4
(g)
7
15
+
2
9
(h)
5
19
+
2
27
3. Which property of addition does each situation involve?
(a) Whichever order your groceries are scanned at the store, the total will be the
same.
(b) However many shovel-loads it takes to move 1 ton of gravel the number of rocks
moved is the same.
4. Nadia, Peter and Ian are pooling their money to buy a gallon of ice cream. Nadia is
the oldest and gets the greatest allowance. She contributes half of the cost. Ian is next
oldest and contributes one third of the cost. Peter, the youngest, gets the smallest
allowance and contributes one fourth of the cost. They gure that this will be enough
money. When they get to the check-out, they realize that they forgot about sales tax
and worry there will not be enough money. Amazingly, they have exactly the right
amount of money. What fraction of the cost of the ice cream was added as tax?
Review Answers
1. (a) 3 + 3 + 1 8 = 1
(b) 1 2 + 7 + 1 = 7
2. (a)
5
7
(b)
1
2
119 www.ck12.org
(c)
35
48
(d)
15
16
(e)
51
50
(f)
5
12
(g)
31
45
(h)
173
513
3. (a) Commutative and Associative
(b) Associative
4.
1
12
is added as tax.
2.3 Subtraction of Rational Numbers
Learning objectives
Find additive inverses.
Subtract rational numbers.
Evaluate change using a variable expression.
Solve real world problems using fractions.
Find Additive Inverses
The additive inverse of a number is simply opposite of the number. (see section 2.1.4).
Here are opposites on a number line.
When we think of additive inverses we are really talking about the opposite process (or
inverse process) of addition. In other words, the process of subtracting a number is
the same as adding the additive inverse of that number. When we add a number to its
additive inverse, we get zero as an answer.
(6) + (6) = 0 6 is the additive inverse of 6.
(279) + (279) = 0 279 is the additive inverse of 279.
(x) + (x) = 0 x is the additive inverse of x.
www.ck12.org 120
Subtract Rational Numbers
The method for subtracting fractions (as you should have assumed) is just the same as
addition. We can use the idea of an additive inverse to relate the two processes. Just like
in addition, we are going to need to write each of the rational numbers over a common
denominator.
Example 2
Simplify
1
3

1
9
The lowest common multiple of 9 and 3 is 9. Our common denominator will be nine. We
will not alter the second fraction because the denominator is already nine.
3 divides into 9 three times
1
3
=
13
33
=
3
9
. In other words
3
9
is an equivalent fraction to
1
3
.
Our sum becomes
3
9

1
9
Remember that when we add fractions with a common denominator, we add the numer-
ators and the denominator is unchanged. A similar relationship holds for subtraction,
only that we subtract the numerators.
When subtracting fractions
a
c

b
c
=
ab
c
Solution
1
3

1
9
=
2
9
Two-ninths is the simplest form for our answer. So far we have only dealt with examples
where it is easy to nd the least common multiple of the denominators. With larger numbers,
it is not so easy to be certain that we have the least common denominator (LCD). We
need a more systematic method. In the next example, we will use the method of prime
factors to nd the least common denominator.
Example 3
Simplify
29
90

13
126
This time we need to nd the lowest common multiple (LCM) of 90 and 126. To nd the
LCM, we rst nd the prime factors of 90 and 126. We do this by continually dividing
the number by factors until we cannot divide any further. You may have seen a factor tree
before:
The factor tree for 90 looks like this:
121 www.ck12.org
90 = 9 10
9 = 3 3
10 = 5 2
90 = 3 3 5 2
The factor tree for 126 looks like this:
126 = 9 14
9 = 3 3
14 = 7 2
126 = 3 3 7 2
The LCM for 90 and 126 is made from the smallest possible collection of primes that
enables us to construct either of the two numbers. We take only enough of each prime to
make the number with the highest number of factors of that prime in its factor tree.
Table 2.1:
Prime Factors in 90 Factors in 126 We Take
2 1 1 1
3 2 2 2
5 1 0 1
7 0 1 1
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So we need: one 2, two 3

s, one 5 and one 7. In other words: 2 3 3 5 7 = 630

The lowest common multiple of 90 and 126 is 630. The LCD for our calculation is 630.
90 divides into 630 seven times (notice that 7 is the only factor in 630 that is missing from
90)
29
90
=
729
790
=
203
630
126 divides into 630 ve times (notice that 5 is the only factor in 630 that is missing from
126)
13
126
=
513
5126
=
65
630
Now we complete the problem.
29
90

13
126
=
203
630

65
630
=
(203 65)
630
=
138
630
_
remember,
a
c

b
c
=
a b
c
_
This fraction simplies. To be sure of nding the simplest form for
138
630
we write out the
numerator and denominator as prime factors. We already know the prime factors of 630.
The prime factors of 138 are 138 = 2 3 23.
138
630
=
2 3 23
2 3 3 5 7
one factor of 2 and one factor of 3 cancels
Solution
27
90

13
126
=
23
105
Example 4
A property management rm is acquiring parcels of land in order to build a small community
of condominiums. It has bought three adjacent plots of land. The rst is four-fths of an
acre, the second is ve-twelfths of an acre, and the third is nineteen-twentieths of an acre.
The rm knows that it must al low one-sixth of an acre for utilities and a small access road.
How much of the remaining land is available for development?
The rst thing we need to do is extract the relevant information. Here are the relevant
fractions.
4
5
,
5
12
and
19
20
The plots of land that the rm has acquired.
1
6
The amount of land that the rm has to give up.
123 www.ck12.org
This sum will determine the amount of land available for development.
4
5
+
5
12
+
19
20

1
6
We need to nd the LCM of 5, 12, 20 and 6.
5 = 5 one 5
12 = 2 2 3 two 2

s, one 3
20 = 2 2 5 two 2

s, one 5
6 = 2 3 one 3
The smallest set of primes that encompasses all of these is 2, 2, 3, 5. Our LCD is thus
2 2 3 5 = 60
Now we can convert all fractions to a common denominator of 60. To do this, we multiply
by the factors of 60 that are missing in the denominator we are converting. For example, 5
is missing two 2

s and a 3. This results in 2 2 3 = 12.

4
5
=
12 4
12 5
=
48
60
5
12
=
5 5
5 12
=
25
60
19
20
=
3 19
10 6
=
57
60
1
6
=
10 1
10 6
=
10
60
Our converted sum can be rewritten as:
48
60
+
25
60
+
57
60

10
60
=
(48+25+5710)
60
=
120
60
Next, we need to reduce this fraction. We can see immediately that the numerator is twice
the denominator. This fraction reduces to
2
1
or simply two. One is sometimes called the
invisible denominator, as every whole number can be thought of as a rational number
whose denominator is one.
Solution
The property rm has two acres available for development.
Evaluate Change Using a Variable Expression
When we write algebraic expressions to represent a real quantity, the dierence between two
values is the change in that quantity.
Example 5
www.ck12.org 124
The speed of a train increases according to the expression speed = 1.5t where speed is
measured in meters per second, and t is the time measured in seconds. Find the change
in the speed between t = 2 seconds and t = 6 seconds.
This function represents a train that is stopped when time equals zero (speed = 0 0.25).
As the stopwatch ticks, the trains speed increases in a linear pattern. We can make a table
of what the trains speed is at every second.
Table 2.2:
Time (seconds) Speed (m/s)
0 0
1 1.5
2 3
3 4.5
4 6
5 7.5
6 9
We can even graph this function. The graph of speed vs. time is shown here.
We wish to nd the change in speed between t = 2 seconds and t = 6 seconds. There are
several ways to do this. We could look at the table, and read o the speeds at 2 seconds
(3 m/s) and 6 seconds (9 m/s). Or we could determine the speeds at those times by using
the graph.
125 www.ck12.org
Another way to nd the change would be to substitute the two values for t into our expression
for speed. First, we will substitute t = 2 into our expression. To indicate that the speed we
get is the speed at time = 2 seconds, we denote it as speed(2).
speed(2) = 1.5(2) = 3
Next, we will substitute t = 6 into our expression. This is the speed at 6 seconds, so we
denote it as speed(6)
speed(6) = 1.5(6) = 9
The change between t = 2and t = 6 is speed(6) speed(2) = 9 3 = 6 m/s.
The speed change is positive, so the change is an increase.
Solution
Between the two and six seconds the trains speed increases by 6 m/s.
Example 6
The intensity of light hitting a detector when it is held a certain distance from a bulb is given
by this equation.
Intensity = 3/(dist)
2
Where (dist) is the distance measured in meters, and intensity is measured in lumens.
Calculate the change in intensity when the detector is moved from two meters to three meters
away.
We rst nd the values of the intensity at distances of two and three meters.
Intensity(2) =
3
(2)
2
=
3
4
Intensity(3) =
3
(3)
2
=
3
9
=
1
3
www.ck12.org 126
The dierence in the two values will give the change in the intensity. We move from two
meters to three meters away.
Change=Intensity(3) Intensity(2) =
1
3

3
4
To nd the answer, we will need to write these fractions over a common denominator.
The LCM of 3 and 4 is 12, so we need to rewrite each fraction with a denominator of 12:
1
3
=
4 1
4 3
=
4
12
3
4
=
3 3
3 4
=
9
12
Our change is given by this equation.
4
12

9
12
=
(4 9)
12
=
5
12
A negative indicates that the intensity is reduced.
Solution
When moving the detector from two meters to three meters the intensity falls by
5
12
lumens.
Lesson Summary
Subtracting a number is the same as adding the opposite (or additive inverse) of
the number.
When subtracting fractions:
a
c

b
c
=
ab
c
The number one is sometimes called the invisible denominator, as every whole
number can be thought of as a rational number whose denominator is one.
The dierence between two values is the change in that quantity.
Review Questions
1. Subtract the following rational numbers. Be sure that your answer is in the simplest
form.
127 www.ck12.org
(a)
5
12

9
18
(b)
2
3

1
4
(c)
3
4

1
3
(d)
15
11

9
7
(e)
2
13

1
11
(f)
7
27

9
39
(g)
6
11

3
22
(h)
13
64

7
40
(i)
11
70

11
30
2. Consider the equation y = 3x + 2. Determine the change in y between x = 3 and
x = 7.
3. Consider the equation y =
2
3
x +
1
2
. Determine the change in y between x = 1 and
x = 2.
4. The time taken to commute from San Diego to Los Angeles is given by the equation
time =
120
speed
where time is measured in hours and speed is measured in miles per
hour (mph). Calculate the change in time that a rush hour commuter would see when
switching from traveling by bus to train. The bus averages 40 mph to a new high speed
train which averages 90 mph.
Review Answers
1. (a)
1
12
(b)
5
12
(c)
5
12
(d)
6
77
(e)
9
143
(f)
10
351
(g)
9
22
(h)
9
320
(i)
22
105
2. Change = +12
3. Change =
1
3
4. The journey time would decrease by 1
2
3
hours.
2.4 Multiplication of Rational Numbers
Learning Objectives
Multiply by negative one.
Multiply rational numbers.
www.ck12.org 128
Identify and apply properties of multiplication.
Solve real-world problems using multiplication.
Multiplying Numbers by Negative One
Whenever we multiply a number by negative one we change the sign of the number. In more
mathematical words, multiplying by negative one maps a number onto its opposite. The
number line below shows the process of multiplying negative one by the numbers three and
negative one.
3 1 = 3
1 1 = 1
When we multiply a number by negative one the absolute value of the new number is
the same as the absolute value of the old number. Both numbers are the same distance
from zero.
The product of a number, x, and negative one is x. This does not mean that x is
necessarily less than zero. If x itself is negative then x is a positive quantity because
a negative times a negative is a positive.
When we multiply an expression by negative one remember to multiply the entire
expression by negative one.
Example 1
Multiply the fol lowing by negative one.
a) 79.5
b)
c) (x + 1)
d) |x|
a) Solution
79.5 (1) = 79.5
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b) Solution
(1) =
c) Solution
(x + 1) (1) = (x + 1) = x 1
d) Solution
|x| (1) = |x|
Note that in the last case the negative sign does not distribute into the absolute value.
Multiplying the argument of an absolute value equation (the term between the absolute
value symbol) does not change the absolute value. |x| is always positive. | x| is always
positive. |x| is always negative.
Whenever you are working with expressions, you can check your answers by substituting in
numbers for the variables. For example you could check part d of example one by letting
x = 3.
| 3| = |3| since | 3| = 3 and |3| = 3.
Multiply Rational Numbers
Example 2
Simplify
1
3

2
5
One way to solve this is to think of money. For example, we know that one third of sixty
dollars is written as
1
3
$60. We can read the above problem as one-third of two-fths. Here
is a visual picture of the fractions one-third and two-fths.
Notice that one-third of two-fths looks like the one-third of the shaded region in the next
gure.
www.ck12.org 130
Here is the intersection of the two shaded regions. The whole has been divided into ve
pieces width-wise and three pieces height-wise. We get two pieces out of a total of fteen
pieces.
Solution
1
3

2
5
=
2
15
Example 3
Simplify
3
7

4
5
We will again go with a visual representation.
We see that the whole has been divided into a total of 7 5 pieces. We get 3 4 of those
pieces.
Solution
3
70

4
5
=
12
35
When multiplying rational numbers, the numerators multiply together and the denominators
multiply together.
When multiplying fractions
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
Even though we have shown this result for the product of two fractions, this rule holds true
when multiplying multiple fractions together.
Example 4
Multiply the fol lowing rational numbers
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a)
1
2

3
4
b)
2
5

5
9
c)
1
3

2
7

2
5
d)
1
2

2
3

3
4

4
5
a) Solution
1
2

3
4
=
1 3
2 4
=
3
8
b) Solution With this problem, we can cancel the ves.
2
5

5
9
=
2 5
5 9
=
2
9
c) Solution With this problem, multiply all the numerators and all the denominators.
1
3

2
7

2
5
=
1 2 2
3 7 5
=
4
105
d) Solution With this problem, we can cancel any factor that appears as both a numerator
and a denominator since any number divided by itself is one, according to the Multiplicative
Identity Property.
1

2


2

3


3

4


4
5
=
1
5
With multiplication of fractions, we can either simplify before we multiply or after. The
next example uses factors to help simplify before we multiply.
Example 5
Evaluate and simplify
12
25

35
42
We can see that 12 and 42 are both multiples of six, and that 25 and 35 are both factors of
ve. We write the product again, but put in these factors so that we can cancel them prior
to multiplying.
12
25

35
42
=
6 2
25

35
6 7
=
6 2 5 7
5 5 6 7
=
2
5
www.ck12.org 132
Solution
12
25

35
42
=
2
5
Identify and Apply Properties of Multiplication
The four mathematical properties which involve multiplication are the Commutative, As-
sociative, Multiplicative Identity and Distributive Properties.
Commutative property When two numbers are multiplied together, the product is
the same regardless of the order in which they are written:
Example4 2 = 2 4
We can see a geometrical interpretation of The Commutative Property of Multiplica-
tion to the right. The Area of the shape (length width) is the same no matter which way
we draw it.
Associative Property When three or more numbers are multiplied, the product is
the same regardless of their grouping
Example (2 3) 4 = 2 (3 4)
Multiplicative Identity Property: The product of one and any number is that
number.
Example 5 1 = 5.
Distributive property The multiplication of a number and the sum of two numbers
is equal to the rst number times the second number plus the rst number times the
third number.
133 www.ck12.org
Example: 4(6 + 3) = 4 6 + 4 3
Example 6
Nadia and Peter are raising money by washing cars. Nadia is charging $3 per car, and she
washes ve cars in the rst morning. Peter charges $5 per car (including a wax). In the
rst morning, he washes and waxes three cars. Who has raised the most money?
Solution
Nadia raised 5 $3. Peter raised 3 $5. According to The Commutative Property of
Multiplication, they both raised the same amount of money.
Example 7
Andrew is counting his money. He puts all his money into $10 piles. He has one pile. How
much money does Andrew have?
Solution
The amount of money in each pile is $10. The number of piles is one. The total amount
of money is $10 1. According to The Multiplicative Identity Property, Andrew has a
total of $10.
Example 8
A gardener is planting vegetables for the coming growing season. He wishes to plant potatoes
and has a choice of a single 8 7 meter plot, or two smaller plots of 3 7 meters and
5 7 meter . Which option gives him the largest area for his potatoes?
Solution
In the rst option, the gardener has a total area of (8 7).
Since 8 = (3 + 5) we have (3 + 5) 7 squaremeter, which equals (3 7) + (5 7).
In the second option, the total area is (3 7) + (5 7) squaremeters.
According to The Distributive Property both options give the gardener the same area
to plant potatoes
www.ck12.org 134
Solve Real-World Problems Using Multiplication
Example 9
In the chemistry lab there is a bottle with two liters of a 15% solution of hydrogen peroxide
(H
2
O
2
). John removes one-fth of what is in the bottle, and puts it in a beaker. He measures
the amount of H
2
O
2
and adds twice that amount of water to the beaker. Calculate the
following measurements.
a) The amount of H
2
O
2
left in the bottle.
b) The amount of diluted H
2
O
2
in the beaker.
c) The concentration of the H
2
O
2
in the beaker.
a) To determine the amount of H
2
O
2
left in the bottle, we rst determine the amount that
was removed. That amount was
1
5
of the amount in the bottle (2 liters).
Amount removed =
1
5
2 liters =
2
5
liter (or 0.4 liters)
Amount remaining = 2
2
5
=
10
5

2
5
=
8
5
liter (or1.6 liters)
Solution
There is 1.6 liters left in the bottle.
b) We determined that the amount of the 15% H
2
O
2
solution removed was
2
5
liter. The
amount of water added was twice this amount.
Amount of water = 2
2
5
=
4
5
liter.
Total amount =
4
5
+
2
5
=
6
5
liter (or1.2 liters)
Solution
There are 1.2 liters of diluted H
2
O
2
in the beaker.
135 www.ck12.org
c) The new concentration of H
2
O
2
can be calculated.
Initially, with
2
5
of undiluted H
2
O
2
there is 15% of
2
5
liters of pure H
2
O
2
:
Amount of pure H
2
O
2
= 0.15
2
5
= 0.15 0.4 = 0.06 liter of pure H
2
O
2
.
After dilution, this H
2
O
2
is dispersed into 1.2 liters of solution. The concentration =
0.06
1.2
=
0.05.
To convert to a percent we multiply this number by 100.
Solution
The nal of diluted H
2
O
2
in the bottle is 5%.
Example 10
Anne has a bar of chocolate and she oers Bil l a piece. Bill quickly breaks o
1
4
of the bar
and eats it. Another friend, Cindy, takes
1
3
of what was left. She splits the remaining candy
bar into two equal pieces which she shares with a third friend, Dora. How much of the candy
bar does each person get?
First, lets look at this problem visually.
Anne starts with a full candy bar.
Bill breaks of
1
4
of the bar.
www.ck12.org 136
Cindy takes
1
3
of what was left.
Dora gets half of the remaining candy bar.
We can see that the candy bar ends up being split four ways. The sum of each piece is equal
to one.
Solution
Each person gets exactly
1
4
of the candy bar.
We can also examine this problem using rational numbers. We keep a running total of what
fraction of the bar remains. Remember, when we read a fraction followed by of in the
problem, it means we multiply by that fraction.
We start with one full bar of chocolate The total we begin with is 1.
Bill breaks o of the bar We multiply the amount of bar(1)by
1
4
Bill removes
1
4
1
1
4
of the whole bar. The bar remaining is 1
1
4
=
4
4

1
4
=
3
4
Cindy takes
1
3
of what is left We multiply the amount of bar
_
3
4
_
by
1
3
Cindy removes
1
3

3
4
=
1
4
of a whole bar. The bar remaining is
3
4

1
4
=
2
4
=
1
2
Anne and Dora get two equal pieces Dora gets
1
2

1
2
=
1
4
of a whole bar.
Anne gets the remaining
1
2

1
4
=
2
4

1
4
=
1
4
Solution
Each person gets exactly
1
4
of the candy bar.
Extension: If each piece that is left is 3oz, how much did the original candy bar weigh?
Lesson Summary
When multiplying an expression by negative one, remember to multiply the entire
expression by negative one.
To multiply fractions
a
b

c
d
=
ac
bd
The multiplicative properties are:
137 www.ck12.org
Commutative property the product of two numbers is the same whichever order
the items to be multiplied are written.
Ex:2 3 = 3 2
Associative Property: When three or more numbers are multiplied, the sum is the
same regardless of how they are grouped.
Ex: (2 3) 4 = 2 (3 4)
Multiplicative Identity Property The product of any number and one is the orig-
inal number.
Ex: 2 1 = 2
Distributive property The multiplication of a number and the sum of two numbers
is equal to the rst number times the second number plus the rst number times the
third number.
Ex: 4(2 + 3) = 4(2) + 4(3)
Review Questions
1. Multiply the following by negative one.
(a) 25
(b) 105
(c) x
2
(d) (3 +x)
(e) (3 x)
2. Multiply the following rational numbers, write your answer in the simplest form.
(a)
5
12

9
10
(b)
2
3

1
4
(c)
3
4

1
3
(d)
15
11

9
7
(e)
1
13

1
11
(f)
7
27

9
14
(g)
_
3
5
_
2
(h)
1
11

22
21

7
10
(i)
12
15

35
13

10
2

26
36
www.ck12.org 138
3. Three monkeys spend a day gathering coconuts together. When they have nished,
they are very tired and fall asleep. The following morning, the rst monkey wakes up.
Not wishing to disturb his friends, he decides to divide the coconuts into three equal
piles. There is one left over, so he throws this odd one away, helps himself to his share,
and goes home.
A few minutes later, the second monkey awakes. Not realizing that the rst has already
gone, he too divides the coconuts into three equal heaps. He nds one left over, throws
the odd one away, helps himself to his fair share, and goes home.
In the morning, the third monkey wakes to nd that he is alone. He spots the two
discarded coconuts, and puts them with the pile, giving him a total of twelve coconuts.
How many coconuts did the rst and second monkey take? [Extension: solve by
working backward]
Review Answers
1. (a) 25
(b) 105
(c) x
2
(d) (x + 3) or x 3
(e) (x 3)
2. (a)
3
8
(b)
1
6
(c)
1
4
(d)
135
77
(e)
1
143
(f)
1
6
(g)
27
125
(h)
1
15
(i)
70
9
3. The rst monkey takes eight coconuts. The second monkey takes ve coconuts.
2.5 The Distributive Property
Learning Objectives
Apply the distributive property.
Identify parts of an expression.
Solve real-world problems using the distributive property.
139 www.ck12.org
Introduction
At the end of the school year, an elementary school teacher makes a little gift bag for each
of his students. Each bag contains one class photograph, two party favors and ve pieces of
candy. The teacher will distribute the bags among his 28 students. How many of each item
does the teacher need?
Apply the Distributive Property
When we have a problem like the one posed in the introduction, The Distributive Prop-
erty can help us solve it. To begin, we can write an expression for the contents of each
bag.
Contents = (photo + 2 favor + 5 candy)
Contents = (p + 2f + 5c) We may even use single letter variables to write an expression.
We know that the teacher has 28 students, therefore we can write the following expression
for the number of items that the teacher will need.
Items = 28 (p + 2f + 5c) 28 times the individual contents of each bag.
We generally omit any multiplication signs that are not strictly necessary.
Items = 28(p + 2f + 5c)
The Distributive Property of Multiplication means that when faced with a term mul-
tiplying other terms inside parentheses, the outside term multiplies with each of the terms
inside the parentheses.
= 28(p + 2f + 5c) = 28(p) + 28(2f) + 28(5c) = 28p + 56f + 140c
So the teacher needs 28 class photos, 56 party favors and 140 pieces of candy.
The Distributive Property works when we have numbers inside the parentheses. You
can see this by looking at a simple problem and considering the Order of Operations.
Example 1
www.ck12.org 140
Determine the value of 11(2+6) using both Order of Operations and the Distributive Property.
First, we consider the problem with the Order of Operations PEMDAS dictates that we
evaluate the amount inside the parentheses rst.
Solution
11(2 + 6) = 11(8) = 88
Next we will use the Distributive Property. We multiply the 11 by each term inside the
parentheses.
Solution
11(2 + 6) = 11(2) + 11(6) = 22 + 66 = 88
Example 2
Determine the value of 11(2 6) using both the Order of Operations and the Distributive
Property.
First, we consider the Order of Operations and evaluate the amount inside the parentheses
rst.
Solution
11(2 6) = 11(4) = 44
Next, the Distributive Property.
Solution
11(2 6) = 11(2) + 11(6) = 22 66 = 44
Note When applying the Distributive Property you MUST take note of any negative
signs!
Example 3
Use the Distributive Property to determine the fol lowing.
a) 11(2x + 6)
141 www.ck12.org
b) 7(3x 5)
c)
2
7
(3y
2
11)
d)
2x
7
_
3y
2

11
xy
_
a) Simply multiply each term by 11.
Solution
11(2x + 6) = 22x + 66
b) Note the negative sign on the second term.
Solution
7(3x 5) = 21x 35
c)
2
7
(3y
2
11) =
2
7
(3y
2
) +
2
7
(11) =
6y
2
7

22
7
Solution
2
7
_
3y
2
11
_
=
6y
2
22
7
d)
2x
7
_
3y
2

11
xy
_
=
2x
7
(3y
2
) +
2x
7
_
11
xy
_
=
6x
2
y
7
22

x
7

xy
Solution
2x
7
_
3y
2

11
xy
_
=
6xy
3
22
7y
Identify Expressions That Involve the Distributive Property
The Distributive Property often appears in expressions, and many times it does not in-
volve parentheses as grouping symbols. In Lesson 1.2, we saw how the fraction bar acts as
a grouping symbol. The following example involves using the Distributive Property with
fractions.
www.ck12.org 142
Example 4
Simplify the fol lowing expressions.
a)
2x+8
4
b)
9y2
3
c)
z+6
2
Even though these expressions are not written in a form we usually associate with the
Distributive Property, the fact that the numerator of fractions should be treated as if it were
in parentheses makes this a problem that the Distributive Property can help us solve.
a)
2x+8
4
can be re-written as
1
4
(2x + 8).
We can then proceed to distribute the
1
4
.
1
4
(2x + 8) =
2x
4
+
8
4
=
2x
2 2
+
4 2
4
Solution
2x + 8
4
=
x
2
+ 2
b)
9y2
3
can be re-written as
1
3
(9y 2).
We can then proceed to distribute the
1
3
.
1
3
(9y 2) =
9y
3

2
3
=
3 3x
3

2
3
Solution
9y 2
3
= 3y
2
3
c)
z+6
2
can be re-written as
1
6
(z + 6).
We can then proceed to distribute the
1
2
.
1
2
(z + 6)) =
z
2
+
6
2
143 www.ck12.org
Solution
z + 6
3
=
z
2
+ 3
Solve Real-World Problems Using the Distributive Property
The Distributive Property is one of the most common mathematical properties to be seen in
everyday life. It crops up in business and in geometry. Anytime we have two or more groups
of objects, the Distributive Property can help us solve for an unknown.
Example 5
An octagonal gazebo is to be built as shown right. Building code requires ve foot long steel
supports to be added along the base and four foot long steel supports to be added to the
roof-line of the gazebo. What length of steel wil l be required to complete the project?
Each side will require two lengths, one of ve and four feet respectively. There are eight
sides, so here is our equation.
Steel required = 8(4 + 5) feet.
We can use the distributive property to nd the total amount of steel:
Steel required = 8 4 + 8 5 = 32 + 40 feet.
Solution
A total of 72 feet of steel is required for the project.
www.ck12.org 144
Example 6
Each student on a eld trip into a forest is to be given an emergency survival kit. The kit is
to contain a ashlight, a rst aid kit, and emergency food rations. Flashlights cost $12 each,
rst aid kits are $7 each and emergency food rations cost $2 per day. There is $500 available
for the kits and 17 students to provide for. How many days worth of rations can be provided
with each kit?
The unknown quantity in this problem is the number of days rations. This will be x in our
expression. Each kit will contain the following items.
1 $12 ashlight.
1 $7 rst aid kit.
x $2 daily rations.
The number of kits = 17, so the total cost is equal to the following equation.
Total cost = 17(12 + 7 + 2x)
We can use the Distributive Property on this expression.
17(12 + 7 + 2x) = 204 + 119 + 34x
We know that there is $500 available to buy the kits. We can substitute the cost with the
money available.
204 + 119 + 34x = 500 The sum of the numbers on the left equal to the money available
323 + 34x = 500 Subtract 323 from both sides
323 323
34x = 177 Divide both sides by 34
x = 5.20588 . . .
145 www.ck12.org
Since this represents the number of daily rations that can be bought, we must round to
the next lowest whole number. We wouldnt have enough money to buy a sixth day of
supplies.
Solution
Five days worth of emergency rations can be purchased for each survival kit.
Lesson Summary
Distributive Property The multiplication of a number and the sum of two numbers
is equal to the rst number times the second number plus the rst number times the
third number.
Ex: 4 (6 + 3) = 4 6 + 4 3
When applying the Distributive Property you MUSTtake note of any negative signs!
Review Questions
1. Use the Distributive Property to simplify the following expressions.
(a) (x + 4) 2(x + 5)
(b)
1
2
(4z + 6)
(c) (4 + 5) (5 + 2)
(d) (x + 2 + 7)
(e) y(x + 7)
(f) 13x(3y +z)
2. Use the Distributive Property to remove the parentheses from the following expressions.
(a)
1
2
(x y) 4
(b) 0.6(0.2x + 0.7)
(c) 6 + (x 5) + 7
(d) 6 (x 5) + 7
(e) 4(m+ 7) 6(4 m)
(f) 5(y 11) + 2y
3. Use the Distributive Property to simplify the following fractions.
(a)
8x+12
4
(b)
9x+12
3
(c)
11x+12
2
(d)
3y+2
6
(e)
6z2
3
www.ck12.org 146
(f)
76p
3
4. A bookshelf has ve shelves, and each shelf contains seven poetry books and eleven
novels. How many of each type of book does the bookcase contain?
5. Amar is making giant holiday cookies for his friends at school. He makes each cookie
with 6 oz of cookie dough and decorates them with macadamia nuts. If Amar has 5 lbs
of cookie dough (1 lb = 16 oz) and 60 macadamia nuts, calculate the following.
(a) How many (full) cookies he can make?
(b) How many macadamia nuts he can put on each cookie, if each is to be identical?
Review Answers
1. (a) x 6
(b) 2z + 3
(c) 2
(d) x + 9
(e) xy + 7y
(f) 39xy + 13xz
2. (a)
x
2

y
2
4
(b) 0.12x + 0.42
(c) x + 8
(d) 18 x
(e) 10 m + 4
(f) 55 3y
3. (a) 2x + 3
(b) 3x + 4
(c)
11x
2
+ 6
(d)
y
2
+
1
3
(e)
2
3
2z
(f)
7
3
2p
4. The bookshelf contains 35 poetry books and 55 novels.
5. (a) Amar can make 13 cookies (2 oz leftover).
(b) Each cookie has 4 macadamia nuts (8 left over).
2.6 Division of Rational Numbers
Learning Objectives
Find multiplicative inverses.
Divide rational numbers.
Solve real-world problems using division.
147 www.ck12.org
Introduction Identity elements
An identity element is a number which, when combined with a mathematical operation
on a number, leaves that number unchanged. For addition and subtraction, the identity
element is zero.
2 + 0 = 2
5 + 0 = 5
99 0 = 99
The inverse operation of addition is subtraction.
x + 5 5 = x When we subtract what we have added, we get back to where we started!
When you add a number to its opposite, you get the identity element for addition.
5 + (5) = 0
You can see that the addition of an opposite is an equivalent operation to subtrac-
tion.
For multiplication and division, the identity element is one.
2 1 = 2
5 1 = 5
99 1 = 99
In this lesson, we will learn about multiplying by a multiplicative inverse as an equiv-
alent operation to division. Just as we can use opposites to turn a subtraction problem
into an addition problem, we can use reciprocals to turn a division problem into a mul-
tiplication problem.
Find Multiplicative Inverses
The multiplicative inverse of a number, x, is the number when multiplied by x yields
one. In other words, any number times the multiplicative inverse of that number equals
www.ck12.org 148
one. The multiplicative inverse is commonly the reciprocal, and the multiplicative inverse of
x is denoted by
1
x
.
Look at the following multiplication problem:
Simplify
2
3

3
2
We know that we can cancel terms that appear on both the numerator and the denominator.
Remember we leave a one when we cancel all terms on either the numerator or denominator!
2
3

3
2
=

2

2
= 1
It is clear that
2
3
is the multiplicative inverse of
3
2
. Here is the rule.
To nd the multiplicative inverse of a rational number, we simply invert the fraction.
The multiplicative inverse of
a
b
is
b
a
, as long as a = 0
Example 1
Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the fol lowing.
a)
3
7
b)
4
7
c) 3
1
2
d)
x
y
e)
1
11
a) Solution
The multiplicative inverse of
3
7
is
7
3
.
b) Solution
The multiplicative inverse of
4
9
is
9
r
.
c) To nd the multiplicative inverse of 3
1
2
we rst need to convert 3
1
2
to an improper
fraction:
3
1
2
=
3
1
+
1
2
=
6
2
+
1
2
=
7
2
Solution
The multiplicative inverse of 3
1
2
is
2
7
.
d) Do not let the negative sign confuse you. The multiplicative inverse of a negative number
is also negative!
Solution
149 www.ck12.org
The multiplicative inverse of
x
y
is
y
x
.
e) The multiplicative inverse of
1
11
is
11
1
. Remember that when we have a denominator of
one, we omit the denominator.
Solution
The multiplicative inverse of
1
11
is 11.
Look again at the last example. When we took the multiplicative inverse of
1
11
we got a whole
number, 11. This, of course, is expected. We said earlier that the multiplicative inverse of x
is
1
x
.
The multiplicative inverse of a whole number is one divided that number.
Remember the idea of the invisible denominator. The idea that every integer is actually
a rational number whose denominator is one. 5 =
5
1
.
Divide Rational Numbers
Division can be thought of as the inverse process of multiplication. If we multiply a number
by seven, we can divide the answer by seven to return to the original number. Another way
to return to our original number is to multiply the answer by the multiplicative inverse
of seven.
In this way, we can simplify the process of dividing rational numbers. We can turn a division
problem into a multiplication process by replacing the divisor (the number we are dividing
by) with its multiplicative inverse, or reciprocal.
To divide rational numbers, invert the divisor and multiply
a
b

c
d
=
a
b

d
c
.
Also,
a
b
c
d
=
a
b

d
c
Example 2
Divide the fol lowing rational numbers, giving your answer in the simplest form.
a)
1
2

1
4
b)
7
3

2
3
c)
x
2

1
4y
d)
11
2x

_

x
y
_
a) Replace
1
4
with
4
1
and multiply.
1
2

4
1
=
1

2.2
2
=
1
2
.
Solution
www.ck12.org 150
1
2

1
4
= 2
b) Replace
2
3
with
3
2
and multiply.
7

3
2
=
7
2
.
Solution
7
3

2
3
=
7
2
c) eplace
1
4y
with
4y
1
and multiply.
x
2

4y
1
=
x

2.2.y
1
=
x.2y
1
Solution
x
2

1
4y
= 2xy
d) Replace
_

x
y
_
with
_

y
x
_
and multiply.
11
2x

_

y
x
_
=
11.y
2x.x
.
Solution
11
2x
_

x
y
_
=
11y
2x
2
Solve Real-World Problems Using Division
Speed, Distance and Time
An object moving at a certain speed will cover a xed distance in a set time. The quantities
speed, distance and time are related through the equation:
Speed =
Distance
Time
Example 3
Andrew is driving down the freeway. He passes mile marker 27 at exactly mid-day. At 12:35
he passes mile marker 69. At what speed, in miles per hour, is Andrew traveling?
151 www.ck12.org
To determine speed, we need the distance traveled and the time taken. If we want our speed
to come out in miles per hour, we will need distance in miles and time in hours.
Distance = 69 27 = 42 miles
Time taken = 35 minutes =
35
60
=

5.7

5.12
=
7
12
hour
We now plug in the values for distance and time into our equation for speed.
Speed =
42
_
7
12
_ =
42
1

7
12
Replace
7
12
with
12
7
and multiply.
Speed =
42
1

12
7
=

7.6
1
12

7
=
6.12
1
Solution
Andrew is driving at 72 miles per hour .
Example 4
Anne runs a mile and a half in a quarter hour. What is her speed in miles per hour?
We already have the distance and time in the correct units (miles and hours). We simply
write each as a rational number and plug them into the equation.
Speed =
_
3
2
_
_
1
4
_ =
3
2

1
4
Replace
1
4
with
4
1
and multiply.
Speed =
3
2

4
1
=
12
2
= 6
Solution
Anne runs at 6 miles per hour.
Example 5 Newtons Second Law
Newtons second law (F = ma) relates the force applied to a body (F), the mass of the body
(m) and the acceleration (a). Calculate the resulting acceleration if a Force of 7
1
3
Newtons
is applied to a mass of
1
5
kg.
First, we rearrange our equation to isolate the acceleraion, a
www.ck12.org 152
a =
F
m
Substitute in the known values.
a =
_
7
1
3
_
_
1
5
_ =
_
7.3
3
+
1
3
_

_
1
5
_
Determine improper fraction, then invert
1
5
and multiply.
a =
22
3

5
1
=
110
3
Solution
The resultant acceleration is 36
2
3
m/s
2
.
Lesson Summary
The multiplicative inverse of a number is the number which produces one when
multiplied by the original number. The multiplicative inverse of x is the reciprocal
1
x
.
To nd the multiplicative inverse of a rational number, we simply invert the fraction:
a
b
inverts to
b
a
.
To divide rational numbers, invert the divisor and multiply
a
b

c
d
=
a
b

d
c
.
Review Questions
1. Find the multiplicative inverse of each of the following.
(a) 100
(b)
2
8
(c)
19
21
(d) 7
(e)
z
3
2xy
2
2. Divide the following rational numbers, be sure that your answer in the simplest form.
(a)
5
2

1
4
(b)
1
2

7
9
(c)
5
11

6
7
(d)
1
2

1
2
(e)
x
2

5
7
(f)
1
2

x
4y
(g)
_

1
3
_

3
5
_
(h)
7
2

7
4
(i) 11
_

x
4
_
3. The label on a can of paint states that it will cover 50 square feet per pint. If I buy a
1
8
pint sample, it will cover a square two feet long by three feet high. Is the coverage I
get more, less or the same as that stated on the label?
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4. The worlds largest trench digger, Bagger 288, moves at
3
8
mph. How long will it
take to dig a trench
2
3
mile long?
5. A
2
7
Newton force applied to a body of unknown mass produces an acceleration of
3
10
m/s
2
. Calculate the mass of the body. Note: Newton = kg m/s
2
.
Review Answers
1. (a)
1
101
(b)
2
8
(c)
21
19
(d)
1
7
(e)
2xy
2
z
3
2. (a) 10
(b)
9
14
(c)
35
66
(d) 1
(e)
7x
10
(f)
2y
x
(g)
5
9
(h) 2
(i)
44
x
3. At 48 square feet per pint I get less coverage.
4. Time =
16
9
hour (1 hr46 min40 sec)
5. mass =
20
21
kg
2.7 Square Roots and Real Numbers
Learning Objectives
Find square roots.
Approximate square roots.
Identify irrational numbers.
Classify real numbers.
Graph and order real numbers.
Find Square Roots
The square root of a number is a number which, when multiplied by itself gives the original
number. In algebraic terms, the square root of x is a number, b, such that b
2
= x.
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Note: There are two possibilities for a numerical value for b. The positive number that
satises the equation b
2
= x is called the principal square root. Since (b) (b) = +b
2
=
x, b is also a valid solution.
The square root of a number, x, is written as

x or sometimes as
2

x . For example, 2
2
= 4,
so the square root of 4,

4 = 2 .
Some numbers, like 4, have integer square roots. Numbers with integer square roots are
called perfect squares. The rst ve perfect squares (1, 4, 9, 16, 25) are shown below.
You can determine whether a number is a perfect square by looking at its prime factors. If
every number in the factor tree appears an even number of times, the number is a perfect
square. Further, to nd the square root of that number, simply take one of each pair of
factors and multiply them together.
Example 1
Find the principal square root of each of these perfect squares.
a) 121
b) 225
c) 324
d) 576
a) 121 = 11 11
Solution

121 = 11
b) 225 = (5 5) (3 3)
Solution

225 = 5 3 = 15
c) 324 = (2 2) (3 3) (3 3)
Solution
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324 = 2 3 3 = 18
d) 576 = (2 2) (2 2) (2 2) (3 3)
Solution

576 = 2 2 2 3 = 24
When we have an odd number of prime factors, we leave any unpaired factors under a
radical sign. Any answer that contains both whole numbers and irreducible radicals should
be written A

b.
Example 2
Find the principal square root of the fol lowing numbers.
a) 8
b) 48
c) 75
d) 216
a) 8 = (2 2) 2
Solution

8 = 2

2 = 2

2
b) 48 = (2 2) (2 2) 3
Solution

48 = 2 2

3 = 4

3
c) 75 = (5 5) 3
Solution

75 = 5

3 = 5

3
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d) 216 = (2 2) 2 (3 3) 3
Solution

216 = 2

2 3

3 = 6

3 = 6

6
Note that in the last example we collected the whole numbers and multiplied them rst,
then we collect unpaired primes under a single radical symbol. Here are the four rules that
govern how we treat square roots.

b =

ab

b =

a
b
A

a B

b = AB

ab A

a B

b =
A
B

a
b
Example 3
Simplify the fol lowing square root problems
a)

8

2
b) 3

4 4

3
c)

12

3
d) 12

10 6

5
a)

8

2 = 16
Solution

2 = 4
b) 3

4 4

3 = 12

12 = 12

(2 2) 3 = 12 2

3
Solution
3

4 4

3 = 24

3
c)

12

3 =

12
3
=

4
Solution
157 www.ck12.org

12

3 = 2
d) 12

10 6

5 =
12
6

10
5
Solution
12

10 6

5 = 2

2
Approximate Square Roots
When we have perfect squares, we can write an exact numerical solution for the principal
square root. When we have one or more unpaired primes in the factor tree of a number,
however, we do not get integer values for the square root and we have seen that we leave a
radical in the answer. Terms like

2,

3 and

7 (square roots of prime numbers) cannot
be written as rational numbers. That is to say, they cannot be expressed as the ratio of
two integers. We call them irrational numbers. In decimal form, they have an unending,
seemingly random, string of numbers after the decimal point.
To nd approximate values for square roots, we use the

or

x button on a calculator.
When the number we are nding the square root of is a perfect square, or the square of a
rational number, we will get an exact answer. When the number is a non-perfect square,
the decimals will appear random and we will have an irrational number as our answer. We
call this an approximate answer. Even though we may have an answer to eight or nine
decimal places, it still represents an approximation of the real answer which has an innite
number of non-repeating decimals.
Example 4
Use a calculator to nd the fol lowing square roots. Round your answer to three decimal
places.
a)

99
b)

5
c)

0.5
d)

1.75
a) The calculator returns 9.949874371.
Solution
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8 9.950
b) The calculator returns 2.236067977.
Solution

5 2.236
c) The calculator returns 0.7071067812 .
Solution

0.5 0.707
d) The calculator returns 1.322875656.
Solution

1.75 1.323
Identify Irrational Numbers
Any square root that cannot be simplied to a form without a square root is irrational, but
not all square roots are irrational. For example,

49 reduces to 7 and so

49 is rational,
but

50 cannot be reduced further than

25

2 = 5

2. The fact that we cannot remove

the factor of square root of 2 makes

50 irrational.
Example 5
Identify which of the fol lowing are rational numbers and which are irrational numbers.
a) 23.7
b) 2.8956
c)
d)

6
e) 3.

27
a) 23.7 = 23
7
10
. This is clearly a rational number.
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b) 2.8956 = 2
8956
10000
. Again, this is a rational number.
c) = 3.141592654 . . . The decimals appear random, and from the denition of we know
they do not repeat. This is an irrational number.
d)

6 = 2.44949489743 . . . Again the decimals appear to be random. We also know that

6 =

3. Square roots of primes are irrational.

6 is an irrational number.
e) 3.

27 = 3.2727272727 . . . Although these decimals are recurring they are certainly not
unpredictable. This is a rational number (in actual fact, 3.

27 =
36
11
)
Classify Real Numbers
We can now see how real numbers fall into one of several categories.
If a real number can be expressed as a rational number, it falls into one of two categories. If
the denominator of its simplest form is one, then it is an integer. If not, it is a fraction
(this term is used here to also include decimals, as 3.27 = 3
27
100
.
If the number cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers (i.e. as a fraction), it is
irrational.
Example 6
Classify the fol lowing real numbers.
a) 0
b) 1
c)

3
d)

2
3
e)

36
9
a) Solution
Zero is an integer.
b) Solution
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1 is an integer.
c) Although

3
is written as a fraction, the numerator () is irrational.
Solution

3
is an irrational number.
d)

2
3
cannot be simplied to remove the square root.
Solution

2
3
is an irrational number.
e)

36
9
can be simplied to

36
3
=
6
9
=
2
3
Solution

36
9
is a rational number.
Graph and Order Real Numbers
We have already talked about plotting integers on the number line. It gives a visual rep-
resentation of which number is bigger, smaller, etc. It would therefore be helpful to plot
non-integer rational numbers (fractions) on the number line also. There are two ways to
graph rational numbers on the number line. You can convert them to a mixed number
(graphing is one of the few instances in algebra when mixed numbers are preferred to im-
proper fractions), or you can convert them to decimal form.
Example 7
Plot the following rational numbers on the number line.
a)
2
3
b)
3
7
c)
17
3
d)
57
16
If we divide the intervals on the number line into the number on the denominator, we can
look at the fractions numerator to determine how many of these sub-intervals we need to
include.
a)
2
3
falls between 0 and 1. We divide the interval into three units, and include two sub-
intervals.
161 www.ck12.org
b)
3
7
falls between 0 and 1. We divide the interval into seven units, and move left from
zero by three sub-intervals.
c)
17
5
as a mixed number is 2
2
5
and falls between 3 and 4. We divide the interval into ve
units, and move over two sub-intervals.
d)
57
16
as a mixed number is 3
9
16
and falls between 3 and 4. We need to make sixteen sub-
divisions.
Example 8
Plot the following numbers, in the correct order, on a number line.
a)
b)
22
7
c) 3.14
d)

10
We will use a calculator to nd decimal expansions for each of these, and use a number line
divided into 1000 sub-divisions. When we have two extremely close numbers, we will ensure
that we place them in the correct order by looking at the expansion to the 3
rd
decimal place
and writing as a fraction of 1000.
a) = 3.14159 . . . 3
142
1000
b)
22
7
= 3.14288 . . . 3
143
1000
c) 3.14 3
140
1000
d)

10 = 3.16227 . . . 3
162
1000
Solution
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Lesson Summary
The square root of a number is a number which gives the original number when
multiplied by itself. In algebraic terms, the square root of x is a number, b, such that
b
2
= x, or b =

x
There are two possibilities for a numerical value for b. A positive value called the
principal square root and a negative value (the opposite of the positive value).
A perfect square is a number with an integer square root.
Here are some mathematical properties of square roots.

b =

ab

b =

a
b
A

a B

b = AB

ab A

a B

b =
A
B

a
b
Square roots of prime numbers are irrational numbers. They cannot be written as
rational numbers (the ratio of two integers). In decimal form, they have an unending,
seemingly random, string of numbers after the decimal point.
Computing a square root on a calculator will produce an approximate solution since
there are a nite number of digits after the decimal point.
Review Questions
1. Find the following square roots exactly without using a calculator, giving your
answer in the simplest form.
(a)

25
(b)

24
(c)

20
(d)

200
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(e)

2000
(f)

1
4
(g)

9
4
(h)

0.16
(i)

0.1
(j)

0.01
2. Use a calculator to nd the following square roots. Round to two decimal places.
(a)

13
(b)

99
(c)

123
(d)

2
(e)

2000
(f)

0.25
(g)

1.35
(h)

0.37
(i)

0.7
(j)

0.01
3. Classify the following numbers as an integer, a rational number or an irrational number.
(a)

0.25
(b)

1.35
(c)

20
(d)

25
(e)

100
4. Place the following numbers in numerical order, from lowest to highest.

6
2
61
50

1.5
16
13
5. Use the marked points on the number line and identify each proper fraction.
Review Answers
1. (a) 5
(b) 2

6
(c) 2

5
(d) 10

2
(e) 20

5
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(f)
1
2
(g)
3
2
(h) 0.4
(i)
1

10
or

10
10
(j) 0.1
2. (a) 3.61
(b) 1.16
(c) 9.95
(d) 11.09
(e) 44.72
(f) 0.5
(g) 1.16
(h) 0.61
(i) 0.84
(j) 0.1
3. (a) rational
(b) irrational
(c) irrational
(d) integer
(e) integer
4.
61
50

6
2
16
13

1.6
5. (a)
2
3
(b)
9
5
(c)
9
4
(d)
34
9
2.8 Problem-Solving Strategies: Guess and Check, Work
Backward
Learning Objectives
Read and understand given problem situations.
Develop and use the strategy: guess and check.
Develop and use the strategy: work backward.
Plan and compare alternative approaches to solving problems.
Solve real-world problems using selected strategies as part of a plan.
165 www.ck12.org
Introduction
In this chapter, we will continue using our problem solving plan to solve real-world problems.
In this section, you will learn about the methods of Guess and Check and Working
Backwards. These are very powerful strategies in problem solving and probably the most
commonly used in everyday life. Lets review our problem-solving plan.
Step 1
Understand the problem.
Read the problem carefully. Once the problem is read, list all the components and data that
are involved. This is where you will be assigning your variables
Step 2
Devise a plan Translate
Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation, draw a diagram, make a
chart or construct a table as a start to solving your problem.
Step 3
Carry out the plan Solve
This is where you solve the equation you came up with in Step 2.
Step 4
Look Check and Interpret
Check to see if you used all your information and that the answer makes sense.
Lets now apply this plan to a few problems.
Read and Understand Given Problem Situations
The most diicult parts of problem-solving are most often the rst two steps in our problem
solving plan. First, you need to read the problem and make sure you understand what you
are being asked. Then devise a strategy that uses the information you have been given to
arrive at a solution.
Lets look at a problem without solving it. We will read through the problem and list the
information we have been given and what we are trying to nd. We will then try to devise
a strategy for solving the problem.
Example 1
A book cost $18 if bought online and $22.50 if bought at the store. The bookstore sold 250
books and took in $4995. How many books were bought online and how many were bought in
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the store?
Problem set-up:
Step 1
Understand
A book bought online is $18
A book bought at the store is $22.50
The total takings equal $4995
The total number of books sold equals 250
How many books were bought online and how many books were bought in the store?
Step 2
Strategy
Total takings = Total for online sales + Total for in-store sales.
$4995 = $18 (number of books sold online) +$22.50 (number of books sold in-store)
Number of books sold online + Number of books sold in the store = 250 books.
We can guess values for each category and see which of them will give the correct answers.
Develop and Use the Strategy: Guess and Check
The strategy for the method Guess and Check is to guess a solution and use the guess in
the problem to see if you get the correct answer. If the answer is too big or too small, then
make another guess that will get you closer to the goal. You continue guessing until you
arrive at the correct solution. The process might sound like a long one, however the guessing
process will often lead you to patterns that you can use to make better guesses along the
way.
167 www.ck12.org
Here is an example of how this strategy is used in practice.
Example 2
Nadia takes a ribbon that is 48 inches long and cuts it in two pieces. One piece is three times
as long as the other. How long is each piece?
Solution
Step 1
Understand
We need to nd two numbers that add to 48. One number is three times the other number.
Step 2
Strategy
We guess two random numbers, one three times bigger than the other and nd the sum.
If the sum is too small we guess larger numbers and if the sum is too large we guess smaller
numbers.
Then, we see if any patterns develop from our guesses.
Step 3
Apply Strategy/Solve
Guess 5 and 15 the sum is 5 + 15 = 20 which is too small
Guess bigger numbers 6 and 18 the sum is 6 + 18 = 24 which is too small
However, you can see that the answer is exactly half of 48.
Multiply 6 and 18 by two.
Our next guess is 12 and 36 the sum is 12 + 36 = 48 This is correct.
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Answer The pieces are 12 inches and 36 inches long.
Step 4
Check
12 + 36 = 48 The ribbon pieces add up to 48 inches.
36 = 3(12) One piece is three times the length of the other piece.
The answer checks out.
Develop and Use the Strategy: Work Backward
The Work Backward method works well for problems in which a series of operations is
applied to an unknown quantity and you are given the resulting number. The strategy in
these problems is to start with the result and apply the operations in reverse order until you
nd the unknown. Lets see how this method works by solving the following problem.
Example 3
Anne has a certain amount of money in her bank account on Friday morning. During the
day she writes a check for $24.50, makes an ATM withdrawal of $80 and deposits a check
for $235. At the end of the day she sees that her balance is $451.25. How much money did
she have in the bank at the beginning of the day?
Solution:
Step 1
Understand
We need to nd the money in Annes bank account at the beginning of the day on Friday.
She took out $24.50 and $80 and put in $235.
She ended up with $451.25 at the end of the day.
Step 2
Strategy
From the unknown amount we subtract $24.50 and $80 and add $235. We end up with
169 www.ck12.org
$451.25.
We need to start with the result and apply the operations in reverse.
Step 3
Apply Strategy/Solve
Start with $451.25. Subtract $235 and add $80 and then add $24.50.
451.25 235 + 80 + 24.50 = 320.75
Answer Anne had $320.75 in her account at the beginning of the day on Friday.
Step 4
Check
Anne starts with $320.75
She writes a check for$24.50 $320.75 $24.50 = $296.25
She withdraws$80 $296.25 $80 = $216.25
She deposits$235 $216.25 + $235 = $451.25
The answer checks out.
Plan and Compare Alternative Approaches to Solving Prob-
lems
Most word problems can be solved in more than one way. Often one method is more straight
forward than others. In this section, you will see how dierent approaches compare for
solving dierent kinds of problems.
Example 4
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Nadias father is 36. He is 16 years older than four times Nadias age. How old is Nadia?
Solution
This problem can be solved with either of the strategies you learned in this section. Lets
solve the problem using both strategies.
Guess and Check Method
Step 1
Understand
We need to nd Nadias age.
We know that her father is 16 years older than four times her age. Or 4 (Nadias age) +
16
We know her father is 36 years old.
Step 2
Strategy
We guess a random number for Nadias age.
We multiply the number by 4 and add 16 and check to see if the result equals to 36.
If the answer is too small, we guess a larger number and if the answer is too big then we
guess a smaller number.
We keep guessing until we get the answer to be 36.
Step 3
Apply strategy/Solve
Guess Nadias age 10 4(10) + 16 = 56 which is too big for her fathers age
Guess a smaller number 9 4(9) + 16 = 52 which is too big
We notice that when we decreased Nadias age by one, her fathers age decreased by four.
We want the fathers age to be 36, which is 16 years smaller than 52.
This means that we should guess Nadias age to be 4 years younger than 9.
Guess 5 4(5) + 16 = 36 This is the right age.
Answer Nadia is 5 years old.
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Step 4
Check
Nadia is 5 years old. Her fathers age is 4(5) + 16 = 36. This is correct.
The answer checks out.
Work Backward Method
Step 1
Understand
We need to nd Nadias age.
We know her father is 16 years older than four times her age. Or 4 (Nadiasage) + 16
We know her father is 36 years old.
Step 2
Strategy
Nadias father is 36 years old.
To get from Nadias age to her fathers age, we multiply Nadias age by four and add 16.
Working backwards means we start with the fathers age, subtract 16 and divide by 4.
Step 3
Apply Strategy/Solve
Start with the fathers age 36
Subtract16 36 16 = 20
Divide by4 20 4 = 5
Answer Nadia is 5 years old.
Step 4
Check
Nadia is 5 years old. Her fathers age is: 4(5) + 16 = 36. This is correct.
The answer checks out.
You see that in this problem, the Work Backward strategy is more straight-forward than
the Guess and Check method. The Work Backward method always works best when we
perform a series of operations to get from an unknown number to a known result. In the
next chapter, you will learn algebra methods for solving equations that are based on the
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Work Backward method.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Selected Strategies as Part
of a Plan
Example 6
Nadia rents a car for a day. Her car rental company charges $50 per day and $0.40 per mile.
Peter rents a car from a dierent company that charges $70 per day and $0.30 per mile. How
many miles do they have to drive before Nadia and Peter pay the same price for the rental
for the same number of miles?
Solution Lets use the Guess and Check method.
Step 1
Understand
Nadias car rental costs $50 plus $0.40 per mile.
Peters car rental costs $70 plus $0.30 per mile.
We want to know how many miles they have to drive to pay the same price of the rental for
the same number of miles.
Step 2
Strategy
Nadias total cost is $50 plus $0.40 times the number of miles.
Peters total cost is $70 plus $0.30 times the number of miles.
Guess the number of miles and use this guess to calculate Nadias and Peters total cost.
Keep guessing until their total cost is the same.
Step 3
Apply Strategy/Solve
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Guess 50 miles
Check $50 + $0.40(50) = $70 $70 + $0.30(50) = $85 too small
Guess 60 miles
Check $50 + $0.40(60) = $74 $70 + $0.30(60) = $88 too small
Notice that for an increase of 10 miles, the dierence between total costs fell from $15 to
$14.
To get the dierence to zero, we should try increasing the mileage by 140 miles.
Guess 200 miles
Check $50 + $0.40(200) = $130 $70 + $0.30(200) = $130 correct
Answer: Nadia and Peter each have to drive 200 miles to pay the same total cost for the
rental.
Step 4
Check
Nadia $50 + $0.40(200) = $130 Peter $70 + $0.30(200) = $130
The answer checks out.
Lesson Summary
The four steps of the problem solving plan are:
Understand the problem
Devise a plan Translate
Carry out the plan Solve
Look Check and Interpret
Two common problem solving strategies are:
Guess and Check
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Guess a solution and use the guess in the problem to see if you get the correct answer. If
the answer is too big or too small, then make another guess that will get you closer to the
goal.
Work Backward
This method works well for problems in which a series of operations is applied to an unknown
quantity and you are given the resulting number. Start with the result and apply the
operations in reverse order until you nd the unknown.
Review Questions
1. Finish the problem we started in Example 1.
2. Nadia is at home and Peter is at school which is 6 miles away from home. They start
traveling towards each other at the same time. Nadia is walking at 3.5 miles per hour
and Peter is skateboarding at 6 miles per hour. When will they meet and how far from
home is their meeting place?
3. Peter bought several notebooks at Staples for $2.25 each and he bought a few more
notebooks at Rite-Aid for $2 each. He spent the same amount of money in both places
and he bought 17 notebooks in total. How many notebooks did Peter buy in each
store?
4. Andrew took a handful of change out of his pocket and noticed that he was only holding
dimes and quarters in his hand. He counted that he had 22 coins that amounted to
$4. How many quarters and how many dimes does Andrew have?
5. Anne wants to put a fence around her rose bed that is one and a half times as long as
it is wide. She uses 50 feet of fencing. What are the dimensions of the garden?
6. Peter is outside looking at the pigs and chickens in the yard. Nadia is indoors and
cannot see the animals. Peter gives her a puzzle He tells her that he counts 13 heads
and 36 feet and asks her how many pigs and how many chickens are in the yard. Help
Nadia nd the answer.
7. Andrew invests $8000 in two types of accounts. A savings account that pays 5.25%
interest per year and a more risky account that pays 9% interest per year. At the end
of the year he has $450 in interest from the two accounts. Find the amount of money
invested in each account.
8. There is a bowl of candy sitting on our kitchen table. This morning Nadia takes one-
sixth of the candy. Later that morning Peter takes one-fourth of the candy thats left.
This afternoon, Andrew takes one-fth of whats left in the bowl and nally Anne takes
one-third of what is left in the bowl. If there are 16 candies left in the bowl at the end
of the day, how much candy was there at the beginning of the day?
9. Nadia can completely mow the lawn by herself in 30 minutes. Peter can completely
mow the lawn by himself in 45 minutes. How long does it take both of them to mow
the lawn together?
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Review Answers
1. 140 online sales and 110 in-store sales.
2. 37.9 minutes 2.2 miles from home
3. 8 notebooks at Staples and 9 notebooks at Rite-Aid
4. 12 quarters and 10 dimes
5. 10 feet wide and 15 feet long
6. 5 pigs and 8 chickens
7. $7200 in the savings account and $800 in the high-risk account
8. 48 candies
9. 18 minutes
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Chapter 3
Equations of Lines
3.1 One-Step Equations
Learning Objectives
Solve an equation using addition.
Solve an equation using subtraction.
Solve an equation using multiplication.
Solve an equation using division.
Introduction
Nadia is buying a new mp3 player. Peter watches her pay for the player with a $100 bill.
She receives $22.00 in change, and from only this information, Peter works out how much
the player cost. How much was the player?
In math, we can solve problems like this using an equation. An equation is an algebraic
expression that involves an equals sign. If we use the letter x to represent the cost of the
mp3 player we could write the following equation.
x + 22 = 100
This tells us that the value of the player plus the value of the change received is equal to
the $100 that Nadia paid.
Peter saw the transaction from a dierent viewpoint. He saw Nadia receive the player, give
the salesperson $100 then he saw Nadia receive $22 change. Another way we could write the
equation would be:
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x = 100 22
This tells us that the value of the player is equal to the amount of money Nadia paid
(100 22).
Mathematically, these two equations are equivalent. Though it is easier to determine the
cost of the mp3 player from the second equation. In this chapter, we will learn how to solve
for the variable in a one variable linear equation. Linear equations are equations in which
each term is either a constant or the product of a constant and a single variable (to the rst
power). The term linear comes from the word line. You will see in later chapters that linear
equations dene lines when graphed.
We will start with simple problems such as the one in the last example.
Solve an Equation Using Addition
When we write an algebraic equation, equality means that whatever we do to one side of the
equation, we have to do to the other side. For example, to get from the second equation in
the introduction back to the rst equation, we would add a quantity of 22 to both sides:
x = 100 22
x + 22 = 100 22 + 22 or x + 22 = 100
Similarly, we can add numbers to each side of an equation to help solve for our unknown.
Example 1
Solve x 3 = 9
Solution
We need to isolate x. Change our equation so that x appears by itself on one side of the
equals sign. Right now our x has a 3 subtracted from it. To reverse this, we could add 3,
but we must do this to both sides.
x 3 = 9
x 3 + 3 = 9 + 3 The + 3 and 3 on the left cancel each other. We evaluate 9 + 3
x = 12
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Example 2
Solve x 3 = 11
Solution
To isolate x we need to add 3 to both sides of the equation. This time we will add vertically.
x

3 = 11
+

3 = +3
x = 14
Notice how this format works. One term will always cancel (in this case the three), but we
need to remember to carry the x down and evaluate the sum on the other side of the equals
sign.
Example 3
Solve z 9.7 = 1.026
Solution
This time our variable is z, but dont let that worry you. Treat this variable like any other
variable.
z 9.7 = 1.026
+9.7 = +9.7
zb = 8.674
Make sure that you understand the addition of decimals in this example!
Solve an Equation Using Subtraction
When our variable appears with a number added to it, we follow the same process, only this
time to isolate the variable we subtract a number from both sides of the equation.
Example 4
Solve x + 6 = 26
Solution
To isolate x we need to subtract six from both sides.
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&
x +

6 = 26

6 = 6
x = 20
Example 5
Solve x + 20 = 11
Solution
To isolate x we need to subtract 20 from both sides of the equation.
x + 20 = 11
20 = 20
x = 31
Example 6
Solve x +
4
7
=
9
5
Solution
To isolate x we need to subtract
4
7
from both sides.
x +
4
7
=
9
5

4
7
=
4
7
x =
9
5

4
7
To solve for x, make sure you know how to subtract fractions. We need to nd the lowest
common denominator. 5 and 7 are both prime. So we can multiply to nd the LCD, LCD
= 5 7 = 35.
x =
9
5

4
7
x =
7 9
35

4 5
35
x =
63 20
35
x =
43
35
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Make sure you are comfortable with decimals and fractions! To master algebra, you will
need to work with them frequently.
Solve an Equation Using Multiplication
Suppose you are selling pizza for $1.50 a slice and you get eight slices out of a single pizza.
How much do you get for a single pizza? It shouldnt take you long to gure out that you get
8 $1.50 = $12.00. You solve this problem by multiplying. The following examples do the
same algebraically, using the unknown variable x as the cost in dollars of the whole pizza.
Example 7
Solve
1
8
x = 1.5
Our x is being multiplied by one-eighth. We need to cancel this factor, so we multiply by
the reciprocal 8. Do not forget to multiply both sides of the equation.

8
_
1

8
x
_
= 8(1.5)
x = 12
In general, when x is multiplied by a fraction, we multiply by the reciprocal of that fraction.
Example 8
Solve
9x
5
= 5
9x
5
is equivalent to
9
5
x so x is being multiplied by
9
5
. To cancel, multiply by the reciprocal,
5
9
.
5
9
_
9x
5
_
=
5
9
5
x =
25
9
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Example 9
Solve 0.25x = 5.25
0.25 is the decimal equivalent of one fourth, so to cancel the 0.25 factor we would multiply
by 4.
4(0.25x) = 4(5.25)
x = 21
Solve an Equation Using Division
Solving by division is another way to cancel any terms that are being multiplied x. Suppose
you buy ve identical candy bars, and you are charged $3.25. How much did each candy bar
cost? You might just divide $3.25 by 5. Or you may convert to cents and divide 325 by 5.
Lets see how this problem looks in algebra.
Example 10
Solve 5x = 3.25 To cancel the 5 we divide both sides by 5.

5x

5
=
3.25
5
x = 0.65
Example 11
Solve 7x =
5
11
Divide both sides by 7.
x =
5
7 11
x =
5
77
Example 12
Solve 1.375x = 1.2 Divide by 1.375
x =
1.2
1.375
x = 0.872
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Notice the bar above the nal two decimals. It means recurring or repeating: the full answer
is 0.872727272 . . ..
Multimedia Link To see more examples of one- and two-step equation solving, watch the
video series starting at Khan Academy Solving Equations . The narrator in these videos
Figure 3.1: equations of the form AX=B (Watch on Youtube)
uses informal terms and phrases to describe the process of solving equations, but the extra
practice and seeing examples worked out may be helpful to reinforce procedural uency.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Equations
Example 13
In the year 2017, Anne wil l be 45 years old. In what year was Anne born?
The unknown here is the year Anne was born. This is x. Here is our equation.
x + 45 = 2017
45 = 45
x = 1972
Solution
Anne was born in 1972.
Example 14
A mail order electronics company stocks a new mini DVD player and is using a balance to
determine the shipping weight. Using only one lb weights, the shipping department found
that the fol lowing arrangement balances.
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Knowing that each weight is one lb, calculate the weight of one DVD player.
Solution
We know that the system balances, so the weights on each side must be equal. We can
write an algebraic expression based on this equality. The unknown quantity, the weight of
the DVD player (in pounds), will be x. The combined weight on the right of the balance is
5 1 lb = 5lb.
2x = 5 Divide both sides by 2.

2x

2
=
5
2
x = 2.5
Each DVD player weighs x 2.5 lbs.
Example 15
In good weather, tomato seeds can grow into plants and bear ripe fruit in as little as 19 weeks
. Lora planted her seeds 11 weeks ago. How long must she wait before her tomatoes are ready
to eat?
Solution
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We know that the total time to bear fruit is 19 weeks , and that the time so far is 19 weeks
. Our unknown is the time in weeks remaining, so we call that x. Here is our equation.
x + 11 = 19
11 = 11
x = 8
Lora will have to wait another 8 weeks before her tomatoes are ready. We can show this by
designing a table.
Example 16
In 2004, Takeru Kobayashi, of Nagano, Japan, ate 53
1
2
hot dogs in 12 minutes . He broke
his previous world record, set in 2002, by three hot dogs. Calculate:
a) How many minutes it took him to eat one hot dog.
b) How many hot dogs he ate per minute.
c) What his old record was.
a) We know that the total time for 53.5 hot dogs is 12 minutes . If the time, in minutes, for
each hot dog (the unknown) is x then we can write the following equation.
53.5x = 12 Divide both sides by 53.5
x =
12
53.5
= 0.224 minutes Convert to seconds, by multiplying by 60
.
Solution
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The time taken to eat one hot dog is 0.224 minutes , or about 13.5 seconds .
Note: We round o our answer as there is no need to give our answer to an accuracy better
than 0.1 (one tenth) of a second.
b) This time, we look at our data slightly dierently. We know that he ate for 12 minutes .
His rate per-minute is our new unknown (to avoid confusion with x, we will call this y).
We know that the total number of hot dogs is 53.5 so we can write the following equation.
12y = 53.5 Divide both sides by 12
y =
53.5
12
= 4.458
Solution
Takeru Kobayashi ate approximately 4.5. hot dogs per minute.
c) We know that his new record is 53.5. and also that his new record is three more than his
old record. We have a new unknown. We will call his old record z, and write the following
equation.
x + 3 = 53.5
3 = 3
x = 50.5
Solution
Takeru Kobayashis old record was 50
1
2
hot dogs in 12 minutes .
Lesson Summary
An equation in which each term is either a constant or a product of a constant and a
single variable is a linear equation.
Adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing both sides of an equation by the same
value results in an equivalent equation.
To solve an equation, isolate the unknown variable on one side of the equation by
applying one or more arithmetic operations to both sides.
Review Questions
1. Solve the following equations for x.
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(a) x + 11 = 7
(b) x 1.1 = 3.2
(c) 7x = 21
(d) 4x = 1
(e)
5x
12
=
2
3
(f) x +
5
2
=
2
3
(g) x
5
6
=
3
8
(h) 0.01x = 11
2. Solve the following equations for the unknown variable.
(a) q 13 = 13
(b) z + 1.1 = 3.0001
(c) 21 s = 3
(d) t +
1
2
=
1
3
(e)
7f
11
=
7
11
(f)
3
4
=
1
2
y
(g) 6r =
3
8
(h)
9b
16
=
3
8
3. Peter is collecting tokens on breakfast cereal packets in order to get a model boat. In
eight weeks he has collected 10 tokens. He needs 25 tokens for the boat. Write an
equation and determine the following information.
(a) How many more tokens he needs to collect, n.
(b) How many tokens he collects per week, w.
(c) How many more weeks remain until he can send o for his boat, r.
4. Juan has baked a cake and wants to sell it in his bakery. He is going to cut it into 12
slices and sell them individually. He wants to sell it for three times the cost of making
it. The ingredients cost him $8.50, and he allowed $1.25 to cover the cost of electricity
to bake it. Write equations that describe the following statements
(a) The amount of money that he sells the cake for (u).
(b) The amount of money he charges for each slice (c).
(c) The total prot he makes on the cake (w).
Review Answers
1. (a) x = 4
(b) x = 4.3
(c) x = 3
(d) x = 0.25
(e) x = 1.6
(f) x =
11
6
(g) x =
29
24
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(h) x = 1100
2. (a) q = 0
(b) z = 1.9001
(c) s = 1/7
(d) t =
1
6
(e) f = 1
(f) y = 1.5
(g) r =
1
16
(h) b =
2
3
3. (a) n + 10 = 25, n = 15
(b) 8w = 10, w = 1.25
(c) r w = 15 or 1.25r = 15, r = 12
4. (a) u = 3(8.5 + 1.25)
(b) 12v = u
(c) w = u (8.5 + 1.25)
3.2 Two-Step Equations
Learning Objectives
Solve a two-step equation using addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Solve a two-step equation by combining like terms.
Solve real-world problems using two-step equations.
Solve a Two-Step Equation
We have seen that in order to solve for an unknown variable we can isolate it on one side of
the equal sign and evaluate the numbers on the other side. In this chapter we will expand
our ability to do that, with problems that require us to combine more than one technique in
order to solve for our unknown.
Example 1
Rebecca has three bags containing the same number of marbles, plus two marbles left over.
She places them on one side of a balance. Chris, who has more marbles than Rebecca, added
marbles to the other side of the balance. He found that with 29 marbles, the scales balanced.
How many marbles are in each bag? Assume the bags weigh nothing.
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Solution
We know that the system balances, so the weights on each side must be equal. We can
write an algebraic expression based on this equality. The unknown quantity, the number of
marbles in each bag, will be our x. We can see that on the left hand scale we have three bags
(each containing x marbles) and two extra marbles. On the right scale we have 29 marbles.
The balancing of the scales is similar to the balancing of the following equation.
3x + 2 = 29
Three bags plus two marbles equals 29 marbles
To solve for x we need to rst get all the variables (terms containing an x) alone on one side.
Look at the balance. There are no bags on the right. Similarly, there are no x terms on the
right of our equation. We will aim to get all the constants on the right, leaving only the x
on the left.
3x +

2 = 29

2 = 2 Subtract 2 from both sides :

3x = 27

3x

3
=
27
3
Divide both sides by 3
x = 9
Solution
There are nine marbles in each bag.
We can do the same with the real objects as we have done with the equation. Our rst action
was to subtract two from both sides of the equals sign. On the balance, we could remove
this number of marbles from each scale. Because we remove the same number of marbles
from each side, we know the scales will still balance.
Next, we look at the left hand scale. There are three bags of marbles. To make our job
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easier, we divide the marbles on the right scale into three equal piles. You can see that there
are nine marbles in each.
Three bags of marbles balances three piles of nine marbles
So each bag of marble balances nine marbles. Again you see we reach our solution:
Solution
Each bag contains nine marbles.
On the web: http://www.mste.uiuc.edu/pavel/java/balance/ has interactive balance
beam activities!
Example 2
Solve 6(x + 4) = 12
Solution
This equation has the x buried in parentheses. In order to extract it we can proceed in one of
two ways: we can either distribute the six on the left, or divide both sides by six to remove
it from the left. Since the right hand side of the equation is a multiple of six, it makes sense
to divide.
6(x + 4) = 12 Divide both sides by 6.

6(x + 4)

6
=
12
6
x +
e
4 = 2 Subtract 4 from both sides.

e
4 4
x = 2
Solution
x = 2
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Example 3
Solve
x3
5
= 7
This equation has a fraction in it. It is always a good idea to get rid of fractions rst.
_
x
3
5
_
= 7
Solution:

5
_
x 3

5
_
= 5 7 Multiply both sides by 5
x 3 = 35
+ 3 = +3 Add 3 to both sides
x = 38
Solution
x = 38
Example 4
Solve
5
9
(x + 1) =
2
7
First, we will cancel the fraction on the left (making the coeicient equal to one) by multi-
plying by the reciprocal (the multiplicative inverse).

5


5

9
(x + 1) =
9
5

2
7
x + 1 =
18
35
Subtract1
_
1 =
35
35
_
from both sides.
x =
18
35

35
35
x =
18 35
35
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Solution
x =
17
35
These examples are called two-step equations, as we need to perform two separate oper-
ations to the equation to isolate the variable.
Solve a Two-Step Equation by Combining Like Terms
When we look at linear equations we predominantly see two terms, those that contain the
unknown variable as a factor, and those that dont. When we look at an equation that has
an x on both sides, we know that in order to solve, we need to get all the xterms on one
side of the equation. This is called combining like terms. They are like terms because
they contain the same variable (or, as you will see in later chapters, the same combination
of variables).
Like Terms
17x, 12x, 1.2x, and
17x
9
3y, 19y, and
y
99
xy, 6xy, and 0.0001xy
Unlike Terms
3x and 2y
12xy and 2x
0.001x and 0.001
To add or subtract like terms, we can use the Distributive Property of Multiplication instead
of addition and subtraction.
3x + 4x = (3 + 4)x = 7x
0.03xy 0.01xy = (0.03 0.01)xy = 0.02xy
y + 16y 5y = (1 + 16 5)y = 10y
5z + 2z 7z = (5 + 2 7)z = 0z = 0
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To solve an equation with two or more like terms we need to combine them before we can
solve for the variable.
Example 5
Solve (x + 5) (2x 3) = 6
There are two like terms. The x and the 2x (do not forget that the negativesign multiplies
everything in the parentheses).
Collecting like terms means we write all the terms with matching variables together. We
will then add, or subtract them individually. We pull out the x from the rst bracket and
the 2x from the second. We then rewrite the equation collecting the like terms.
(x 2x) + (5 (3)) = 6 Combine like terms and constants.
x +

8 = 6

8 = 8 Subtract 8 from both sides

x = 2 Mutliply both sides by 1 to get the variable by itself
Solution
x = 2
Example 6
Solve
x
2

x
3
= 6
Solution
This problem involves fractions. Combining the variable terms will require dealing with
fractions. We need to write all the terms on the left over a common denominator of six.
3x
6

2x
6
= 6 Next we combine the fractions.
x
6
= 6 Multiply both sides by 6.
x = 36
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Solve Real-World Problems Using Two-Step Equations
When we are faced with real world problems the thing that gives people the most diiculty is
going from a problem in words to an equation. First, look to see what the equation is asking.
What is the unknown for which you have to solve? That will determine the quantity we
will use for our variable. The text explains what is happening. Break it down into small,
manageable chunks. Then, follow what is going on with our variable all the way through the
problem.
Example 7
An emergency plumber charges $65 as a call-out fee plus an additional $75 perhour per hour.
He arrives at a house at 9 : 30 and works to repair a water tank. If the total repair bill is
$196.25, at what time was the repair completed?
In order to solve this problem, we collect the information from the text and convert it to an
equation.
Unknown time taken in hours this will be our x
The bill is made up of two parts: a call out fee and a per-hour fee. The call out is a at
fee, and independent of x. The per-hour part depends on x. Lets look at how this works
algebraically.
$65 as a call-out fee 65
Plus an additional $75 per hour +75x
So the bill, made up from the call out fee plus the per hour charge times the hours taken
creates the following equation.
Total Bill = 65 + 75x
Lastly, we look at the nal piece of information. The total on the bill was $196.25. So our
nal equation is:
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196.25 = 65 + 75x
We solve for x:
196.25 =
&
&
65 + 75x
65 =

65 To isolate x rst subtract 65 from both sides :

131.25 = 75x Divide both sides by 75
131.25
75
= x = 1.75 The time taken was one and three quarter hours.
Solution
The repair job was completed at 11:15AM.
Example 8
When Asia was young her Daddy marked her height on the door frame every month. Asias
Daddy noticed that between the ages of one and three, he could predict her height (in inches)
by taking her age in months, adding 75 inches and multiplying the result by one-third. Use
this information to determine the fol lowing
a) Write an equation linking her predicted height, h, with her age in months, m.
b) Determine her predicted height on her second birthday.
c) Determine at what age she is predicted to reach three feet tall.
a) To convert the text to an equation, rst determine the type of equation we have. We are
going to have an equation that links two variables. Our unknown will change, depending
on the information we are given. For example, we could solve for height given age, or solve
for age given height. However, the text gives us a way to determine height. Our equation
will start with h =.
Next we look at the text.
(m+ 75) Take her age in months, and add75.
1
3
(m+ 75) Multiply the result by one-third.
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Solution
Our full equation is h =
1
3
(m+ 75).
b) To determine the prediction of Asias height on her second birthday, we substitute m = 24
(2 years = 24 months) into our equation and solve for h.
h =
1
3
(24 + 75) Combine terms in parentheses.
h =
1
3
(99) Multiply.
h = 33
Solution
Asias height on her second birthday was predicted to be 33 inches .
c) To determine the predicted age when she reached three feet, substitute h = 36 into the
equation and solve for m.
36 =
1
3
(m+ 75) Multiply both sides by 3.
108 = m+ 75 Subtract 75 from both sides.
33 = m
Solution
Asia was predicted to be 33 months old when her height was three feet.
Example 9
To convert temperatures in Fahrenheit to temperatures in Celsius follow the following steps:
Take the temperature in Fahrenheit and subtract 32. Then divide the result by 1.8 and this
gives temperature in degrees Celsius.
a) Write an equation that shows the conversion process.
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b) Convert 50 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.
c) Convert 25 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.
d) Convert 40 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.
a) The text gives the process to convert Fahrenheit to Celsius. We can write an equation
using two variables. We will use f for temperature in Fahrenheit, and c for temperature in
Celsius. Follow the text to see it work.
(F 32) Take the temperature in Fahrenheit and subtract 32.
F 32
1.8
Then divide the result by 1.8.
C =
F 32
1.8
This gives temperature in degrees Celsius.
In order to convert from one temperature scale to another, simply substitute in for the
known temperature and solve for the unknown.
b) To convert 50degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius substitute F = 50 into the equation.
C =
50 32
1.8
Evaluate numerator.
C =
18
1.8
Perform division operation.
Solution
C = 10, so 50 degrees Fahrenheit is equal to 10 degrees Celsius.
ci) To convert 25 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit substitute C = 25 into the equation:
25 =
F 32
1.8
Multiply both sides by 1.8
45 = F 32
+32 = +32 Add 32 to both sides.
77 = F
Solution
25 degrees Celsius is equal to 77 degrees Fahrenheit.
d) To convert 40 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit substitute C = 40 into the
equation.
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40 =
F 32
1.8
Multiply both sides by 1.8.
72 = F 32
+32 = +32 Add 32 to both sides.
40 = F
Solution
40 degrees Celsius is equal to 40 degrees Fahrenheit.
Lesson Summary
Some equations require more than one operation to solve. Generally it, is good to go
from the outside in. If there are parentheses around an expression with a variable in
it, cancel what is outside the parentheses rst.
Terms with the same variable in them (or no variable in them) are like terms. Com-
bine like terms (adding or subtracting them from each other) to simplify the expres-
sion and solve for the unknown.
Review Questions
1. Solve the following equations for the unknown variable.
(a) 1.3x 0.7x = 12
(b) 6x 1.3 = 3.2
(c) 5x (3x + 2) = 1
(d) 4(x + 3) = 1
(e) 5q 7 =
2
3
(f)
3
5
x +
5
2
=
2
3
(g) s
3s
8
=
5
6
(h) 0.1y + 11 = 0
(i)
5q7
12
=
2
3
(j)
5(q7)
12
=
2
3
(k) 33t 99 = 0
(l) 5p 2 = 32
2. Jade is stranded downtown with only $10 to get home. Taxis cost $0.75 per mile, but
there is an additional $2.35 hire charge. Write a formula and use it to calculate how
many miles she can travel with her money. Determine how many miles she can ride.
3. Jasmins Dad is planning a surprise birthday party for her. He will hire a bouncy
castle, and will provide party food for all the guests. The bouncy castle costs $150
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dollars for the afternoon, and the food will cost $3.00 per person. Andrew, Jasmins
Dad, has a budget of $300 . Write an equation to help him determine the maximum
number of guests he can invite.
Review Answers
1. (a) x = 20
(b) x = 0.75
(c) x = 1.5
(d) x = 2.75
(e) q =
23
15
(f) =
55
18
(g) s =
4
3
(h) y = 110
(i) q = 3
(j) q =
43
5
(k) t = 3
(l) p =
34
5
2. 0.75x + 2.35 = 10 ; x = 10.2 miles
3. 3x + 150 = 300 ; x = 50 guests
3.3 Multi-Step Equations
Learning Objectives
Solve a multi-step equation by combining like terms.
Solve a multi-step equation using the distributive property.
Solve real-world problems using multi-step equations.
Solving Multi-Step Equations by Combining Like Terms
We have seen that when we solve for an unknown variable, it can be a simple matter of
moving terms around in one or two steps. We can now look at solving equations that take
several steps to isolate the unknown variable. Such equations are referred to as multi-step
equations.
In this section, we will simply be combining the steps we already know how to do. Our goal
is to end up with all the constants on one side of the equation and all of the variables on
the other side. We will do this by collecting like terms. Dont forget, like terms have the
same combination of variables in them.
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Example 1
Solve
3x+4
3
5x = 6
This problem involves a fraction. Before we can combine the variable terms we need to deal
with it. Lets put all the terms on the left over a common denominator of three.
3x + 4
3

15x
3
= 6 Next we combine the fractions.
3x + 4 15x
3
= 6 Combine like terms.
4 12x
3
= 6 Multiply both sides by 3.
4 12x = 18 Subtract 4 from both sides.
12x = 14 Divide both sides by 12
12
12
x =
14
12
Solution
x =
7
6
Solving Multi-Step Equations Using the Distributive Prop-
erty
You have seen in some of the examples that we can choose to divide out a constant or
distribute it. The choice comes down to whether on not we would get a fraction as a result.
We are trying to simplify the expression. If we can divide out large numbers without getting
a fraction, then we avoid large coeicients. Most of the time, however, we will have to
distribute and then collect like terms.
Example 2
Solve 17(3x + 4) = 7
This equation has the x buried in parentheses. In order to extract it we can proceed in one
of two ways. We can either distribute the seventeen on the left, or divide both sides by
seventeen to remove it from the left. If we divide by seventeen, however, we will end up with
a fraction. We wish to avoid fractions if possible!
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17(3x + 4) = 7 Distribute the 17.
51x + 68 = 7
68 = 68 Subtract 68 from both sides.
51x = 61 Divide by 51.
Solution
x =
61
51
Example 3
Solve 4(3x 4) 7(2x + 3) = 3
This time we will need to collect like terms, but they are hidden inside the brackets. We
start by expanding the parentheses.
12x 16 14x 21 = 3 Collect the like terms (12x and 14x).
(12x 14x) + (16 21) = 3 Evaluate each set of like terms.
2x 37 = 3
+37 + 37 Add37 to both sides.
2x = 40
2x
2
=
40
2
Divide both sides by 2.
Solution
x = 20
Example 4
Solve the fol lowing equation for x.
0.1(3.2 + 2x) +
1
2
_
3
x
5
_
= 0
201 www.ck12.org
This function contains both fractions and decimals. We should convert all terms to one or
the other. It is often easier to convert decimals to fractions, but the fractions in this equation
are easily moved to decimal form. Decimals do not require a common denominator!
Rewrite in decimal form.
0.1(3.2 + 2x) + 0.5(3 0.2x) = 0 Multiply out decimals:
0.32 + 0.2x + 1.5 0.1x = 0 Collect like terms:
(0.2x 0.1x) + (0.32 + 1.5) = 0 Evaluate each collection:
0.1x + 1.82 = 0 Subtract 1.82 from both sides
1.82 1.82
0.1x = 1.82 Divide by 0.1
0.1x
0.1
=
1.82
0.1
Solution
x = 18.2
Solve Real-World Problems Using Multi-Step Equations
Real-world problems require you to translate from a problem in words to an equation. First,
look to see what the equation is asking. What is the unknown you have to solve for?
That will determine the quantity we will use for our variable. The text explains what is
happening. Break it down into small, manageable chunks, and follow what is going on with
our variable all the way through the problem.
Example 5
A growers cooperative has a farmers market in the town center every Saturday. They sell
what they have grown and split the money into several categories. 8.5% of all the money
taken is removed for sales tax. $150 is removed to pay the rent on the space they occupy.
What remains is split evenly between the seven growers. How much money is taken in total
if each grower receives a $175 share?
Let us translate the text above into an equation. The unknown is going to be the total
money taken in dollars. We will call this x.
8.5% of al l the money taken is removed for sales tax. This means that 91.5% of the money
remains. This is 0.915x.
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(0.915x 150)
$150 is removed to pay the rent on the space they occupy
0.915x 150
7
What remains is split evenly between the7 growers
If each growers share is $175, then we can write the following equation.
0.915x 150
7
= 175 Multiply by both sides 7.
0.915x 150 = 1225 Add 150 to both sides.
0.915x = 1375 Divide by 0.915.
0.915x
0.915
=
1373
0.915
= 1502.7322 Round to two decimal places.
Solution
If the growers are each to receive a $175 share then they must take at least $1, 502.73.
Example 6
A factory manager is packing engine components into wooden crates to be shipped on a small
truck. The truck is designed to hold sixteen crates, and will safely carry a 1200 lb cargo. Each
crate weighs twelve lbs empty. How much weight should the manager instruct the workers to
put in each crate in order to get the shipment weight as close as possible to 1200 lbs?
The unknown quantity is the weight to put in each box. This is x. Each crate, when full
will weigh:
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(x + 12) 16 crates must weigh.
16(x + 12) And this must equal 16 lbs.
16(x + 12) = 1200 Isolate x rst, divide both sides by 16.
x + 12 = 75 Next subtract 12from both sides.
x = 63
Solution
The manager should tell the workers to put 63 lbs of components in each crate.
Ohms Law
The electrical current, I (amps), passing through an electronic component varies directly
with the applied voltage, V (volts), according to the relationship:
V = I R where R is the resistance (measured in Ohms - )
Example 7
A scientist is trying to deduce the resistance of an unknown component. He labels the
resistance of the unknown component x. The resistance of a circuit containing a number of
these components is (5x +20). If a 120 volt potential dierence across the circuit produces
a current of 2.5 amps, calculate the resistance of the unknown component.
Substitute V = 120, I = 2.5 and R = 5x + 20 into V = I R:
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120 = 2.5(5x + 20) Distribute the 2.5.
120 = 12.5x + 50 Subtract 50 from both sides.
50 = 50
70 = 12.5x Divide both sides by 12.5.
70
12.5
=
12.5x
12.5
5.6 = x
Solution
The unknown components have a resistance of 5.6.
Distance,Speed and Time
The speed of a body is the distance it travels per unit of time. We can determine how far
an object moves in a certain amount of time by multiplying the speed by the time. Here is
our equation.
distance = speed time
Example 8
Shanices car is traveling 10 miles per hour slower than twice the speed of Brandons car. She
covers 93 miles in 1 hour 30 minutes. How fast is Brandon driving?
Here we have two unknowns in this problem. Shanices speed and Brandons speed. We
do know that Shanices speed is ten less than twice Brandons speed. Since the question is
asking for Brandons speed, it is his speed in miles per hour that will be x.
Substituting into the distance time equation yields:
93 = 2x 10 1.5 Divide by 1.5.
62 = 2x 10
+10 = +10 Add10to both sides.
72 = 2x
72
2
=
2x
2
Divide both sides by 2.
36 = x
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Solution
Peter is driving at 36 miles per hour.
This example may be checked by considering the situation another way: We can use the fact
that Shanices covers 93 miles in 1 hour 30 minutes to determine her speed (we will call this
y as x has already been dened as Brandons speed):
93 = y 1.5
93
1.5
=
1.5y
1.5
Divide both sides by 1.5.
y = 62mph
We can then use this information to determine Shanices speed by converting the text to an
equation.
Shanices car is traveling at 10 miles per hour slower than twice the speed of Peters car
Translates to
y = 2x 10
It is then a simple matter to substitute in our value in fory and then solve for x:
62 = (2x

10)
+ 10 +

10 Add 10 to both sides.

72 = 2x
72 = 2x Divide both sides by 2.
72
2
=
2x
2
x = 36 miles per hour.
Solution
Brandon is driving at 36 milesperhour.
You can see that we arrive at exactly the same answer whichever way we solve the problem.
In algebra, there is almost always more than one method of solving a problem. If time
allows, it is an excellent idea to try to solve the problem using two dierent methods and
thus conrm that you have calculated the answer correctly.
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Speed of Sound
The speed of sound in dry air, v, is given by the following equation.
v = 331 + 0.6T where T is the temperature in Celsius and v is the speed of sound in meters
per second.
Example 9
Tashi hits a drainpipe with a hammer and 250 meters away Minh hears the sound and hits
his own drainpipe. Unfortunately, there is a one second delay between him hearing the sound
and hitting his own pipe. Tashi accurately measures the time from her hitting the pipe and
hearing Mihns pipe at 2.46 seconds . What is the temperature of the air?
This complex problem must be carefully translated into equations:
Distance traveled = (331 + 0.6T) time
time = (2.46 1) Do not forget, for one second the sound is not traveling
Distance = 2 250
Our equation is:
2(250) = (331 + 0.6T) (2.46 1) Simplify terms.
500
1.46
=
1.46(331 + 0.6T)
1.46
Divide by 1.46.
342.47 331 = 331 + 0.6T 331 Subtract 331 from both sides.
11.47
0.6
=
0.6T
0.6
Divide by 0.6.
19.1 = T
Solution
The temperature is 19.1 degrees Celsius.
Lesson Summary
If dividing a number outside of parentheses will produce fractions, it is often better to
use the Distributive Property (for example, 3(x+2) = 3x+6) to expand the terms
and then combine like terms to solve the equation.
207 www.ck12.org
Review Questions
1. Solve the following equations for the unknown variable.
(a) 3(x 1) 2(x + 3) = 0
(b) 7(w + 20) w = 5
(c) 9(x 2) = 3x + 3
(d) 2
_
5a
1
3
_
=
2
7
(e)
2
9
_
i +
2
3
_
=
2
5
(f) 4
_
v +
1
4
_
=
35
2
(g)
s4
11
=
2
5
(h)
p
16

2p
3
=
1
9
2. An engineer is building a suspended platform to raise bags of cement. The platform
has a mass of 200 kg, and each bag of cement is 40 kg. He is using two steel cables,
each capable of holding 250 kg. Write an equation for the number of bags he can put
on the platform at once, and solve it.
3. A scientist is testing a number of identical components of unknown resistance which he
labels x. He connects a circuit with resistance (3x + 4) to a steady 12 Volt supply
and nds that this produces a current of 1.2 Amps . What is the value of the unknown
resistance?
4. Lydia inherited a sum of money. She split it into ve equal chunks. She invested three
parts of the money in a high interest bank account which added 10% to the value. She
placed the rest of her inheritance plus $500 in the stock market but lost 20% on that
money. If the two accounts end up with exactly the same amount of money in them,
how much did she inherit?
5. Pang drove to his mothers house to drop o her new TV. He drove at 50 miles per
hour there and back, and spent 10 minutes dropping o the TV. The entire journey
took him 94 minutes . How far away does his mother live?
Review Answers
1. (a) x = 9
(b) w = 22.5
(c) x = 3.5
(d) a =
2
21
(e) i =
17
15
(f) v =
33
8
(g) s =
42
5
(h) p =
16
87
2. 2(250) = 200 + 40x; x = 7.5 7 bags
3. 2
4. $1, 176.50
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5. 35 miles
3.4 Equations with Variables on Both Sides
Learning Objectives
Solve an equation with variables on both sides.
Solve an equation with grouping symbols.
Solve real-world problems using equations with variables on both sides.
Solve an Equation with Variables on Both Sides
When the variable appears on both sides of the equation, we need to manipulate our equation
such that all variables appear on one side, and only constants remain on the other.
Example 1
Dwayne was told by his chemistry teacher to measure the weight of an empty beaker using a
balance. Dwayne found only one lb weights, and so devised the following way of balancing
the scales.
Knowing that each weight is one lb, calculate the weight of one beaker.
Solution
We know that the system balances, so the weights on each side must be equal. We can write
an algebraic expression based on this fact. The unknown quantity, the weight of the beaker,
will be our x. We can see that on the left hand scale we have one beaker and four weights.
On the right scale, we have four beakers and three weights. The balancing of the scales is
analogous to the balancing of the following equation.
x + 4 = 4x + 3
One beaker plus 4 lbs equals 4 beakers plus 3 lbs
To solve for the weight of the beaker, we want all the constants (numbers) on one side and
all the variables (terms with x in) on the other side. Look at the balance. There are more
209 www.ck12.org
beakers on the right and more weights on the left. We will aim to end up with only x terms
(beakers) on the right, and only constants (weights) on the left.
x + 4 = 4x + 3 Subtract 3 from both sides.
3 = 3
x + 1 = 4x
x = x Subtract x from both sides.
1 = 3x
1
3
=

3x

3
Divide both sides by 3.
x =
1
3
Answer The weight of the beaker is one-third of a pound.
We can do the same with the real objects as we have done with the equation. Our rst action
was to subtract three from both sides of the equals sign. On the balance, we could remove a
certain number of weights or beakers from each scale. Because we remove the same number
of weights from each side, we know the scales will still balance.
On the balance, we could remove three weights from each scale. This would leave one beaker
and one weight on the left and four beakers on the right (in other words x + 1 = 4x).:
The next step we could do is remove one beaker from each scale leaving only one weight on
the left and three beakers on the right and you will see our nal equation: 1 = 3x.
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Looking at the balance, it is clear that the weight of the beaker is one-third of a pound.
Example 2
Sven was told to nd the weight of an empty box with a balance. Sven found one lb weights
and ve lb weights. He placed two one lb weights in three of the boxes and with a fourth
empty box found the fol lowing way of balancing the scales.
Knowing that small weights are one lb and big weights are ve lbs, calculate the weight of
one box.
We know that the system balances, so the weights on each side must be equal. We can write
an algebraic expression based on this equality. The unknown quantity, the weight of each
empty box, in pounds, will be our x. A box with two 1 lb weights in it weighs (x +2). Here
is the equation.
3(x + 2) = x + 3(5) Distribute the 3.
3x + 6 =

x + 5
x =

x Subtract x from both sides.

2x +
e
6 = 15

e
6 = 6 Subtract 6 from both sides.
2x = 9 Divide both sides by2.
x = 4.5
Solution
Each box weighs 4.5 lbs.
Multimedia Link To see more examples of solving equations with variables on both sides of
the equation, see Khan Academy Solving Linear Equations 3 . This video has several more
examples of solving equations and may help you practice the procedure of solving linear
equations with variables on both sides of the equation.
211 www.ck12.org
Figure 3.2: Linear equations with multiple variable and constant terms (Watch on Youtube)
Solve an Equation with Grouping Symbols
When we have a number of like terms on one side of the equal sign we collect like terms
then add them in order to solve for our variable. When we move variables from one side of
the equation to the other we sometimes call it grouping symbols. Essentially we are doing
exactly what we would do with the constants. We can add and subtract variable terms just
as we would with numbers. In fractions, occasionally we will have to multiply and divide by
variables in order to get them all on the numerator.
Example 3
Solve 3x + 4 = 5x
Solution
This equation has x on both sides. However, there is only a number term on the left. We
will therefore move all the x terms to the right of the equal sign leaving the constant on the
left.
e
3x + 4 = 5x Subtract 3x from both sides.
3

x 3x
4 = 2x
Divide by 2
4
2
=
2x
2
Solution
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x = 2
Example 4
Solve 9x = 4 5x
This time we will collect like terms (x terms) on the left of the equal sign.
9x = 4

5x
+ 5x + 5

x Add 5x to both sides.

14x = 4
14x = 4 Divide by 14.
14x
14
=
4
14
x =
2
7
Solution
x =
2
7
Example 5
Solve 3x + 2 =
5x
3
This equation has x on both sides and a fraction. It is always easier to deal with equations
that do not have fractions. The rst thing we will do is get rid of the fraction.
213 www.ck12.org
3x + 2 =
5x
3
3(3x + 2) = 5x Multiply both sides by 3.
Distribute the 3.
e
9x + 6 = 5x
9

x 9x Subtract 9x from both sides :

Divide by 4.
6
4
=
4x
4
6
4
= x

3
2
= x
Solution
x = 1.5
Example 6
Solve 7x + 2 =
5x3
6
Again we start by eliminating the fraction.
7x + 2 =
5x 3
6
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6(7x + 2) =
5x 3
6
6 Multiply both sides by 6.
6(7x + 2) = 5x 3 Distribute the 6.
42x + 12 =
&
&
5x 3 Subtract 5x from both sides :
5x
&
&
5x
37x +
&
&
12 = 3 Subtract 12 from both sides.

&
&
12 12
37x = 15
37x
37
=
15
37
Divide by 37.
Solution
x =
15
37
Example 7
Solve the following equation for x.
14x
(x + 3)
= 7
The form of the left hand side of this equation is known as a rational function because it
is the ratio of two other functions (14x) and (x +3). However, we wish simply to solve for x
so we start by eliminating the fraction. We do this as we have always done, by multiplying
by the denominator.
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14x
(x + 3)
(x + 3) = 7(x + 3) Multiply by (x + 3).
14x = 7(x + 3) Distribute the 7.
14x =

7x + 21
7x =

7x Subtract 7x from both sides.

7x = 21
7x
7
=
21
7
Divide both sides by 7
x = 3
Solve Real-World Problems Using Equations with Variables
on Both Sides
Build your skills in translating problems from words to equations. What is the equation
asking? What is the unknown variable? What quantity will we use for our variable?
The text explains what is happening. Break it down into small, manageable chunks, and
follow what is going on with our variable all the way through the problem.
More on Ohms Law
The electrical current, I(amps), passing through an electronic component varies directly
with the applied voltage, V (volts), according to the relationship:
V = I R where R is the resistance (measured in Ohms)
The resistance R of a number of components wired in a series (one after the other) is given
by: R = r
1
+r
2
+r
3
+r
4
+. . .
Example 8
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In an attempt to nd the resistance of a new component, a scientist tests it in series with
standard resistors. A xed voltage causes a 4.8 amp current in a circuit made up from the
new component plus a 15 resistor in series. When the component is placed in a series
circuit with a 50 resistor the same voltage causes a 2.0 amp current to ow. Calculate the
resistance of the new component.
This is a complex problem to translate, but once we convert the information into equations
it is relatively straight forward to solve. Firstly we are trying to nd the resistance of the
new component (in Ohms, ). This is our x. We do not know the voltage that is being used,
but we can leave that as simple V . Our rst situation has the unknown resistance plus 15.
The current is 4.8 amps. Substitute into the formula V = I R.
V = 4.8(x + 15)
Our second situation has the unknown resistance plus 50. The current is 2.0 amps.
V = 2(x + 50)
We know the voltage is xed, so the V in the rst equation must equal the V in the second.
This means that:
4.8(x + 15) = 2(x + 50) Distribute the constants.
4.8x + 72 =

2x + 100
2x

2x Subtract 2x from both sides.

2.8x +

72 = 100
72

72 Subtract 72 from both sides.

2.8x = 28 Divide both sides by 2.8.
2.8x
2.8
=
28
2.8
x = 10
Solution
The resistance of the component is 10.
217 www.ck12.org
Lesson Summary
If an unknown variable appears on both sides of an equation, distribute as necessary.
Then subtract (or add) one term to both sides to simplify the equation to have the
unknown on only one side.
Review Questions
1. Solve the following equations for the unknown variable.
(a) 3(x 1) = 2(x + 3)
(b) 7(x + 20) = x + 5
(c) 9(x 2) = 3x + 3
(d) 2
_
a
1
3
_
=
2
5
_
a +
2
3
_
(e)
2
7
_
t +
2
3
_
=
1
5
_
t
2
3
_
(f)
1
7
_
v +
1
4
_
= 2
_
3v
2

5
2
_
(g)
y4
11
=
2
5

2y+1
3
(h)
z
16
=
2(3z+1)
9
(i)
q
16
+
q
6
=
(3q+1)
9
+
3
2
2. Manoj and Tamar are arguing about how a number trick they heard goes. Tamar tells
Andrew to think of a number, multiply it by ve and subtract three from the result.
Then Manoj tells Andrew to think of a number add ve and multiply the result by
three. Andrew says that whichever way he does the trick he gets the same answer.
What was Andrews number?
3. I have enough money to buy ve regular priced CDs and have $6 left over. However
all CDs are on sale today, for $4 less than usual. If I borrow $2, I can aord nine of
them. How much are CDs on sale for today?
4. Five identical electronics components were connected in series. A xed but unknown
voltage placed across them caused a 2.3 amp current to ow. When two of the com-
ponents were replaced with standard 10 resistors, the current dropped to 1.9 amps.
What is the resistance of each component?
5. Solve the following resistance problems. Assume the same voltage is applied to all
circuits.
(a) Three unknown resistors plus 20 give the same current as one unknown resistor
plus 70.
(b) One unknown resistor gives a current of 1.5 amps and a 15 resistor gives a
current of 3.0 amps.
(c) Seven unknown resistors plus 18 gives twice the current of two unknown resistors
plus 150.
(d) Three unknown resistors plus 1.5 gives a current of 3.6 amps and seven unknown
resistors plus 7 12 resistors gives a current of 0.2 amps.
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Review Answers
1. (a) x = 9
(b) x = 22.5
(c) x = 3.5
(d) a =
7
12
(e) t =
34
9
(f) v =
141
80
(g) y =
82
29
(h) z =
32
87
(i) q =
232
15
2. 9
3. $7
4. 6.55
5. (a) unknown = 25
(b) unknown = 30
(c) unknown = 94
(d) unknown = 1.213
3.5 Ratios and Proportions
Learning Objectives
Write and understand a ratio.
Write and solve a proportion.
Solve proportions using cross products.
Introduction
Nadia is counting out money with her little brother. She gives her brother all the nickels
and pennies. She keeps the quarters and dimes for herself. Nadia has four quarters (worth
25 cents each) and six dimes (worth 10 cents each). Her brother has fteen nickels (worth 5
cents each) and ve pennies (worth one cent each) and is happy because he has more coins
than his big sister. How would you explain to him that he is actually getting a bad deal?
Write a ratio
A ratio is a way to compare two numbers, measurements or quantities. When we write a
ratio, we divide one number by another and express the answer as a fraction. There are two
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distinct ratios in the problem above. For example, the ratio of the number of Nadias coins
to her brothers is:
4 + 6
15 + 5
=
10
20
When we write a ratio, the correct way is to simplify the fraction.
10
20
=

2.

5
2.

2.

5
=
1
2
In other words, Nadia has half the number of coins as her brother.
Another ratio we could look at in the problem is the value of the coins. The value of
Nadias coins is (4 25) + (6 10) = 160 cents . The value of her brothers coins is
(15 5) + (5 1) = 80 cents . The ratio of the value of Nadias coins to her brothers is:
160
80
=
2
1
So the value of Nadias money is twice the value of her brothers.
Notice that even though the denominator is one, it is still written. A ratio with a denominator
of one is called a unit rate. In this case, it means Nadia is gaining money at twice the rate
of her brother.
Example 1
The price of a Harry Potter Book on Amazon.com is $10.00. The same book is also available
used for $6.50. Find two ways to compare these prices.
Clearly, the cost of a new book is greater than the used book price. We can compare the
two numbers using a dierence equation:
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Dierence in price = 10.00 $6.50 = $3.50
We can also use a ratio to compare the prices:
new price
used price
=
$10.00
$6.50
We can cancel the units of$ as they are the same.
10
6.50
=
1000
650
=
20
13
We remove the decimals and simplify the fraction.
Solution
The new book is $3.50 more than the used book.
The new book costs
20
13
times the cost of the used book.
Example 2
The State Dining Room in the White House measures approximately 48 feet long by 36 feet
wide. Compare the length of room to the width, and express your answer as a ratio.
Solution
48 feet
36 feet
=
48
36
=
4
3
Example 3
A tournament size shueboard table measures 30 inches wide by 14 feet long. Compare the
length of the table to its width and express the answer as a ratio.
We could write the ratio immediately as:
14 feet
30 inches
Notice that we cannot cancel the units.
Sometimes it is OK to leave the units in, but as we are comparing two lengths, it makes
sense to convert all the measurements to the same units.
Solution
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14 feet
30 inches
=
14 12 inches
30 inches
=
168
30
=
28
5
Example 4
A family car is being tested for fuel eiciency. It drives non-stop for 100 miles, and uses 3.2
gallons of gasoline. Write the ratio of distance traveled to fuel used as a unit rate.
Ratio =
100 miles
3.2 gallons
A unit rate has a denominator of one, so we need to divide both numerator and denominator
by 3.2.
Unit Rate
(
100
3.2
) miles
(
3.2
3.2
) gallons
=
31.25 miles
1 gallon
Solution
The ratio of distance to fuel used is
31.25 miles
1 gallon
or 31.25 miles per gallon.
Write and Solve a Proportion
When two ratios are equal to each other, we call it a proportion.
10
15
=
6
9
This statement is a proportion. We know the statement is true because we can reduce both
fractions to
2
3
.
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Check this yourself to make sure!
We often use proportions in science and business. For example, when scaling up the size
of something. We use them to solve for an unknown, so we will use algebra and label our
unknown variable x. We assume that a certain ratio holds true whatever the size of the
thing we are enlarging (or reducing). The next few examples demonstrate this.
Example 5
A smal l fast food chain operates 60 stores and makes $1.2 million prot every year. How
much prot would the chain make if it operated 250 stores?
First, we need to write a ratio. This will be the ratio of prot to number of stores.
Ratio =
$1, 200, 000
60 stores
We now need to determine our unknown, x which will be in dollars. It is the prot of 250
stores. Here is the ratio that compares unknown dollars to 250 stores.
Ratio =
$x
250 stores
We now write equal ratios and solve the resulting proportion.
$1,200,000
60 stores
=
$x
250 stores
or
1,200,000
60
=
x
250
Note that we can drop the units not because they are the same on the numerator and
denominator, but because they are the same on both sides of the equation.
1, 200, 000
60
=
x
250
Simplify fractions.
20, 000 =
x
250
Multiply both sides by 250.
5, 000, 000 = x
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Solution
If the chain operated 250 stores the annual prot would be 5 milliondollars .
Example 6
A chemical company makes up batches of copper sulfate solution by adding 250 kg of copper
sulfate powder to 1000 liters of water. A laboratory chemist wants to make a solution of
identical concentration, but only needs 350 ml (0.35 liters) of solution. How much copper
sulfate powder should the chemist add to the water?
First we write our ratio. The mass of powder divided by the volume of water used by the
chemical company.
Ratio =
250 kg
1000 liters
We can reduce this to :
1 kg
4 liters
Our unknown is the mass in kilograms of powder to add. This will be x. The volume of
water will be 0.35 liters .
Ratio =
x kg
0.35 liters
Our proportion comes from setting the two ratios equal to each other:
1 kg
4 liters
=
x kg
0.35 liters
which becomes
1
4
=
x
0.35
We now solve for x.
1
4
=
x
0.35
Multiply both sides by 0.35.
0.35
1
4
=
x
0.35
0.35
x = 0.0875
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Solution
The mass of copper sulfate that the chemist should add is 0.0875 kg or 87.5 grams .
Solve Proportions Using Cross Products
One neat way to simplify proportions is to cross multiply. Consider the following proportion.
16
4
=
20
5
If we want to eliminate the fractions, we could multiply both sides by 4 and then multiply
both sides by 5. In fact we could do both at once:
4 5
16
4
= 4 5
20
5
5 16 = 4 20
Now comparing this to the proportion we started with, we see that the denominator from
the left hand side ends up multiplying with the numerator on the right hand side.
You can also see that the denominator from the right hand side ends up multiplying the
numerator on the left hand side.
In eect the two denominators have multiplied across the equal sign:
5 16 = 4 20
This movement of denominators is known as cross multiplying. It is extremely useful in
solving proportions, especially when the unknown variable is on the denominator.
Example 7
Solve the proportion for x.
4
3
=
9
x
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Cross multiply:
x 4 = 9 3
4x
4
=
27
4
Divide both sides by4.
Solution
x = 6.75
Example 8
Solve the following proportion for x.
0.5
3
=
56
x
Cross multiply:
x 0.5 = 56 3
0.5x
0.5
=
168
0.5
Divide both sides by 0.5.
Solution:
x = 336
Solve Real-World Problems Using Proportions
When we are faced with a word problem that requires us to write a proportion, we need
to identify both the unknown (which will be the quantity we represent as x) and the ratio
which will stay xed.
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Example 9
A cross-country train travels at a steady speed. It covers 15 miles in 20 minutes . How far
will it travel in 7 hours assuming it continues at the same speed?
This example is a Distance = speed time problem. We came across a similar problem
in Lesson 3.3. Recall that the speed of a body is the quantity distance/time. This will be
our ratio. We simply plug in the known quantities. We will, however convert to hours from
minutes.
Ratio =
15 miles
20 minutes
=
15 miles
1
3
hour
This is a very awkward looking ratio, but since we will be cross multiplying we will leave it
as it is. Next, we set up our proportion.
15miles
1
3
hour
=
x miles
7 hours
Cancel the units and cross-multiply.
7 15 =
1
3
x Multiply both sides by 3.
3 7 15 = 3
1
3
x
315 = x
Solution
The train will travel 315 miles in 7 hours .
Example 10
Rain is fal ling at 1 inch every 1.5 hours. How high will the water level be if it rains at the
same rate for 3 hours ?
Although it may not look it, this again uses the Distance = speed time relationship.
The distance the water rises in inches will be our x. The ratio will again be
distance
time
.
1 inch
1.5 hours
=
x inch
3 hours
Cancel units and cross multiply.
3(1)
1.5
=
1.5x
1.5
Divide by 1.5
2 = x
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Solution
The water will be 2 inches high if it rains for 3 hours .
Example 11
In the United Kingdom, Alzheimers disease is said to aect one in fty people over 65 years
of age. If approximately 250000 people over 65 are aected in the UK, how many people over
65 are there in total?
The xed ratio in this case will be the 1 person in 50. The unknown (x) is the number of
persons over 65. Note that in this case, the ratio does not have units, as they will cancel
between the numerator and denominator.
We can go straight to the proportion.
1
50
=
250000
x
Cross multiply :
1 x = 250000 50
x = 12, 500, 000
Solution
There are approximately 12.5 million people over the age of 65.
Multimedia Link For some advanced ratio problems and applications see Khan Academy
Advanced Ratio Problems (9:57) . Can you think of an easier way to set up and solve these
problems?
Lesson Summary
A ratio is a way to compare two numbers, measurements or quantities by dividing one
number by the other and expressing the answer as a fraction.
2
3
,
32 miles
1.4 gallons
, and
x
13
are
all ratios.
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Figure 3.3: More advanced ratio problems (Watch on Youtube)
A proportion is formed when two ratios are set equal to each other.
Cross multiplication is useful for solving equations in the form of proportions. To
cross multiply, multiply the bottom of each ratio by the top of the other ratio and set
them equal. For instance, cross multiplying
results in 11 3 = 5 x.
Review Questions
1. Write the following comparisons as ratios. Simplify fractions where possible.
(a) $150 to $3
(b) 150 boys to 175 girls
(c) 200 minutes to 1 hour
(d) 10 days to 2 weeks
2. Write the following ratios as a unit rate.
(a) 54 hotdogs to 12 minutes
(b) 5000 lbs to 250 in
2
(c) 20 computers to 80 students
(d) 180 students to 6 teachers
(e) 12 meters to 4 oors
(f) 18 minutes to 15 appointments
3. Solve the following proportions.
(a)
13
6
=
5
x
(b)
1.25
7
=
3.6
x
(c)
6
19
=
x
11
(d)
1
x
=
0.01
5
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(e)
300
4
=
x
99
(f)
2.75
9
=
x
(
2
9
)
(g)
1.3
4
=
x
1.3
(h)
0.1
1.01
=
1.9
x
4. A restaurant serves 100 people per day and takes $908. If the restaurant were to serve
250 people per day, what might the taking be?
5. The highest mountain in Canada is Mount Yukon. It is
298
67
the size of Ben Nevis, the
highest peak in Scotland. Mount Elbert in Colorado is the highest peak in the Rocky
Mountains. Mount Elbert is
220
67
the height of Ben Nevis and
44
48
the size of Mont Blanc
in France. Mont Blanc is 4800 meters high. How high is Mount Yukon?
6. At a large high school it is estimated that two out of every three students have a cell
phone, and one in ve of all students have a cell phone that is one year old or less.
Out of the students who own a cell phone, what proportion owns a phone that is more
than one year old?
Review Answers
1. (a)
50
1
(b)
6
7
(c)
10
3
(d)
5
7
2. (a) 4.5 hot-dogs per minute
(b) 20 lbs per in
2
(c) 0.25 computers per student
(d) 30 students per teacher
(e) 3 meters per oor
(f) 1.2 minutes per appointment
3. (a) x =
30
13
(b) x = 20.16
(c) x =
66
19
(d) x = 500
(e) x = 7425
(f) x =
11
162
(g) x = 0.4225
(h) x =
100
1919
4. $2270
5. 5960 meters .
6.
3
10
or 30%
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3.6 Scale and Indirect Measurement
Learning Objectives
Use scale on a map.
Solve problems using scale drawings.
Use similar gures to measure indirectly.
Introduction
We are occasionally faced with having to make measurements of things that would be dif-
cult to measure directly: the height of a tall tree, the width of a wide river, height of
moons craters, even the distance between two cities separated by mountainous terrain. In
such circumstances, measurements can be made indirectly, using proportions and similar
triangles. Such indirect methods link measurement with geometry and numbers. In this
lesson, we will examine some of the methods for making indirect measurements.
Use Scale on a Map
A map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation of a section of the Earths
surface. Maps are used to show, pictorially, how various geographical features are arranged
in a particular area. The scale of the map describes the relationship between distances
on a map and the corresponding distances on the earths surface. These measurements are
expressed as a fraction or a ratio.
So far we have only written ratios as fractions, but outside of mathematics books, ratios are
often written as two numbers separated by a colon (:). Here is a table that compares ratios
written in two dierent ways.
Table 3.1:
Ratio Is Read As Equivalent To
1 : 20 one to twenty
_
1
20
_
2 : 3 two to three
_
2
3
_
1 : 1000 one to one-thousand
_
1
1000
_
Look at the last row. In a map with a scale of 1 : 1000 (one to one-thousand) one unit of
measurement on the map (1 inch or 1 centimeter for example) would represent 1000 of the
same units on the ground. A 1 : 1 (one to one) map would be a map as large as the area it
shows!
231 www.ck12.org
Example 1
Anne is visiting a friend in London, and is using the map below to navigate from Fleet Street
to Borough Road. She is using a 1 : 100, 000 scale map, where 1 cm on the map represents
1 km in real life. Using a ruler, she measures the distance on the map as 8.8 cm. How far
is the real distance from the start of her journey to the end?
The scale is the ratio of distance on the map to the corresponding distance in real life.
dist.on map
real dist.
=
1
100, 000
We can substitute the information we have to solve for the unknown.
8.8 cm
real dist.(x)
=
1
100, 000
Cross multiply.
880000cm = x100 cm = 1 m.
x = 8800 m 1000 m = 1 km.
Solution
The distance from Fleet Street to Borough Road is 8.8 km.
We could, in this case, use our intuition: the 1 cm = 1 km scale indicates that we could
simply use our reading in centimeters to give us our reading in km. Not all maps have a
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scale this simple. In general, you will need to refer to the map scale to convert between
measurements on the map and distances in real life!
Example 2
Antonio is drawing a map of his school for a project in math. He has drawn out the following
map of the school buildings and the surrounding area.
He is trying to determine the scale of his gure. He knows that the distance from the point
marked A on the baseball diamond to the point marked B on the athletics track is 183 meters.
Use the dimensions marked on the drawing to determine the scale of his map.
We know that the real-life distance is 183 m. To determine the scale we use the ratio:
Scale =
distance on map
distance in real life
To nd the distance on the map, we will use Pythagoras Theorem a
2
+b
2
= c
2
.
(Distance)
2
= 8
2
+ 14
2
(Distance)
2
= 64 + 196
(Distance)
2
= 260
Distance =

260 = 16.12 cm
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Scale =
16.12 cm
real dist.
Scale =
16.12 cm
183 m
1 m = 100 cm.
Scale =
16.12 cm
18300 cm
Divide top and bottom by 16.12.
Scale
1
1135.23
Round to two signicant gures :
Solution
The scale of Antonios map is approximately 1 : 1100.
Solve Problems Using Scale Drawings
Another visual use of ratio and proportion is in scale drawings. Scale drawings are used
extensively by architects (and often called plans). They are used to represent real objects
and are drawn to a specic ratio. The equations governing scale are the same as for maps.
We will restate the equations in forms where we can solve for scale, real distance, or
scaled distance.
Scale =
distance on diagram
distance in real life
Rearrange to nd the distance on the diagram and the distance in real life.
(distance on diagram) = (distance in real life) (scale)
(Distance in real life) =
distance on diagram
scale
= (distance on diagram)
_
1
scale
_
Example 3
Oscar is trying to make a scale drawing of the Titanic, which he knows was 883 feet long.
He would like his drawing to be 1 : 500 scale. How long, in inches, must the paper that he
uses be?
We can reason intuitively that since the scale is 1 : 500 that the paper must be
883
500
=
1.766 feet long.
Converting to inches gives the length at 12(1.766) in = 21.192 in.
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Solution
Oscars paper should be at least 22 inches long.
Example 4
The Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena California measures 880 feet from north to south and
695 feet from east to west. A scale diagram of the stadium is to be made. If 1 inch represents
100 feet, what would be the dimensions of the stadium drawn on a sheet of paper? Will if t
on a standard (U.S.) sheet of paper (8.5 in 11 in)?
We will use the following relationship.
(distance on diagram) = (distance in real life) (scale)
Scale = 1 inch to 100 feet =
_
1 inch
100 feet
_
Width on paper = 880 feet
_
1 inch
100 feet
_
= 8.8 inches
Height on paper = 695 feet
_
1 inch
100 feet
_
= 6.95 inches
Solution
The dimensions of the scale diagram would be 8.8 in 6.95 in. Yes, this will t on a
8.5 in 11 in sheet of paper.
Example 5
The scale drawing below is sent to kids who attend Summer Camp. Use the scale to estimate
the following:
a) The distance from the mess hal l to the swimming pool via the path shown.
b) The distance from the lodge to the swimming pool via the horse corral.
c) The direct distance from the mess hall to the lodge
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To proceed with this problem, we need a ruler. It does not matter whether we use a ruler
marked in inches or centimeters, but a centimeter scale is easier, as it is marked in tenths.
For this example, the ruler used will be a centimeter ruler.
We rst need to convert the scale on the diagram into something we can use. Often the
scale will be stated on the diagram but it is always worth checking, as the diagram may have
been enlarged or reduced from its original size. Here we see that 500 feet on the diagram is
equivalent to 3.0 cm on the ruler. The scale we will use is therefore 3 cm = 500 ft. We can
write this as a ratio.
Scale =
_
3 cm
500 ft
_
Do not worry about canceling units this time!
a) We are now ready to move to the next step. Measuring distances on the diagram. First,
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we need to know the distance from the mess hall to the swimming pool. We measure the
distance with our ruler. We nd that the distance is 5.6 cm. We divide this by the scale to
nd the real distance.
disance on diagram
scale
=
5.6 cm
_
3 cm
500ft
_ = 5.6 cm
_
500 ft
3cm
_
Multiply this out. Note that the centimeter units will cancel leaving the answer in feet.
Solution
The distance from the mess hall to the swimming pool is approximately 930 feet (rounded
to the nearest 10 feet ).
b)To nd the distance from the lodge to the swimming pool, we have to measure two paths.
The rst is the distance from the lodge to the horse corral. This is found to be 3.4 cm.
The distance from the corral to the swimming pool is 5.5 cm.
The total distance on the diagram is (3.4 + 5.5) = 8.9 cm.
Distance in real life =
disance on diagram
scale
8.9 cm
_
500 ft
3 cm
_
Solution
The distance from the lodge to the pool is approximately 1480 feet .
c) To nd the direct distance from the lodge to the mess hall, we simply use the ruler to
measure the distance from one point to the other. We do not have to go round the paths in
this case.
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Distance on diagram = 6.2 cm
Distance in real life =
distance on diagram
scale
6.2 cm
_
500 ft
3 cm
_
Solution
The distance from the lodge to the mess hall is approximately 1030 feet .
Use Similar Figures to Measure Indirectly
Similar gures are often used to make indirect measurements. Two shapes are said to
be similar if they are the same shape but one is an enlarged (or reduced) version of the
other. Similar triangles have the same angles, and are said to be in proportion. The ratio
of every measurable length in one gure to the corresponding length in the other is the same.
Similar triangles crop up often in indirect measurement.
Example 6
Anatole is visiting Paris, and wants to know the height of the Eiel Tower. Unable to speak
French, he decides to measure it in three ways.
1. He measures out a point 500 meters from the base of the tower, and places a small
mirror at on the ground.
2. He stands behind the mirror in such a spot that standing upright he sees the top of the
tower reected in the mirror.
3. He measures both the distance from the spot where he stands to the mirror (2.75 meters)
and the height of his eyes from the ground (1.8 meters) .
Explain how he is able to determine the height of the Eiel Tower from these numbers and
determine what that height is.
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First, we will draw and label a scale diagram of the situation.
A fact about refection is that the angle that the light reects o the mirror is the same as
the angle that it hits the mirror.
Both triangles are right triangles, and both have one other angle in common. That means
that all three angles in the large triangle match the angles in the smaller triangle. We say
the triangles are similar: exactly the same shape, but enlarged or reduced.
This means that the ratio of the long leg in the large triangle to the length of the long
leg in the small triangle is the same ratio as the length of the short leg in the large
triangle to the length of the short leg in the small triangle.
500m
2.75m
=
x
1.8m
1.8
500
2.75
=
x
1.8
1.8
327.3 = x
Solution
The Eiel Tower, according to this calculation, is approximately 327.3 meters high.
Example 7
Bernard is looking at a lighthouse and wondering how high it is. He notices that it casts a
long shadow, which he measures at 200 meters long. At the same time he measures his own
shadow at 3.1 meters long. Bernard is 1.9 meters tall. How tall is the lighthouse?
We will again draw a scale diagram:
Again, we see that we have two right triangles. The angle that the sun causes the shadow
from the lighthouse to fall is the same angle that Bernard shadow falls. We have two similar
triangles, so we can again say that the ratio of the corresponding sides is the same.
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200m
3.1m
=
x
1.9m
1.9
200
3.1
=
x
1.9
1.9
122.6 = x
Solution
The lighthouse is 122.6 meters tall.
Lesson Summary
Scale is a proportion that relates map distance to real life distance. scale =
distance on map
distance in real life
Two shapes, like triangles, are said to be similar if they have the same angles. The
sides of similar triangles are in proportion. The ratio of every measurable length in
one triangle to the corresponding length in the other is the same.
Review Questions
1. Use the map in Example One. Using the scale printed on the map, determine the
distances (rounded to the nearest half km) between:
(a) Points 1 and 4
(b) Points 22 and 25
(c) Points 18 and 13
(d) Tower Bridge and London Bridge
2. The scale diagram in Example Five does not show the buildings themselves in correct
proportion. Use the scale to estimate:
(a) The real length the indicated pool would be if it was drawn in proportion.
(b) The real height the lodge would be if it was drawn in proportion.
(c) The length a 50 ft pool on the diagram.
(d) The height a 20 ft high tree would be on the diagram.
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3. Use the scale diagram to the right to determine:
(a) The length of the helicopter (cabin to tail)
(b) The height of the helicopter (oor to rotors)
(c) The length of one main rotor
(d) The width of the cabin
(e) the diameter of the rear rotor system
4. On a sunny morning, the shadow of the Empire State Building is 600 feet long. At the
same time, the shadow of a yardstick (3 feet long) is 1 foot, 5
1
4
inches . How high is
the Empire State building?
Review Answers
1. (a) 3 km
(b) 7 km
(c) 12
1
2
km
(d) 4
1
2
km
2. (a) Pool = 600 feet long
(b) Lodge = 250 feet high
(c) Pool should be 0.3 cm
(d) Tree should be 0.12 cm
3. (a) length = 21 ft
(b) height = 10 ft
(c) Main rotor = 12 ft
(d) cabin width = 5
1
2
ft
(e) rotor diameter = 4 ft
4. 1250 ft
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3.7 Percent Problems
Learning Objectives
Find a percent of a number.
Use the percent equation.
Find the percent of change.
Introduction
A percent is simply a ratio with a base unit of 100. When we write a ratio as a fraction,
the base unit is the denominator. Whatever percentage we want to represent is the number
on the numerator. For example, the following ratios and percents are equivalent.
Table 3.2:
Fraction Percent Fraction Percent
_
50
100
_
50%
_
50
1000
_
=
_
0.5
100
_
0.5%
_
10
100
_
10%
_
1
25
_
=
_
4
100
_
4%
_
99
100
_
99%
_
3
5
_
=
_
60
100
_
60%
_
125
100
_
12.5%
_
1
10,000
_
=
_
0.01
100
_
0.01%
Fractions are easily converted to decimals, just as fractions with denominators of 10, 100, 1000, 10000
are converted to decimals. When we wish to convert a percent to a decimal, we divide by
100, or simply move the decimal point two units to the left.
Table 3.3:
Percent Decimal Percent Decimal Percent Decimal
10% 0.1 0.05% .0005 0% 0
99% 0.99 0.25% .0025 100% 1
Find a Percent of a Number
One thing we need to do before we work with percents is to practice converting between
fractions, decimals and percentages. We will start by converting decimals to percents.
Example 1
Express 0.2 as a percent.
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The word percent means for every hundred. Therefore, to nd the percent, we want to
change the decimal to a fraction with a denominator of 100. For the decimal 0.2 we know
the following is true:
0.2 = 0.2 100
_
1
100
_
Since 100
_
1
100
_
= 1
0.2 = 20
_
1
100
_
0.2 =
_
20
100
_
= 20%
Solution
0.2 = 20%
We can take any number and multiply it by 100
1
100
without changing that number. This
is the key to converting numbers to percents.
Example 2
Express 0.07 as a percent.
0.07 = 0.07 100
_
1
100
_
0.07 = 7
_
1
100
_
0.07 =
_
7
100
_
= 7%
Solution
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0.07 = 7%
It is a simple process to convert percentages to decimals. Just remember that a percent is a
ratio with a base (or denominator) of 100.
Example 3
Express 35% as a decimal.
35% =
_
35
100
_
= 0.35
Example 4
Express 0.5% as a decimal.
0.5% =
_
0.5
100
_
=
_
5
1000
_
= 0.005
In practice, it is often easier to convert a percent to a decimal by moving the decimal point
two spaces to the left.
The same trick works when converting a decimal to a percentage, just shift the decimal point
two spaces to the right instead.
When converting fractions to percents, we can substitute
x
100
for x%, where x is the unknown
percentage we can solve for.
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Example 5
Express
3
5
as a percent.
We start by representing the unknown as x% or
x
100
.
_
3
5
_
=
x
100
Cross multiply.
5x = 100 3 Divide both sides by 5 to solve for x.
5x = 300
x =
300
5
= 60
Solution
_
3
5
_
= 60%
Example 6
Express
13
40
as a percent.
Again, represent the unknown percent as
x
100
, cross-multiply, and solve for x.
13
40
=
x
100
40x = 1300
x =
1300
40
= 32.5
Solution
_
13
40
_
= 32.5%
Converting percentages to simplied fractions is a case of writing the percentage ratio with
all numbers written as prime factors:
Example 7
Express 28% as a simplied fraction.
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First write as a ratio, and convert numbers to prime factors.
28%
_
28
100
_
=
_
2 2 7
5 5 2 2
_
Now cancel factors that appear on both numerator and denominator.
_

2.

2.7

2.

2.5.5
_
=
7
25
Solution
28% =
_
7
25
_
Multimedia Link The following video shows several more examples of nding percents
and might be useful for reinforcing the procedure of nding the percent of a number. Khan
Academy Taking Percentages (9:55) .
Figure 3.4: Taking a percentage of a number. (Watch on Youtube)
Use the Percent Equation
The percent equation is often used to solve problems.
Percent Equation: Rate Total = Part or R% of Total is Part
Rate is the ratio that the percent represents (R% in the second version).
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Total is often called the base unit.
Part is the amount we are comparing with the base unit.
Example 8
Find 25% of $80
Use the percent equation. We are looking for the part. The total is $80. of means multiply.
R% is 25% so the rate is
25
100
or 0.25.
0.25 $80 = $20
Solution
25% of $80 is $20.
Remember, to convert a percent to a decimal, you just need to move the decimal point two
places to the left!
Example 9
Find 17% of $93
Use the percent equation. We are looking for the part. The total is $93. R% is 17% so the
rate is 0.17.
0.17 93 = 15.81
Solution
17% of $93 is $15.81.
Example 10
Express $90 as a percentage of $160.
Use the percent equation. This time we are looking for the rate. We are given the part
($90) and the total ($160). We will substitute in the given values.
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Rate 160 = 90 Divide both sides by 160
Rate =
_
90
160
_
= 0.5625 = 0.5625
_
100
100
_
=
56.25
100
Solution
$90 is 56.25% of 160.
Example 11
$50 is 15% of what total sum?
Use the percent equation. This time we are looking for the total. We are given the part
($50) and the rate (15% or 0.15). The total is our unknown in dollars, or x. We will
substitute in these given values.
0.15x = 50 Solve for x by dividing both sides by 0.15.
x =
50
0.15
333.33
Solution
$50 is 15% of $333.33.
Find Percent of Change
A useful way to express changes in quantities is through percents. You have probably seen
signs such as 20% extra free, or save 35% today. When we use percents to represent a
change, we generally use the formula.
Percent change =
_
nal amount original amount
original amount
_
100%
Or
percent change
100
=
_
actual change
original amount
_
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A positive percent change would thus be an increase, while a negative change would be
a decrease.
Example 12
A school of 500 students is expecting a 20% increase in students next year. How many
students wil l the school have?
The percent change is +20. It is positive because it is an increase. The original amount is
500. We will show the calculation using both versions of the above equation. First we will
substitute into the rst formula.
Percent change =
_
nal amount original amount
original amount
_
100%
20% =
_
nal amount 500
500
_
100% Divide both sides by 100%.
Let x = nal amount.
0.2 =
x 500
500
Multiply both sides by 500.
100 = x 500 Add 500 to both sides.
600 = x
Solution
The school will have 600 students next year.
Example 13
A $150 mp3 player is on sale for 30% o. What is the price of the player?
The percent change is given, as is the original amount. We will substitute in these values to
nd the nal amount in dollars (our unknown x). Note that a decrease means the change is
negative. We will use the rst equation.
Percent change =
_
nal amount original amount
original amount
_
100%
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_
x 150
150
_
100% = 30% Divide both sides by100%.
_
x 150
150
_
=
30%
100%
= 0.3% Multiply both sides by150.
x 150 = 150(0.3) = 45 Add 150 to both sides.
x = 45 + 150
Solution
The mp3 player is on sale for $105.
We can also substitute straight into the second equation and solve for the change y.
percent change
100
=
_
actual change
original amount
_
30
100
=
y
150
Multiply both sides by 150.
150(0.3) = y
y = 45
Solution
Since the actual change is 45($), the nal price is $150 $45 = $105.
A mark-up is an increase from the price a store pays for an item from its supplier to the
retail price it charges to the public. For example, a 100% mark-up (commonly known in
business as keystone) means that the price is doubled. Half of the retail price covers the cost
of the item from the supplier, half is prot.
Example 14 Mark-up
A furniture store places a 30% mark-up on everything it sells. It oers its employees a 20%
discount from the sales price. The employees are demanding a 25% discount, saying that
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the store would still make a prot. The manager says that at a 25% discount from the sales
price would cause the store to lose money. Who is right?
We will consider this problem two ways. First, let us consider an item that the store buys
from its supplier for $1000.
Item price $1000
Mark-up $300 (30% of 1000 = 0.30 1000 = 300)
Final retail price $1300
So a $1000 item would retail for $1300. $300 is the prot available to the store. Now, let us
consider discounts.
Retail Price $1300
20% discount 0.20 $1300 = $260
25% discount 0.25 $1300 = $325
So with a 20% discount, employees pay $1300 $260 = $1040
With a 25% discount, employees pay $1300 $325 = $975
With a 20% discount, employees pay $40 more than the cost of the item.
At a 25% discount they pay $975, which is $25 less than the cost.
Finally, we will work algebraically. Consider an item whose wholesale price is x.
Mark-up = 0.3x
Final retail price = 1.3x
Price at 20% discount = 0.80 1.3x = 1.04x
Price at 25% discount = 0.75 1.3x = 0.975x
Solution
The manager is right. A 20% discount from retail means the store makes around 4% prot.
At a 25% discount, the store has a 2.5% loss.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Percents
Example 15
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In 2004 the US Department of Agriculture had 112071 employees, of which 87846 were
Caucasian. Of the remaining minorities, African-American and Hispanic employees had the
two largest demographic groups, with 11754 and 6899 employees respectively. *
a) Calculate the total percentage of minority (non-Caucasian) employees at the USDA.
b) Calculate the percentage of African-American employees at the USDA.
c) Calculate the percentage of minority employees who were neither African-American nor
Hispanic.
a) Use the percent equation Rate Total = Part.
The total number of employees is 112071. We know that the number of Caucasian em-
ployees is 87846, which means that there must be (112071 87846) = 24225 non-Caucasian
employees. This is the part.
Rate 112071 = 24225 Divide both sides by 112071.
Rate = 0.216 Multiply by 100 to obtain percent :
Rate = 21.6%
Solution
21.6% of USDA employees in 2004 were from minority groups.
b) Total = 112071 Part = 11754
Rate 112071 = 11754 Divide both sides by 112071.
Rate = 0.105 Multiply by 100 to obtain percent :
Rate = 10.5%
Solution
10.5% of USDA employees in 2004 were African-American.
c) We now know there are 24225 non-Caucasian employees. This is now our total. That
means there must be (24225 11754 6899) = 5572 minority employees who are neither
African-American nor Hispanic. The part is 5572.
Rate 24225 = 5572 Divide both sides by 24225
Rate = 0.230 Multiply by 100 to obtain percent.
Rate = 23%
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Solution
23% of USDA minority employees in 2004 were neither African-American nor Hispanic.
Example 16
In 1995 New York had 18136000 residents. There were 827025 reported crimes, of which
152683 were violent. By 2005 the population was 19254630 and there were 85839 violent
crimes out of a total of 491829 reported crimes. Calculate the percentage change from 1995
to 2005 in:

a) Population of New York
b) Total reported crimes
c) violent crimes
This is a percentage change problem. Remember the formula for percentage change.
Percent change =
_
nal amount original amount
original amount
_
100%
In these cases, the nal amount is the 2005 statistic. The initial amount is the 1995 statistic.
a) Population:
Percent change =
_
19, 254, 630 18, 136, 000
18, 136, 000
_
100%
Percent change =
_
1, 118, 630
18, 136, 000
_
100%
Percent change = 0.0617 100
Percent change = 6.17%
Solution
The population grew by 6.17%.
b) Total reported crimes
Percent change =
_
491, 829 827, 025
827, 025
_
100%
Percent change =
_
335, 196
827, 025
_
100%
Percent change = 0.4053 100
Percent change = 40.53%
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Solution
The total number of reported crimes fell by 40.53%.
c) Violent crimes
Percent change =
_
85, 839 152, 683
152, 683
_
100%
Percent change =
_
66, 844
152, 683
_
100%
Percent change = 0.4377 100
Percent change = 43.77%
Solution
The total number of reported crimes fell by 43.77%.

Source: New York Law Enforcement
Agency Uniform Crime Reports
Lesson Summary
A percent is simply a ratio with a base unit of 100, i.e. 13% =
13
100
.
The percent equation is: Rate Total = Part or R% of Total is Part.
Percent change =
nal amountoriginal amount
original amount
100. A positive percent change means the
value increased, while a negative percent change means the value decreased.
Review Questions
1. Express the following decimals as a percent.
(a) 0.011
(b) 0.001
(c) 0.91
(d) 1.75
(e) 20
2. Express the following fractions as a percent (round to two decimal places when neces-
sary).
(a)
1
6
(b)
5
24
(c)
6
7
(d)
11
7
(e)
13
97
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3. Express the following percentages as a reduced fraction.
(a) 11%
(b) 65%
(c) 16%
(d) 12.5%
(e) 87.5%
4. Find the following.
(a) 30% of 90
(b) 16.7% of 199
(c) 11.5% of 10.01
(d) y% of 3x
5. A TV is advertised on sale. It is 35% o and has a new price of $195. What was the
pre-sale price?
6. An employee at a store is currently paid $9.50 per hour. If she works a full year she
gets a 12% pay rise. What will her new hourly rate be after the raise?
7. Store A and Store B both sell bikes, and both buy bikes from the same supplier at the
same prices. Store A has a 40% mark-up for their prices, while store B has a 250%
mark-up. Store B has a permanent sale and will always sell at 60% o those prices.
Which store oers the better deal?
Review Answers
1. (a) 1.1%
(b) 0.1%
(c) 91%
(d) 175%
(e) 2000%
2. (a) 16.67%
(b) 20.83%
(c) 85.71%
(d) 157.14%
(e) 13.40%
3. (a)
11
100
(b)
13
20
(c)
4
25)
(d)
1
8
(e)
7
8
4. (a) 27
(b) 33.233
(c) 1.15115
(d)
3xy
100
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5. $300
6. $10.64
7. Both stores nal sale prices are identical.
3.8 Problem Solving Strategies: Use a Formula
Learning Objectives
Read and understand given problem situations.
Develop and apply the strategy: use a formula.
Plan and compare alternative approaches to solving problems.
Introduction
In this chapter, we have been solving problems in which quantities vary directly with one
another other. In this section, we will look at few examples of ratios and percents occurring
in real-world problems. We will follow the Problem Solving Plan.
Step 1 Understand the problem
Read the problem carefully. Once you have read the problem, list all the components and
data that are involved. This is where you will be assigning your variables.
Step 2 Devise a plan Translate
Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation or formula.
Step 3 Carry out the plan Solve
This is where you solve the formula you came up with in Step 2.
Step 4 Look Check and Interpret
Check to see if you used all your information and that the answer makes sense.
It is important that you rst know what you are looking for when solving problems in
mathematics. Math problems often require that you extract information and use it in a
denite procedure. You must collect the appropriate information and use it (using a
strategy or strategies) to solve the problem Many times, you will be writing out an equation
which will enable you to nd the answer.
Example 1
An architect is designing a room that is going to be twice as long as it is wide. The total
square footage of the room is going to be 722 square feet. What are the dimensions in feet of
the room?
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Step 1 Collect Relevant Information.
Width of room = unknown = x
Length of room = 2 width
Area of room = 722 square feet
Step 2 Make an Equation
Length of room = 2x
Area of room = x 2x = 2x
2
2x
2
= 722
Step 3 Solve
2x
2
= 722 Divide both sides by 2
x
2
= 361 Take the square root of both sides.
x =

361 = 19
2x = 2 19 = 38
Solution
The dimensions of the room are 19 feet by 38 feet .
Step 4 Check Your Answer
Is 38 twice 19?
2 19 = 38 TRUE This checks out.
Is 38 times 19 equal to 722?
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38 19 = 722 TRUE This checks out
The answer checks out.
Example 2
A passenger jet initially climbs at 2000 feet per minute after take-o from an airport at sea
level. At the four minute mark this rate slows to 500 feet per minute. How many minutes
pass before the jet is at 20000 feet ?
Step 1
Initial climb rate =
2000 feet
1 minute
Initial climb time = 4 minutes
Final climb rate =
500 feet
1 minute
Final climb time = unknown = x
Final altitude = 20000 feet
The rst two pieces on information can be combined. Here is the result.
Height at four minute mark = 4 minutes
2000 feet
1 minute
= 8000 feet.
Step 2 Write an equation.
Since we know that the height at four minutes is 8000 feet , we need to nd the time taken
to climb the nal (20000 8000) = 12000 feet .
We will use distance = speed time to give us an equation for time.
time =
distance
speed
= distance
_
1
speed
_
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Step 3 Solve.
x = 12, 0

0 feet
_
1 minute
5

0 feet
_
Note that the units of feet will also cancel
x = 24 minutes
total time = x + 4
Solution
The time taken to reach 20000 feet is 28 minutes .
Step 4 check your answer
What is 4 times 2000?
4 2000 = 8000 The initial climb is through 8000 feet.
What is 24 times 500?
24 500 = 12000 The second part of the climb is through 8000 feet.
The total climb = initial climb + secondary climb = (8000 + 12000) = 20000 feet .
The answer checks out.
Example 3
The time taken for a moving body to travel a given distance is given by time =
distance
speed
. The
speed of sound in air is approximately 340 meters per second. In water, sound travels much
faster at around 1500 meters per second. A small meteor hits the ocean surface 10 km away.
What would be the delay in seconds between the sound heard after traveling through the air
and the same sound traveling through the ocean?
Step 1 We will write out the most important information.
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Distance = 10, 000 meters
Speed in air =
340 meters
1 second
Speed in water =
1500 meters
1 second
Time through air = unknownx
Time through water = unknowny
Delay = x y
Step 2 We will convert this information into equations.
Time in air x = 10, 000 meters
1 second
340 meters
Time in water y = 10, 000 meters
1 second
15000 meters
Step 3 Solve for x, y and the delay.
x = 29.41 seconds
y = 6.67 seconds
Delay = x y = (29.41 6.67) seconds
Solution
The delay between the two sound waves arriving is 22.7 seconds.
Step 4 Check that the answer works.
We need to think of a dierent way to explain the concept.
The actual time that the sound takes in air is 29.41 seconds . In that time, it crosses the
following distance.
Distance = speed time = 340 29.41 = 9999 meters
The actual time that the sound takes in water is 6.67 seconds . In that time, it crosses the
following distance of.
Distance = speedtimestime = 1500 6.67 = 10005 meters
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Both results are close to the 10000 meters that we know the sound traveled. The slight error
comes from rounding our answer.
The answer checks out.
Example 4:
Deandra is looking over her paycheck. Her boss took tax from her earnings at a rate of 15%.
A deduction to cover health insurance took one-twelfth of what was left. Deandra always
saves one-third of what she gets paid after al l the deductions. If Deandra worked 16 hours
at $7.50 per hour, how much wil l she save this week?
Step 1 Collect relevant information.
Deductions:
Tax = 15% = 0.15
Health =
1
12
Savings =
1
3
Hours = 16
Rate = $7.50 per hour
Savings amount = unknownx
Step 2 Write an equation.
Deandras earnings before deductions = 16 $7.50 = $120
Fraction remaining after tax = 1 0.15 = 0.85
Fraction remaining after health = 0.85
_
1
1
12
_
= 0.85
_
11
12
_
0.85 0.91667 0.779167
Fraction to be saved =
1
3
0.779167 0.25972
Step 3 Solve
Amount to save = 0.25972 $120 = $31.1664 Round to two decimal places.
Solution
Deandra saves $31.17.
Step 4 Check your answer by working backwards.
If Deandra saves $31.17, then her take-home pay was 3 $31.17 = $93.51
If Deandra was paid $93.51, then before health deductions health she had $93.51
12
11
= $102.01
If Deandra had $102.01 after tax, then before tax she had $102.01
100
85
= $120.01
261 www.ck12.org
If Deandra earned $120.01 at $7.50 per hour, then she worked for
$102.01
$7.50
= 16.002 hours
This is extremely close to the hours we know she worked (the dierence comes from the fact
we rounded to the nearest penny).
The answer checks out.
Lesson Summary
The four steps of the Problem Solving Plan are:
1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan Translate
3. Carry out the plan Solve
4. Look Check and Interpret
Review Questions
Use the information in the problems to create and solve an equation.
1. Patricia is building a sandbox for her daughter. It is to be ve feet wide and eight feet
long. She wants the height of the sand box to be four inches above the height of the
sand. She has 30 cubic feet of sand. How high should the sand box be?
2. A 500 sheet stack of copy paper is 1.75 inches high. The paper tray on a commercial
copy machine holds a two foot high stack of paper. Approximately how many sheets
is this?
3. It was sale day in Macys and everything was 20% less than the regular price. Peter
bought a pair of shoes, and using a coupon, got an additional 10% o the discounted
price. The price he paid for the shoes was $36. How much did the shoes cost originally?
4. Peter is planning to show a video le to the school at graduation, but is worried that
the distance that the audience sits from the speakers will cause the sound and the
picture to be out of sync. If the audience sits 20 meters from the speakers, what is the
delay between the picture and the sound? (The speed of sound in air is 340 meters per
second).
5. Rosa has saved all year and wishes to spend the money she has on new clothes and
a vacation. She will spend 30% more on the vacation than on clothes. If she saved
$1000 in total, how much money (to the nearest whole dollar) can she spend on the
vacation?
6. On a DVD, data is stored between a radius of 2.3 cm and 5.7 cm. Calculate the total
area available for data storage in square cm.
7. If a Blu-ray
TM
DVD stores 25 gigabytes (GB), what is the storage density, in GB
per square cm?
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Review Answers
1. 13 inches
2. Approximately 6860 sheets
3. $50
4. 0.06 seconds
5. Approximately $565
6. 85.45 cm
2
7. 0.293 GB/cm
2
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Chapter 4
Graphs of Equations and Functions
4.1 The Coordinate Plane
Learning Objectives
Identify coordinates of points.
Plot points in a coordinate plane.
Graph a function given a table.
Graph a function given a rule.
265 www.ck12.org
Introduction
We now make our transition from a number line that stretches in only one dimension (left to
right) to something that exists in two dimensions. The coordinate plane can be thought
of as two number lines that meet at right angles. The horizontal line is called the xaxis
and the vertical line is the yaxis. Together the lines are called the axes, and the point
at which they cross is called the origin. The axes split the coordinate plane into four
quadrants. The rst quadrant (I) contains all the positive numbers from both axes. It is
the top right quadrant. The other quadrants are numbered sequentially (II, III, IV) moving
counterclockwise from the rst.
Identify Coordinates of Points
When given a point on a coordinate plane, it is a relatively easy task to determine its
coordinates. The coordinates of a point are two numbers written together they are called
an ordered pair. The numbers describe how far along the xaxis and yaxis the point
is. The ordered pair is written in parenthesis, with the xcoordinate (also called the
ordinate) rst and the ycoordinate (or the ordinate) second.
(1, 7) An ordered pair with an x-value of one and a y-value of seven
(0, 5) an ordered pair with an x-value of zero and a y-value of ve
(2.5, 4) An ordered pair with an x-value of 2.5 and a y-value of four
(107.2, .005) An ordered pair with an x-value of 107.2 and a y-value of 0.005.
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The rst thing to do is realize that identifying coordinates is just like reading points on a
number line, except that now the points do not actually lie on the number line! Look at the
following example.
Example 1
Find the coordinates of the point labeled P in the diagram to the right.
Imagine you are standing at the origin (the points where the xaxis meets the yaxis). In
order to move to a position where P was directly above you, you would move 3 units to the
right (we say this is in the positive x direction).
The xcoordinate of P is +3.
Now if you were standing at the three marker on the xaxis, point P would be 7 units above
you (above the axis means it is in the positive y direction).
The ycoordinate of P is +7.
Solution
The coordinates of point P are (3, 7).
Example 2
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Find the coordinates of the points labeled Q and R in the diagram to the right.
In order to get to Q we move three units to the right, in the positivex direction, then two
units down. This time we are moving in the negative y direction. The x coordinate of Q
is +3, the y coordinate of Q is 2.
The coordinates of R are found in a similar way. The x coordinate is +5 (ve units in
positive x) and the ycoordinate is again 2.
Solution
Q (3, 2)
R (5, 2)
Example 3
Triangle ABC is shown in the diagram to the right. Find the coordinates of the vertices A,
B and C.
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Point A:
xcoordinate = 2
ycoordinate = +5
Point B:
xcoordinate = +3
ycoordinate = 3
Point C:
xcoordinate = 4
ycoordinate = 1
Solution
A(2, 5)
B(3, 3)
C(4, 1)
Plot Points in a Coordinate Plane
Plotting points is a simple matter once you understand how to read coordinates and read
the scale on a graph. As a note on scale, in the next two examples pay close attention to
269 www.ck12.org
the labels on the axes.
Example 4
Plot the following points on the coordinate plane.
A(2, 7) B(5, 6) C(6, 0) D(3, 3) E(0, 2) F(7, 5)
Point A(2, 7) is 2 units right, 7 units up. It is in Quadrant I.
Point B(5, 6) is 5 units left, 6 units up. It is in Quadrant II.
Point C(6, 0) is 6 units left, 0 units up. It is on the x axis.
Point D(3, 3) is 3 units left, 3 units down. It is in Quadrant III.
Point E(0, 2) is 2 units up from the origin. It is on the y axis.
Point F(7, 5) is 7 units right, 5 units down. It is in Quadrant IV.
Example 5
Plot the following points on the coordinate plane.
A(2.5, 0.5) B(, 1.2) C(2, 1.75) D(0.1, 1.2) E(0, 0)
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Choice of axes is always important. In Example Four, it was important to have all four
quadrants visible. In this case, all the coordinates are positive. There is no need to show
the negative values of x or y. Also, there are no x values bigger than about 3.14, and 1.75 is
the largest value of y. We will therefore show these points on the following scale 0 x 3.5
and 0 y 2. The points are plotted to the right.
Here are some important points to note about this graph.
The tick marks on the axes do not correspond to unit increments (i.e. the numbers do
not go up by one).
The scale on the xaxis is dierent than the scale on the yaxis.
The scale is chosen to maximize the clarity of the plotted points.
Graph a Function Given a Table
Once we know how to plot points on a coordinate plane, we can think about how we would
go about plotting a relationship between x and y values. So far we have been plotting sets
of ordered pairs. This is called a relation, and there isnt necessarily a relationship between
the x values and y values. In a relation, the set of x values is called the domain and the
set of y values is called the range. If there is a relationship between the x and y values,
and each x value corresponds to exactly one y value, then the relation is called a function.
Remember that a function is a particular way to relate one quantity to another. If you
read a book and can read twenty pages an hour, there is a relationship between how many
hours you read and how many pages you read. You may even know that you could write the
formula as either:
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m = 20 h n = number of pages; h = time measured in hours. OR. . .
h =
n
20
So you could use the function that related n and h to determine how many pages you could
read in 3
1
2
hours, or even to nd out how long it took you to read forty-six pages. The graph
of this function is shown right, and you can see that if we plot number of pages against
number of hours, then we can simply read o the number of pages that you could read in 3.5
hours as seventy pages. You can see that in a similar way it would be possible to estimate
how long it would take to read forty-six pages, though the time that was obtained might
only be an approximation.
Generally, the graph of a function appears as a line or curve that goes through all points
that satisfy the relationship that the function describes. If the domain of the function is
all real numbers, then we call this a continuous function. However, if the domain of the
function is a particular set of values (such as whole numbers), then it is called a discrete
function. The graph will be a series of dots that fall along a line or curve.
In graphing equations, we assume the domain is all real numbers, unless otherwise stated.
Often times though, when we look at data in a table, the domain will be whole numbers
(number of presents, number of days, etc.) and the function will be discrete. Sometimes
the graph is still shown as a continuous line to make it easier to interpret. Be aware of the
dierence between discrete and continuous functions as you work through the examples.
Example 6
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Sarah is thinking of the number of presents she receives as a function of the number of friends
who come to her birthday party. She knows she will get a present from her parents, one from
her grandparents and one each from her uncle and aunt. She wants to invite up to ten of her
friends, who wil l each bring one present. She makes a table of how many presents she will
get if one, two, three, four or ve friends come to the party. Plot the points on a coordinate
plane and graph the function that links the number of presents with the number of friends.
Use your graph to determine how many presents she would get if eight friends show up.
Table 4.1:
Number of Friends Number of Presents
0 4
1 5
2 6
3 7
4 8
5 9
The rst thing we need to do is decide how our graph should appear. We need to decide
what the independent variable is, and what the dependant variable is. Clearly in this case,
the number of friends can vary independently (the domain). The number of presents must
depend on the number of friends who show up (the range).
We will therefore plot friends on the xaxis and presents on the yaxis. Lets add another
column to our table containing the coordinates that each (friends, presents) ordered pair
gives us.
Table 4.2:
No. of friends (x) no. of presents (y) coordinates (x, y)
0 4 (0, 4)
1 5 (1, 5)
2 6 (2, 6)
3 7 (3, 7)
4 8 (4, 8)
5 9 (5, 9)
Next we need to set up our axes. It is clear that the number of friends and number of presents
both must be positive, so we do not need to worry about anything other than Quadrant I.
We need to choose a suitable scale for the x and y axes. We need to consider no more than
eight friends (look again at the question to conrm this), but it always pays to allow a little
extra room on your graph. We also need the y scale to accommodate the presents for eight
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people. We can see that this is still going to be under 20!
The scale of the graph on the right shows room for up to 12 friends and 15 presents. This
will be ne, but there are many other scales that would be equally as good!
Now we proceed to plot the points. The rst ve points are the coordinates from our table.
You can see they all lay on a straight line, so the function that describes the relationship
between x and y will be linear. To graph the function, we simply draw a line that goes
through all ve points. This line represents the function.
This is a discrete problem since Sarah can only invite a whole numbers of friends. For
instance, it would be impossible for 2.4 friends to show up. Keep in mind that the only
permissible points for the function are those points on the line which have integer x and y
values.
The graph easily lets us nd other values for the function. For example, the question asks
how many presents Sarah would get if eight friends come to her party. Dont forget that
x represents the number of friends and y represents the number of presents. If we look at
x = 8 we can see that the function has a y value of 12.
Solution
If 8 friends show up, Sarah will receive a total of 12 presents.
Graph a Function Given a Rule
If we are given a rule instead of a table, we can proceed to graph the function in one of two
ways. We will use the following example to show each way.
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Example 7
Ali is trying to work out a trick that his friend showed him. His friend started by asking him
to think of a number. Then double it. Then add ve to what he got. Ali has written down
a rule to describe the rst part of the trick. He is using the letter x to stand for the number
he thought of and the letter y to represent the result of applying the rule. He wrote his rule
in the form of an equation.
y = 2x + 5
Help him visualize what is going on by graphing the function that this rule describes.
Method One Construct a Table of Values
If we wish to plot a few points to see what is going on with this function, then the best way
is to construct a table and populate it with a few x, y pairs. We will use 0, 1, 2 and 3 for x
values.
x y
0 2 0 + 5 = 0 + 5 = 5
1 2 1 + 5 = 2 + 5 = 7
2 2 2 + 5 = 4 + 5 = 9
3 2 3 + 5 = 6 + 5 = 11
Next, we plot the points and join them with our line.
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This method is nice and simple. Plus, with linear relationships there is no need to plot more
than two or three points. In this case, the function is continuous because the domain (the
number Ali is asked to think of) is all real numbers, even though he may only be thinking
of positive whole numbers.
Method Two Intercept and Slope
One other way to graph this function (and one that we will learn in more detail in the next
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lesson) is the slopeintercept method. To do this, follow the following steps:
1. Find the y value when x = 0.
y(0) = 2 0 + 5 = 5 So our yintercept is (0, 5)
2. Look at the coeicient multiplying the x.
Every time we increase x by one, y increases by two so our slope is +2.
3. Plot the line with the given slope that goes through the intercept. We start at the
point (0, 5) and move over one in the x direction, then up two in the y direction. This gives
the slope for our line, which we extend in both directions.
We will properly examine this last method in the next lesson!
Lesson Summary
The coordinate plane is a two-dimensional space dened by a horizontal number line
(the xaxis) and a vertical number line (the yaxis). The origin is the point where
these two lines meet. Four areas, or quadrants, are formed as shown in the diagram
at right.
Each point on the coordinate plane has a set of coordinates, two numbers written
as an ordered pair which describe how far along the xaxis and yaxis the point
is. The xcoordinate is always written rst, then the ycoordinate. Here is an
exaxmple (x, y).
Functions are a way that we can relate one quantity to another. Functions can be
plotted on the coordinate plane.
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Review Questions
1. Identify the coordinates of each point, A F, on the graph to the right.
2. Plot the following points on a graph and identify which quadrant each point lies in:
(a) (4, 2)
(b) (3, 5.5)
(c) (4, 4)
(d) (2, 3)
3. The following three points are three vertices of square ABCD. Plot them on a graph
then determine what the coordinates of the fourth point, D, would be. Plot that point
and label it. A (4, 4)
B (3, 4)
C (3, 3)
4. Becky has a large bag of M&Ms that she knows she should share with Jaeyun. Jaeyun
has a packet of Starburst. Becky tells Jaeyun that for every Starburst he gives her,
she will give him three M&Ms in return. If x is the number of Starburst that Jaeyun
gives Becky, and y is the number of M&Ms he gets in return then complete each of the
following.
(a) Write an algebraic rule for y in terms of x
(b) Make a table of values for y with x values of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
(c) Plot the function linking x and y on the following scale 0 x 10, 0 y 10.
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Review Answers
1. A(5, 6) B(5, 5) C(2, 3) D(2, 2) E(3, 4) F(2, 6)
2.
(a) Quadrant I
(b) Quadrant II
(c) Quadrant IV
(d) Quadrant III
3.
4. (a) y = 3x
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(b)
x y
0 0
1 3
2 6
3 9
4 12
5 15
(c)
4.2 Graphs of Linear Equations
Learning Objectives
Graph a linear function using an equation.
Write equations and graph horizontal and vertical lines.
Analyze graphs of linear functions and read conversion graphs.
Graph a Linear Equation
At the end of Lesson 4.1 we looked at graphing a function from a rule. A rule is a way of
writing the relationship between the two quantities we are graphing. In mathematics, we
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tend to use the words formula and equation to describe what we get when we express
relationships algebraically. Interpreting and graphing these equations is an important skill
that you will use frequently in math.
Example 1
A taxi fare costs more the further you travel. Taxis usually charge a fee on top of the per-mile
charge to cover hire of the vehicle. In this case, the taxi charges $3 as a set fee and $0.80
per mile traveled. Here is the equation linking the cost in dollars (y) to hire a taxi and the
distance traveled in miles (x).
y = 0.8x + 3
Graph the equation and use your graph to estimate the cost of a seven mile taxi ride.
We will start by making a table of values. We will take a few values for x 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, nd
the corresponding y values and then plot them. Since the question asks us to nd the cost
for a seven mile journey, we will choose a scale that will accommodate this.
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x y
0 3
1 3.8
2 4.6
3 5.4
4 6.2
The graph is shown to the right. To nd the cost of a seven mile journey we rst locate
x = 7 on the horizontal axis and draw a line up to our graph. Next we draw a horizontal
line across to the y axis and read where it hits. It appears to hit around half way between
y = 8 and y = 9. Lets say it is 8.5.
Solution
A seven mile taxi ride would cost approximately $8.50 ($8.60 exactly).
There are a few interesting points that you should notice about this graph and the formula
that generated it.
The graph is a straight line (this means that the equation is linear), although the
function is discrete and will graph as a series of points.
The graph crosses the yaxis at y = 3 (look at the equation you will see a +3 in
there!). This is the base cost of the taxi.
Every time we move over by one square we move up by 0.8 squares (look at the
coeicient of x in the equation). This is the rate of charge of the taxi (cost per mile).
If we move over by three squares, we move up by 3 0.8 squares.
Example 2
A small business has a debt of $500000 incurred from start-up costs. It predicts that it can
pay o the debt at a rate of $85000 per year according to the following equation governing
years in business (x) and debt measured in thousands of dollars(y).
y = 85x + 500
Graph the above equation and use your graph to predict when the debt will be fully paid.
First, we start with our table of values. We plug in xvalues and calculate our corresponding
yvalues.
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x y
0 500
1 415
2 330
3 245
4 160
Then we plot our points and draw the line that goes through them.
Take note of the scale that has been chosen. There is no need to have any points above
y = 500, but it is still wise to allow a little extra.
We need to determine how many years (the x value) that it takes the debt (y value) to reach
zero. We know that it is greater than four (since at x = 4 the y value is still positive), so we
need an x scale that goes well past x = 4. In this case the x value runs from 0 to 12, though
there are plenty of other choices that would work well.
To read the time that the debt is paid o, we simply read the point where the line hits y = 0
(the x axis). It looks as if the line hits pretty close to x = 6. So the debt will denitely be
paid o in six years.
Solution
The debt will be paid o in six years.
Multimedia Link To see more simple examples of graphing linear equations by hand see
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the video Khan Academy Graphing Lines 1 (9:49) . The narrator models graphing several
Figure 4.1: Graphing linear equations (Watch on Youtube)
linear equations using a table of values to plot points and then connecting the points with a
line. This reinforces the procedure of graphing lines by hand.
Graphs and Equations of Horizontal and Vertical Lines
Example 3
Mad-cabs have an unusual oer going on. They are charging $7.50 for a taxi ride of any
length within the city limits. Graph the function that relates the cost of hiring the taxi (y)
to the length of the journey in miles (x).
To proceed, the rst thing we need is an equation. You can see from the problem that the
cost of a journey does not depend on the length of the journey. It should come as no surprise
that the equation then, does not have x in it. In fact, any value of x results in the same
value of y (7.5). Here is the equation.
y = 7.5
The graph of this function is shown to the right. You can see that the graph y = 7.5 is
simply a horizontal line.
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Any time you see an equation of the form y = constant then the graph is a horizontal line
that intercepts the yaxis at the value of the constant.
Similarly, when you see an equation of the form x = constant then the graph is a vertical
line that intercepts the xaxis at the value of the constant. Notice that this a relation,
and not a function because each x value (theres only one in this case) corresponds to many
(actually an innite number) y values.
Example 4
Plot the following graphs.
(a) y = 4
(b) y = 4
(c) x = 4
(d) x = 4
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(a) y = 4 is a horizontal line that crosses the yaxis at 4
(b) y = 4 is a horizontal line that crosses the yaxis at 4
(c) x = 4 is a vertical line that crosses the xaxis at 4
(d) x = 4 is a vertical line that crosses the xaxis at 4
Example 5
Find an equation for the xaxis and the yaxis.
Look at the axes on any of the graphs from previous examples. We have already said that
they intersect at the origin (the point where x = 0 and y = 0). The following denition
could easily work for each axis.
xaxis: A horizontal line crossing the yaxis at zero.
yaxis: A vertical line crossing the xaxis at zero.
So using example 3 as our guide, we could dene the xaxis as the line y = 0 and the yaxis
as the line x = 0.
Analyze Graphs of Linear Functions
We often use line graphs to represent relationships between two linked quantities. It is a
useful skill to be able to interpret the information that graphs convey. For example, the
chart below shows a uctuating stock price over ten weeks. You can read that the index
closed the rst week at about $68, and at the end of the third week it was at about $62. You
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may also see that in the rst ve weeks it lost about 20% of its value and that it made about
20% gain between weeks seven and ten. Notice that this relationship is discrete, although
the dots are connected for ease of interpretation.
Analyzing line graphs is a part of life whether you are trying to decide to buy stock, gure
out if your blog readership is increasing, or predict the temperature from a weather report.
Many of these graphs are very complicated, so for now well start o with some simple linear
conversion graphs. Algebra starts with basic relationships and builds to the complicated
tasks, like reading the graph above. In this section, we will look at reading information from
simple linear conversion graphs.
Example 6
The graph shown at the right shows a chart for converting marked prices in a downtown store
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into prices that include sales tax. Use the graph to determine the cost inclusive of sales tax
for a $6.00 pen in the store.
To nd the relevant price with tax we nd the correct pre-tax price on the xaxis. This is
the point x = 6.
Draw the line x = 6 up until it meets the function, then draw a horizontal line to the yaxis.
This line hits at y 6.75 (about three fourths of the way from y = 6 to y = 7).
Solution
The approximate cost including tax is $6.75
Example 7
The chart for converting temperature from Fahrenheit to Celsius is shown to the right. Use
the graph to convert the fol lowing:
1. 70

Fahrenheit to Celsius
2. 0

Fahrenheit to Celsius
3. 30

Celsius to Fahrenheit
4. 0

Celsius to Fahrenheit
1. To nd 70

Fahrenheit we look along the Fahrenheit-axis (in other words the xaxis) and
draw the line x = 70 up to the function. We then draw a horizontal line to the Celsius-axis
(yaxis). The horizontal line hits the axis at a little over 20 (21 or 22).
Solution
70

Fahrenheit is approximately equivalent to 21

Celsius
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2. To nd 0

Fahrenheit, we are actually looking at the yaxis. Dont forget that this axis
is simply the line x = 0. We just look to see where the line hits the yaxis. It hits just
below the half way point between 15 and 20.
Solution: 0

Fahrenheit is approximately equivalent to 18

Celsius .
3. To nd 30

Celsius, we look up the Celsius-axis and draw the line y = 30 along to

the function. When this horizontal line hits the function, draw a line straight down to the
Fahrenheit-axis. The line hits the axis at approximately 85.
Solution
30

Celsius is approximately equivalent to 85

Fahrenheit.
4. To nd 0

Celsius we are looking at the Fahrenheit-axis (the line y = 0). We just look to
see where the function hits the xaxis. It hits just right of 30.
Solution
0

Celsius is equivalent to 32

Fahrenheit.
Lesson Summary
Equations with the variables y and x can be graphed by making a chart of values that
t the equation and then plotting the values on a coordinate plane. This graph is
simply another representation of the equation and can be analyzed to solve problems.
Horizontal lines are dened by the equation y = constant and vertical lines are dened
by the equation x = constant.
Be aware that although we graph the function as a line to make it easier to interpret,
the function may actually be discrete.
Review Questions
1. Make a table of values for the following equations and then graph them.
(a) y = 2x + 7
(b) y = 0.7x 4
(c) y = 6 1.25x
2. Think of a number. Triple it, and then subtract seven from your answer.
Make a table of values and plot the function that represents this sentence.
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3. Write the equations for the ve (A through E) lines plotted in the graph to the right.
4. At the Airport, you can change your money from dollars into Euros. The service costs
$5, and for every additional dollar you get 0.7 Euros. Make a table for this and plot
the function on a graph. Use your graph to determine how many Euros you would get
if you give the oice $50.
5. The graph to below shows a conversion chart for converting between weight in kilograms
to weight in pounds. Use it to convert the following measurements.
(a) 4 kilograms into weight in pounds
(b) 9 kilograms into weight in pounds
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(c) 12 pounds into weight in kilograms
(d) 17 pounds into weight in kilograms
Review Answers
1.
2. y = 3x 7
3. Ay = 5 By = 2 Cy = 7 Dx = 4 Ex = 6
4. y = 0.7(x 5)
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5. (a) 9 lb
(b) 20 lb
(c) 5.5 kg
(d) 7.75 kg
4.3 Graphing Using Intercepts
Learning Objectives
Find intercepts of the graph of an equation.
Use intercepts to graph an equation.
Solve real-world problems using intercepts of a graph.
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Introduction
Only two distinct points are needed to uniquely dene a graph of a line. After all, there are
an innite number of lines that pass through a single point (a few are shown in the graph
at right). But if you supplied just one more point, there can only be one line that passes
through both points. To plot the line, just plot the two points and use a ruler, edge placed
on both points, to trace the graph of the line.
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There are a lot of options for choosing which two points on the line you use to plot it. In this
lesson, we will focus on two points that are rather convenient for graphing: the points where
our line crosses the x and y axes, or intercepts. We will be nding intercepts algebraically
and using them to quickly plot graphs. Similarly, the xintercept occurs at the point where
the graph crosses the xaxis. The xvalue in the graph at the right is 6.
Look at the graph to the right. The yintercept occurs at the point where the graph
crosses the yaxis. The yvalue at this point is 8.
Similarly the xintercept occurs at the point where the graph crosses the xaxis. The
xvalue at this point is 6.
Now we know that the x value of all the points on the yaxis is zero, and the y value of
all the points on the xaxis is also zero. So if we were given the coordinates of the two
intercepts (0, 8) and (6, 0) we could quickly plot these points and join them with a line to
recreate our graph.
Note: Not all lines will have both intercepts but most do. Specically, horizontal lines never
cross the xaxis and vertical lines never cross the yaxis. For examples of these special
case lines, see the graph at right.
Finding Intercepts by Substitution
Example 1
Find the intercepts of the line y = 13 x and use them to graph the function.
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The rst intercept is easy to nd. The yintercept occurs when x = 0 Substituting gives:
y = 13 0 = 13 (0, 13) is the x intercept.
We know that the xintercept has, by denition, a yvalue of zero. Finding the corre-
sponding xvalue is a simple case of substitution:
0 = 13 x To isolate x subtract 13 from both sides.
13 = x Divide by 1.
Solution
(13, 0) is the xintercept.
To draw the graph simply plot these points and join them with a line.
Example 2
Graph the fol lowing functions by nding intercepts.
a. y = 2x + 3
b. y = 7 2x
c. 4x 2y = 8
d. 2x + 3y = 6
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a. Find the yintercept by plugging in x = 0.
y = 2 0 + 3 = 3 The y intercept is (0, 3)
Find the xintercept by plugging in y = 0.
0 = 2x + 3 Subtract 3 from both sides.
3 = 2x Divide by 2.

3
2
= x The x intercept is (1.5, 0).
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b. Find the yintercept by plugging in x = 0.
y = 7 2 0 = 7 The y intercept is (0, 7).
Find the xintercept by plugging in y = 0.
0 = 7 2x Subtract 7 from both sides.
7 = 2x Divide by 2.
7
2
= x The x intercept is (3.5, 0).
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c. Find the yintercept by plugging in x = 0.
4 0 2y = 8
2y = 8 Divide by 2.
y = 4 The y intercept is (0, 4).
Find the xintercept by plugging in y = 0.
4x 2 0 = 8
4x = 8 Divide by 4.
x = 2 The x intercept is (2, 0).
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d. Find the yintercept by plugging in x = 0.
2 0 + 3y = 6
3y = 6 Divide by 3.
y = 2 The y intercept is (0, 2).
Find the xintercept by plugging in y = 0.
2x + 3 0 = 6
2x = 6 Divide by 2.
x = 3 The x intercept is (3, 0)
Finding Intercepts for Standard Form Equations Using the
Cover-Up Method
Look at the last two equations in Example 2. These equations are written in standard
form. Standard form equations are always written positive coeicient times x plus (or
minus) positive coeicient times y equals value. Note that the x term always has a
positive value in front of it while the y value may have a negative term. The equation looks
like this:
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ax +by +c or ax by = c (a and b are positive numbers)
There is a neat method for nding intercepts in standard form, often referred to as the
cover-up method.
Example 3
Find the intercepts of the fol lowing equations.
a. 7x 3y = 21
b. 12x 10y = 15
c. x + 3y = 6
To solve for each intercept, we realize that on the intercepts the value of either x or y is
zero, and so any terms that contain the zero variable eectively disappear. To make a term
disappear, simply cover it (a nger is an excellent way to cover up terms) and solve the
resulting equation.
a. To solve for the yintercept we set x = 0 and cover up the x term:
3y = 21
y = 7 (0, 7) is the y intercept
Now we solve for the xintercept:
7x = 21
x = 3 (3, 0) is the x intercept.
b. Solve for the yintercept (x = 0 ) by covering up the x term.
10y = 15
y = 1.5 (0, 1.5) is the y intercept.
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Solve for the xintercept (y = 0):
12x = 15
x =
5
4
(1.25, 0) is the x intercept.
c. Solve for the yintercept (x = 0) by covering up the x term:
3y = 6
y = 2 (0, 2) is the y intercept.
Solve for the yintercept:
x = 6 (6, 0) is the x intercept.
The graph of these functions and the intercepts is shown in the graph on the right.
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Solving Real-World Problems Using Intercepts of a Graph
Example 4
The monthly membership cost of a gym is $25 per month. To attract members, the gym
is oering a $100 cash rebate if members sign up for a full year. Plot the cost of gym
membership over a 12 month period. Use the graph to determine the nal cost for a 12
month membership.
Let us examine the problem. Clearly the cost is a function of the number of months (not the
other way around). Our independent variable is the number of months (the domain will be
whole numbers) and this will be our x value. The cost in dollars is the dependent variable
and will be our y value. Every month that passes the money paid to the gym goes up by
$25. However, we start with a $100 cash gift, so our initial cost (yintercept) is $100. This
pays for four months (4$25 = 100) so after four months the cost of membership (yvalue)
is zero.
The yintercept is (0, 100). The xintercept is (4, 0).
We plot our points, join them with a straight line and extend that line out all the way to
the x = 12 line. The graph is shown below.
Cost of Gym Membership by Number of Months
To nd the cost of a 12 month membership we simply read o the value of the function at
the 12 month point. A line drawn up from x = 12 on the x axis meets the function at a y
value of $200.
Solution
The cost of joining the gym for one year is $200.
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Example 5
Jesus has $30 to spend on food for a class barbeque. Hot dogs cost $0.75 each (including
the bun) and burgers cost $1.25 (including bun and salad). Plot a graph that shows all the
combinations of hot dogs and burgers he could buy for the barbecue, without spending more
than $30.
This time we will nd an equation rst, and then we can think logically about nding the
intercepts.
If the number of burgers that John buys is x, then the money spent on burgers is 1.25x.
If the number of hot dogs he buys is y then the money spent on hot dogs is 0.75y.
1.25x + 0.75y The total cost of the food.
The total amount of money he has to spend is $30. If he is to spend it ALL, then we can
use the following equation.
1.25x + 0.75y = 30
We solve for the intercepts using the cover-up method.
First the yintercept (x = 0.
0.75y = 30
y = 40 y intercept(0, 40)
Then the xintercept (y = 0)
1.25x = 30
x = 24 x intercept(24, 0)
Possible Numbers of Hot Dogs and Hamburgers Purchased for $30
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We can now plot the points and join them to create our graph, shown right.
Here is an alternative to the equation method.
If Jesus were to spend ALL the money on hot dogs, he could buy
30
0.75
= 40 hot dogs. If on
the other hand, he were to buy only burgers, he could buy
30
1.25
= 24 burgers. So you can
see that we get two intercepts: (0 burgers, 40 hot dogs) and (24 burgers, 0 hot dogs). We
would plot these in an identical manner and design our graph that way.
As a nal note, we should realize that Jesus problem is really an example of an inequality.
He can, in fact, spend any amount up to $30. The only thing he cannot do is spend more
than $30. So our graph reects this. The shaded region shows where Jesus solutions all lie.
We will see inequalities again in Chapter 6.
Lesson Summary
A yintercept occurs at the point where a graph crosses the yaxis (x = 0) and an
xintercept occurs at the point where a graph crosses the xaxis (y = 0).
The yintercept can be found by substituting x = 0 into the equation and solving
for y. Likewise, the xintercept can be found by substituting y = 0 into the equation
and solving for x.
A linear equation is in standard form if it is written as positive coeicient times
x plus (or minus) positive coeicient times y equals value. Equations in standard
form can be solved for the intercepts by covering up the x (or y) term and solving the
equation that remains.
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Review Questions
1. Find the intercepts for the following equations using substitution.
(a) y = 3x 6
(b) y = 2x + 4
(c) y = 14x 21
(d) y = 7 3x
2. Find the intercepts of the following equations using the cover-up method.
(a) 5x 6y = 15
(b) 3x 4y = 5
(c) 2x + 7y = 11
(d) 5x + 10y = 25
3. Use any method to nd the intercepts and then graph the following equations.
(a) y = 2x + 3
(b) 6(x 1) = 2(y + 3)
(c) x y = 5
(d) x +y = 8
4. At the local grocery store strawberries cost $3.00 per pound and bananas cost $1.00
per pound. If I have $10 to spend between strawberries and bananas, draw a graph to
show what combinations of each I can buy and spend exactly $10.
5. A movie theater charges $7.50 for adult tickets and $4.50 for children. If the theater
takes $900 in ticket sales for a particular screening, draw a graph which depicts the
possibilities for the number of adult tickets and the number of child tickets sold.
6. Why cant we use the intercept method to graph the following equation? 3(x + 2) =
2(y + 3)
Review Answers
1. (a) (0, 6), (2, 0)
(b) (0, 4), (2, 0)
(c) (0, 21), (1.5, 0)
(d) (0, 7), (
7
3
, 0)
2. (a) (0, 2.5), (3, 0)
(b) (0, 1.25), (
5
3
, 0)
(c) (0,
11
7
), (
11
2
, 0)
(d) (0, 2.5), (5, 0)
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3.
4.
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5.
6. This equation reduces to 3x = 2y, which passes through (0, 0) and therefore only has
one intercept. Two intercepts are needed for this method to work.
4.4 Slope and Rate of Change
Learning Objectives
Find positive and negative slopes.
Recognize and nd slopes for horizontal and vertical lines.
Understand rates of change.
Interpret graphs and compare rates of change.
Introduction
We come across many examples of slope in everyday life. For example, a slope is in the pitch
of a roof, the grade or incline of a road, and the slant of a ladder leaning on a wall. In math,
we use the word slope to dene steepness in a particular way.
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Slope =
distance moved vertically
distance moved horizontally
This is often reworded to be easier to remember:
Slope =
rise
run
Essentially, slope is the change in y if x increases by 1.
In the picture to the right, the slope would be the ratio of the height of the hill (the rise)
to the horizontal length of the hill (the run).
Slope =
3
4
= 0.75
If the car were driving to the right it would climb the hill. We say this is a positive slope.
Anytime you see the graph of a line that goes up as you move to the right, the slope is
positive.
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If the car were to keep driving after it reached the top of the hill, it may come down again.
If the car is driving to the right and descending, then we would say that the slope is
negative. The picture at right has a negative slope of 0.75.
Do not get confused! If the car turns around and drives back down the hill shown, we would
still classify the slope as positive. This is because the rise would be 3, but the run would
be 4 (think of the xaxis if you move from right to left you are moving in the negative
xdirection). Our ratio for moving left is:
Slope =
3
4
= 0.75 A negative divided by a negative is a positive.
So as we move from left to right, positive slopes increase while negative slopes decrease.
Find a Positive Slope
We have seen that a function with a positive slope increases in y as we increase x. A simple
way to nd a value for the slope is to draw a right angled triangle whose hypotenuse runs
along the line. It is then a simple matter of measuring the distances on the triangle that
correspond to the rise (the vertical dimension) and the run (the horizontal dimension).
Example 1
Find the slopes for the three graphs shown right.
There are already right-triangles drawn for each of the lines. In practice, you would have to
do this yourself. Note that it is easiest to make triangles whose vertices are lattice points
(i.e. the coordinates are all integers).
a. The rise shown in this triangle is 4 units, the run is 2 units.
Slope =
4
2
= 2
b. The rise shown in this triangle is 4 units, the run is also 4 units.
Slope =
4
4
= 1
c. The rise shown in this triangle is 2 units, the run is 4 units.
Slope =
2
4
=
1
2
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Example 2
Find the slope of the line that passes through the points (1, 2) and (4, 7).
We already know how to graph a line if we are given two points. We simply plot the points
and connect them with a line. Look at the graph shown at right.
Since we already have coordinates for our right triangle, we can quickly work out that the
rise would be 5 and the run would be 3 (see diagram). Here is our slope.
Slope =
7 2
4 1
=
5
3
If you look closely at the calculations for the slope you will notice that the 7 and 2 are the
ycoordinates of the two points and the 4 and 1 are the xcoordinates. This suggests a
pattern we can follow to get a general formula for the slope between two points (x
1
, y
1
) and
(x
2
, y
2
).
Slope between (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
or m =
y
x
In the second equation, the letter m denotes the slope (you will see this a lot in this chapter)
and the Greek letter delta () means change. So another way to express slope is change
in y divided by change in x. In the next section, you will see that it does not matter which
point you choose as point 1 and which you choose as point 2.
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Find a Negative Slope
Any function with a negative slope is simply a function that decreases as we increase x.
If you think of the function as the incline of a road a negative slope is a road that goes
downhill as you drive to the right.
Example 3
Find the slopes of the lines on the graph to the right.
Look at the lines. Both functions fall (or decrease) as we move from left to right. Both of
these lines have a negative slope.
Neither line passes through a great number of lattice points, but by looking carefully you
can see a few points that look to have integer coordinates. These points have been identied
(with rings) and we will use these to determine the slope. We will also do our calculations
twice, to show that we get the same slope whichever way we choose point 1 and point 2.
For line A:
(x
1
, y
1
) = (6, 3) (x
2
, y
2
) = (5, 1) (x
1
, y
1
) = (5, 1) (x
2
, y
2
) = (6, 3)
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(1) (3)
(5) (6)
=
4
11
0.364 m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(3) (1)
(6) (5)
=
4
11
0.364
For line B:
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(x
1
, y
1
) = (4, 6) (x
2
, y
2
) = (4, 5) (x
1
, y
1
) = (4, 5) (x
2
, y
2
) = (4, 6)
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(5) (6)
(4) (4)
=
11
8
= 1.375 m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(6) (5)
(4) (4)
=
11
8
= 1.375
You can see that whichever way you select the points, the answers are the same!
Solution
Line A has slope 0.364. Line B has slope 1.375.
Multimedia Link The series of videos starting at Khan Academy Slope (8:28) models
several more examples of nding the slope of a line given two points.
Figure 4.2: Figuring out the slope of a line (Watch on Youtube)
Find the Slopes of Horizontal and Vertical lines
Example 4
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Determine the slopes of the two lines on the graph at the right.
There are two lines on the graph. A (y = 3) and B (x = 5).
Lets pick two points on line A. say, (x
1
, y
1
) = (4, 3) and (x
2
, y
2
) = (5, 3) and use our
equation for slope.
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(3) (3)
(5) (4)
=
0
9
= 0
If you think about it, this makes sense. If there is no change in y as we increase x then
there is no slope, or to be correct, a slope of zero. You can see that this must be true for all
horizontal lines.
Horizontal lines (y = constant) all have a slope of 0.
Now consider line B. Pick two distinct points on this line and plug them in to the slope
equation.
(x
1
, y
1
) = (5, 3) and (x
2
, y
2
) = (5, 4).
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(4) (3)
(5) (5)
=
7
0
A division by zero!
Divisions by zero lead to innities. In math we often use the term undened for any division
by zero.
Vertical lines (x = constant) all have an innite (or undened) slope.
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Find a Rate of Change
The slope of a function that describes real, measurable quantities is often called a rate of
change. In that case, the slope refers to a change in one quantity (y) per unit change in
another quantity (x).
Example 5
Andrea has a part time job at the local grocery store. She saves for her vacation at a rate of
$15 every week. Express this rate as money saved per day and money saved per year.
Converting rates of change is fairly straight forward so long as you remember the equations
for rate (i.e. the equations for slope) and know the conversions. In this case 1 week = 7 days
and 52 weeks = 1 year.
rate =
$15
1 week

1 week
7 days
=
$15
7 days
=
15
7
dollars per day $2.14 per day
rate =
$15
1 week

52 week
1 year
= $15
52
year
= $780 per year
Example 6
A candle has a starting length of 10 inches. Thirty minutes after lighting it, the length is
7 inches . Determine the rate of change in length of the candle as it burns. Determine how
long the candle takes to completely burn to nothing.
In this case, we will graph the function to visualize what is happening.
We have two points to start with. We know that at the moment the candle is lit (time = 0)
the length of the candle is 10 inches. After thirty minutes (time = 30) the length is 7 inches
. Since the candle length is a function of time we will plot time on the horizontal axis, and
candle length on the vertical axis. Here is a graph showing this information.
Candle Length by Burning Time
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The rate of change of the candle is simply the slope. Since we have our two points (x
1
, y
1
) =
(0, 10) and (x
2
, y
2
) = (30, 7) we can move straight to the formula.
Rate of change =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
(7 inches) (10 inches)
(30 minutes) (0 minutes)
=
3 inches
30 minutes
= 0.1 inches per minute
The slope is negative. A negative rate of change means that the quantity is decreasing with
time.
We can also convert our rate to inches per hour.
rate =
0.1 inches
1 minute

60 minutes
1 hour
=
6 inches
1 hour
= 6 inches per hour
To nd the point when the candle reaches zero length we can simply read o the graph (100
minutes). We can use the rate equation to verify this algebraically.
Length burned = rate time
0.1 100 = 10
Since the candle length was originally 10 inches this conrms that 100 minutes is the correct
amount of time.
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Interpret a Graph to Compare Rates of Change
Example 7
Examine the graph below. It represents a journey made by a large delivery truck on a
particular day. During the day, the truck made two deliveries, each one taking one
hour. The driver also took a one hour break for lunch. Identify what is happening at
each stage of the journey (stages A through E)
Trucks Distance from Home by Time
Here is the drivers journey.
A. The truck sets o and travels 80 miles in 2 hours .
B. The truck covers no distance for 1 hours .
C. The truck covers (120 80) = 40 miles in 1 hours
D. the truck covers no distance for 2 hours .
E. The truck covers 120 miles in 2 hours .
Lets look at the rates of change for each section.
A. Rate of change =
y
x
=
80 miles
2 hours
= 40 miles per hour
The rate of change is a velocity! This is a very important concept and one that
deserves a special note!
The slope (or rate of change) of a distance-time graph is a velocity.
You may be more familiar with calling miles per hour a speed. Speed is the magnitude
of a velocity, or, put another way, velocity has a direction, speed does not. This is best
illustrated by working through the example.
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On the rst part of the journey sees the truck travel at a constant velocity of 40 mph for
2 hours covering a distance of 80 miles .
B. Slope = 0 so rate of change = 0 mph. The truck is stationary for one hour. This could
be a lunch break, but as it is only 2 hours since the truck set o it is likely to be the rst
delivery stop.
C. Rate of change =
y
x
=
(12080) miles
(43) hours
= 40 miles per hour. The truck is traveling at
40 mph.
D. Slope = 0 so rate of change = 0 mph . The truck is stationary for two hours. It is
likely that the driver used these 2 hours for a lunch break plus the second delivery stop. At
this point the truck is 120 miles from the start position.
E. Rate of change =
y
x
=
(0120) miles
(86) hours
=
120 miles
2 hours
= 60 miles per hour. The truck is
traveling at negative 60 mph .
Wait, a negative velocity? Does this mean that the truck is reversing? Well, probably not.
What it means is that the distance (and dont forget that is the distance measured from
the starting position) is decreasing with time. The truck is simply driving in the opposite
direction. In this case, back to where it started from. So, the speed of the truck would be
60 mph, but the velocity (which includes direction) is negative because the truck is getting
closer to where it started from. The fact that it no longer has two heavy loads means that it
travels faster (60 mph as opposed to 40 mph) covering the 120 mile return trip in 2 hours .
Lesson Summary
Slope is a measure of change in the vertical direction for each step in the horizontal
direction. Slope is often represented as m.
Slope =
rise
run
or m =
y
x
The slope between two points (x
1
, y
1
) and (x
2
, y
2
) =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
Horizontal lines (y = constant) all have a slope of 0.
Vertical lines (x = constant) all have an innite (or undened) slope.
The slope (or rate of change) of a distance-time graph is a velocity.
Review Questions
1. Use the slope formula to nd the slope of the line that passes through each pair of
points.
(a) (5, 7) and (0, 0)
(b) (3, 5) and (3, 11)
(c) (3, 5) and (2, 9)
(d) (5, 7) and (5, 11)
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(e) (9, 9) and (9, 9)
(f) (3, 5) and (2, 7)
2. Use the points indicated on each line of the graphs to determine the slopes of the
following lines.
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3. The graph below is a distance-time graph for Marks three and a half mile cycle ride
to school. During this ride, he rode on cycle paths but the terrain was hilly. He rode
slower up hills and faster down them. He stopped once at a traic light and at one point
he stopped to mend a tire puncture. Identify each section of the graph accordingly.
Andrews Distance from Home by Time
Review Answers
1. (a) 1.4
(b) 2.67
(c) 2.8
(d) undened
(e) 1
(f) 0.4
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2. (a) 3
(b) 0.5
(c) 2
(d) 1
(e) undened
(f)
1
3
3. (a) A. uphill
(b) B. stopped (traic light)
(c) C. uphill
(d) D. downhill
(e) E. stopped (puncture)
(f) F. uphill
4.5 Graphs Using Slope-Intercept Form
Learning Objectives
Identify the slope and yintercept of equations and graphs.
Graph an equation in slope-intercept form.
Understand what happens when you change the slope or intercept of a line.
Identify parallel lines from their equations.
Identify Slope and y-intercept
One of the most common ways of writing linear equations prior to graphing them is called
slope-intercept form. We have actually seen several slope-intercept equations so far. They
take the following form:
y = mx +b where m is the slope and the point (0, b) is the yintercept.
We know that the yintercept is the point at which the line passes through the yaxis. The
slope is a measure of the steepness of the line. Hopefully, you can see that if we know one
point on a line and the slope of that line, we know what the line is. Being able to quickly
identify the yintercept and slope will aid us in graphing linear functions.
Example 1
Identify the slope and yintercept of the following equations.
a) y = 3x + 2
b) y = 0.5x 3
c) y = 7x
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d) y = 4
Solution
a) Comparing, we see that m = 3 and b = 2.
y = 3x + 2 has a slope of 3 and a yintercept of (0, 2)
b) has a slope of 0.5 and a y-intercept of (0, 3).
Note that the yintercept is negative. The b term includes the sign of the operator in front
of the number. Just remember that y = 0.5x 3 is identical to y = 0.5x +(3) and is in th
eform y = mx +b.
c) At rst glance, this does not appear to t the slope-intercept form. To illus-
trate how we deal with this, let us rewrite the equation.
. We now see that we get a slope of 7 and a yintercept of (0, 0).
Note that the slope is negative. The (0, 0) intercept means that the line passes through
origin.
d) Rewrite as y = 0x 4, giving us a slope of 0 and an intercept of (0, 4).
Remember:
When m < 0 the slope is negative.
For example, y = 3x + 2 has a slope of 3.
When b < 0 the intercept is below the x axis.
For example, y = 4x 2 has a yintercept of (0, 2).
When m = 0 the slope is zero and we have a horizontal line.
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For example, y = 3 can be written as y = 0x + 3.
When b = 0 the graph passes through the origin.
For example, y = 4x can be written as = 4x + 0.
Example 2
Identify the slope and y-intercept of the lines on the graph shown to the right.
The intercepts have been marked, as have a number of lattice points that lines pass through.
a. The yintercept is (0, 5). The line also passes through (2, 3).
slope m =
y
x
=
2
2
= 1
b. The yintercept is (0, 2). The line also passes through (1, 5).
slope m =
y
x
=
3
1
= 3
c. The yintercept is (0, 1). The line also passes through (2, 3).
slope m =
y
x
=
4
2
= 2
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d. The yintercept is (0, 3). The line also passes through (4, 4).
slope m =
y
x
=
1
4
=
1
4
or 0.25
Graph an Equation in Slope-Intercept Form
Once we know the slope and intercept of a line it is easy to graph it. Just remember what
slope means. Lets look back at this example from Lesson 4.1.
Example 3
Ahiga is trying to work out a trick that his friend showed him. His friend started by asking
him to think of a number. Then double it. Then add ve to what he got. Ahiga has written
down a rule to describe the rst part of the trick. He is using the letter x to stand for the
number he thought of and the letter y to represent the result of applying the rule. His rule is:
y = 2x + 5
Help him visualize what is going on by graphing the function that this rule describes.
In that example, we constructed the following table of values.
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x y
0 2.0 + 5 = 0 + 5 = 5
1 2.1 + 5 = 2 + 5 = 7
2 2.2 + 5 = 4 + 5 = 9
3 2.3 + 5 = 6 + 5 = 11
The rst entry gave us our y intercept (0, 5). The other points helped us graph the line.
We can now use our equation for slope, and two of the given points.
Slope between (x
1
, y
1
) = (0, 5) and (x
2
, y
2
) = (3, 11).
m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
11 5
3 0
=
6
3
= 2
Thus conrming that the slope, m = 2.
An easier way to graph this function is the slopeintercept method. We can now do this
quickly, by identifying the intercept and the slope.
Look at the graph we drew, the line intersects the yaxis at 5, and every time we move to
the right by one unit, we move up by two units.
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So what about plotting a function with a negative slope? Just remember that a negative
slope means the function decreases as we increase x.
Example 4
Graph the following function. y = 3x + 5
Identify yintercept b = 5
Plot intercept (0, 5)
Identify slope m = 3
Draw a line through the intercept that has a slope of 3.
To do this last part remember that slope =
rise
run
so for every unit we move to the right the
function increases by 3 (in other words, for every square we move right, the function comes
down by 3).
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Changing the Slope of a Line
Look at the graph on the right. It shows a number of lines with dierent slopes, but all with
the same yintercept (0, 3).
You can see all the positive slopes increase as we move from left to right while all functions
with negative slopes fall as we move from left to right.
Notice that the higher the value of the slope, the steeper the graph.
The graph of y = 2x + 3 appears as the mirror image of y = 2x + 3. The two slopes are
equal but opposite.
Fractional Slopes and Rise Over Run
Look at the graph of y = 0.5x + 3. As we increase the x value by 1, the y value increases
by 0.5. If we increase the x value by 2, then the y value increases by 1. In fact, if you
express any slope as a fraction, you can determine how to plot the graph by looking at the
numerator for the rise (keep any negative sign included in this term) and the denominator
for the run.
Example 5
Find integer values for the rise and run of following slopes then graph lines with corre-
sponding slopes.
a. m = 3
b. m = 2
c. m = 0.75
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d. m = 0.375
Solution:
a.
b.
c.
d.
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Changing the Intercept of a Line
When we take an equation (such as y = 2x) and change the y intercept (leaving the slope
intact) we see the following pattern in the graph on the right.
Notice that changing the intercept simply translates the graph up or down. Take a point on
the graph of y = 2x, such as (1, 2). The corresponding point on y = 2x + 3 would be (1, 4).
Similarly the corresponding point on the y = 2x 3 line would be (1, 1).
Will These Lines Ever Cross?
To answer that question, let us take two of the equations y = 2x and y = 2x + 3 and solve
for values of x and y that satisfy both equations. This will give us the (x, y) coordinates of
the point of intersection.
2x = 2x + 3c Subtract 2x from both sides.
0 = 0 + 3 or 0 = 3 This statement is FALSE!
When we get a false statement like this, it means that there are no (x, y) values that satisfy
both equations simultaneously. The lines will never cross, and so they must be parallel.
Identify Parallel Lines
In the previous section, when we changed the intercept but left the slope the same, the new
line was parallel to the original line. This would be true whatever the slope of the original
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line, as changing the intercept on a y = mx + b graph does nothing to the slope. This idea
can be summed up as follows.
Any two lines with identical slopes are parallel.
Lesson Summary
A common form of a line (linear equation) is slope-intercept form:
y = mx +b where m is the slope and the point (0, b) is the yintercept
Graphing a line in slope-intercept form is a matter of rst plotting the yintercept
(0, b), then plotting more points by moving a step to the right (adding 1 to x) and
moving the value of the slope vertically (adding m to y) before plotting each subsequent
point.
Any two lines with identical slopes are parallel.
Review Questions
1. Identify the slope and yintercept for the following equations.
(a) y = 2x + 5
(b) y = 0.2x + 7
(c) y = x
(d) y = 3.75
2. Identify the slope of the following lines.
3. Identify the slope and yintercept for the following functions.
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4. Plot the following functions on a graph.
(a) y = 2x + 5
(b) y = 0.2x + 7
(c) y = x
(d) y = 3.75
5. Which two of the following lines are parallel?
(a) y = 2x + 5
(b) y = 0.2x + 7
(c) y = x
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(d) y = 3.75
(e) y =
1
5
x 11
(f) y = 5x + 5
(g) y = 3x + 11
(h) y = 3x + 3.5
Review Answers
1. (a) m = 2, (0, 5)
(b) m = 0.2, (0, 7)
(c) m = 1, (0, 0)
(d) m = 0, (0, 3.75)
2. (a) A. m = 2
(b) B. m =
4
3
(c) C. m = 0
(d) D. m =
2
5
(e) E. m = 0.25
(f) F. m = 0.5
(g) G. m = 4
3. (a) A. y =
2
3
x + 1.5
(b) B: y = 3x + 1
(c) C: y = 0.5x 2
(d) D: y = x
(e) E: y = 3
(f) F: y = 0.2x 1
4.
5. b and e
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4.6 Direct Variation Models
Learning Objectives
Identify direct variation.
Graph direct variation equations.
Solve real-world problems using direct variation models.
Introduction
Suppose you see someone buy ve pounds of strawberries at the grocery store. The clerk
weighs the strawberries and charges $12.50 for them. Now suppose you wanted two pounds
of strawberries for yourself. How much would you expect to pay for them?
Identify Direct Variation
The preceding problem is an example of a direct variation. We would expect that the
strawberries are priced on a per pound basis, and that if you buy two-fths of the amount
of strawberries, you would pay two-fths of $12.50 for your strawberries.
2
5
$12.50 = $5.00
Similarly, if you bought 10 pounds of strawberries (twice the amount) you would pay 2
$12.50 and if you did not buy any strawberries you would pay nothing.
If variable y varies directly with variable x, then we write the relationship as:
y = k x
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k is called the constant of proportionality.
If we were to graph this function you can see that it passes through the origin, because y = 0,
when x = 0 whatever the value of k. So we know that a direct variation, when graphed, has
a single intercept at (0, 0).
Example 1
If y varies directly with x according to the relationship y = k x, and y = 7.5 when x = 2.5,
determine the constant of proportionality, k.
We can solve for the constant of proportionality using substitution.
Substitute x = 2.5 and y = 7.5 into the equation y = k x
7.5 = k(2.5) Divide both sides by 2.5.
7.5
2.5
= k = 3
Solution
The constant of proportionality, k = 3.
We can graph the relationship quickly, using the intercept (0, 0) and the point 2.5, 7.5). The
graph is shown right. It is a straight line with a slope = 3.
The graph of a direct variation has a slope that is equal to the constant of proportionality,
k.
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Example 2
The volume of water in a sh-tank, V , varies directly with depth, d. If there are 15 gallons
in the tank when the depth is eight inches, calculate how much water is in the tank when the
depth is 20 inches.
This is a good example of a direct variation, but for this problem we will need to determine
the equation of the variation ourselves. Since the volume, V , depends on depth, d, we will
use the previous equation to create new one that is better suited to the content of the new
problem.
y = k x In place of y we will use V and in place of x we will use d.
V = k d
We know that when the depth is 8 inches, the volume is 15 gallons. Now we can substitute
those values into our equation.
Substitute V = 15 and x = 8:
V = k d
15 = k(8) Divide both sides by8.
15
8
= k = 1.875
Now to nd the volume of water at the nal depth we use V = k d and substitute for our
new d.
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V = k d
V = 1.875 20
V = 37.5
Solution
At a depth of 20 inches, the volume of water in the tank is 37.5 gallons.
Example 3
The graph shown to the right shows a conversion chart used to convert U.S. dollars (US$)
to British pounds (GB) in a bank on a particular day. Use the chart to determine the
following.
(i) The number of pounds you could buy for $600.
(ii) The number of dol lars it would cost to buy 200.
(iii) The exchange rate in pounds per dol lar.
(iv) Is the function continuous or discrete?
Solution
In order to solve (i) and (ii) we could simply read o the graph: it looks as if at x =
600 the graph is about one fth of the way between 350 and 400. So $600 would buy
360. Similarly, the line y = 200 would appear to intersect the graph about a third of
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the way between $300 and $400. We would probably round this to $330. So it would cost
approximately $330 to buy 200.
To solve for the exchange rate we should note that as this is a direct variation, because the
graph is a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line gives the constant of
proportionality (in this case the exchange rate) and it is equal to the ratio of the yvalue
to xvalue. Looking closely at the graph, it is clear that there is one lattice point that the
line passes through (500, 300). This will give us the most accurate estimate for the slope
(exchange rate).
y = k x k =
y
x
rate =
300 pounds
500 dollars
= 0.60 pounds per dollar
Graph Direct Variation Equations
We know that all direct variation graphs pass through the origin, and also that the slope of
the line is equal to the constant of proportionality, k. Graphing is a simple matter of using
the point-slope or point-point methods discussed earlier in this chapter.
Example 4
Plot the following direct relations on the same graph.
a. y = 3x
b. y = 2x
c. y = 0.2x
d. y =
2
9
x
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Solution
a. The line passes through (0, 0). All these functions will pass through this point. It is
plotted in red. This function has a slope of 3. When we move across by one unit, the
function increases by three units.
b. The line has a slope of 2. When we move across the graph by one unit the function
falls by two units.
c. The line has a slope of 0.2. As a fraction this is equal to
1
5
When we move across by
ve units, the function falls by one unit.
d. The line passes through (0, 0) and has a slope of
2
9
. When we move across the graph by
9 units, the function increases by two units.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Direct Variation Models
Direct variations are seen everywhere in everyday life. Any time that we have one quan-
tity that doubles when another related quantity doubles, we say that they follow a direct
variation.
Newtons Second Law
In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published the famous Principea Mathematica. It contained, among
other things, his Second Law of Motion. This law is often written as:
F = m a
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A force of F (Newtons) applied to a mass of m (kilograms) results in acceleration of a
(meterspersecond
2
).
Example 5
If a 175 Newton force causes a heavily loaded shopping cart to accelerate down the aisle with
an acceleration of 2.5 m/s
2
, calculate
(i) The mass of the shopping cart.
(ii) The force needed to accelerate the same cart at 6 m/s
2
.
Solution
(i) This question is basically asking us to solve for the constant of proportionality. Let us
compare the two formulas.
y = k x The direct variation equation
F = m a Newtons Second law
We see that the two equations have the same form; y is analogous to force and x analogous
to acceleration.
We can solve for m (the mass) by substituting our given values for force and acceleration:
Substitute F = 175, a = 2.5
175 = m(2.5) Divide both sides by 2.5.
70 = m
The mass of the shopping cart is 70 kg.
(ii) Once we have solved for the mass we simply substitute that value, plus our required
acceleration back into the formula F = m a and solve for F:
Substitute m = 70, a = 6
F = 70 6 = 420
The force needed to accelerate the cart at 6 m/s
2
is 420 Newtons.
Ohms Law
The electrical current, I (amps), passing through an electronic component varies directly
with the applied voltage, V (volts), according to the relationship:
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V = I R where R is the resistance (measured in Ohms)
The resistance is considered to be a constant for all values of V and I.
Example 6
A certain electronics component was found to pass a current of 1.3 amps at a voltage of 2.6
volts. When the voltage was increased to 12.0 volts the current was found to be 6.0 amps.
a) Does the component obey Ohms law?
b) What would the current be at 6 volts?
Solution
a) Ohms law is a simple direct proportionality law. Since the resistance R is constant, it
acts as our constant of proportionality. In order to know if the component obeys Ohms law
we need to know if it follows a direct proportionality rule. In other words is V directly
proportional to I?
Method One Graph It
If we plot our two points on a graph and join them with a line, does the line pass through
(0, 0)?
Point 1 = 2.6, I = 1.3 our point is (1.3, 2.6)

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Point 2 V = 12.0, I = 6.0 our point is (6, 12)
Plotting the points and joining them gives the following graph.
The graph does appear to pass through the origin, so
Yes, the component obeys Ohms law.
Method Two Solve for R
We can quickly determine the value of R in each case. It is the ratio of the voltage to the
resistance.
Case 1 R =
V
I
=
2.6
1.3
= 2 Ohms
Case 2 R =
V
I
=
12
6
= 2 Ohms
The values for R agree! This means that the line that joins point 1 to the origin is the same
as the line that joins point 2 to the origin. The component obeys Ohms law.
b) To nd the current at 6 volts, simply substitute the values for V and R into V = I R
Substitute V = 6, R = 2
In physics, it is customary to plot voltage on the horizontal axis as this is most often the
independent variable. In that situation, the slope gives the conductance, . However,
by plotting the current on the horizontal axis, the slope is equal to the resistance,
R.
6 = I(2) Divide both sides by 2.
3 = I
Solution
The current through the component at a voltage of 6 volts is 3 amps.
Lesson Summary
If a variable y varies directly with variable x, then we write the relationship as
y = k x
Where k is a constant called the constant of proportionality.
Direct variation is very common in many areas of science.
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Review Questions
1. Plot the following direct variations on the same graph.
(a) y =
4
3
x
(b) y =
2
3
x
(c) y =
1
6
x
(d) y = 1.75x
2. Dasans mom takes him to the video arcade for his birthday. In the rst 10 minutes,
he spends $3.50 playing games. If his allowance for the day is $20.00, how long can he
keep playing games before his money is gone?
3. The current standard for low-ow showerheads heads is 2.5 gallons per minute. Cal-
culate how long it would take to ll a 30 gallon bathtub using such a showerhead to
supply the water.
4. Amen is using a hose to ll his new swimming pool for the rst time. He starts the
hose at 10 P.M. and leaves it running all night. At 6 AM he measures the depth and
calculates that the pool is four sevenths full. At what time will his new pool be full?
5. Land in Wisconsin is for sale to property investors. A 232 acre lot is listed for sale for
$200500. Assuming the same price per acre, how much would a 60 acre lot sell for?
6. The force (F) needed to stretch a spring by a distance x is given by the equation
F = k x, where k is the spring constant (measured in Newtons per centimeter, N/cm).
If a 12 Newton force stretches a certain spring by 10 cm, calculate:
(a) The spring constant, k
(b) The force needed to stretch the spring by 7 cm .
(c) The distance the spring would stretch with a 23 Newton force.
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Review Answers
1.
2. 57 minutes 8 seconds
3. 12 minutes
4. 12 : 00 Midday
5. $51, 853
6. (a) k = 1.2 N/cm
(b) 8.4 Newtons
(c) 19.17 cm
4.7 Linear Function Graphs
Learning Objectives
Recognize and use function notation.
Graph a linear function.
Change slope and intercepts of function graphs.
Analyze graphs of real-world functions.
Introduction Functions
So far we have used the term function to describe many of the equations we have been
graphing, but the concept of a function is extremely important in mathematics. Not all
equations are functions. In order to be a function, the relationship between two variables, x
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and y, must map each xvalue to exactly one yvalue.
Visually this means the graph of y versus x must pass the vertical line test meaning that
a vertical line drawn through the graph of the function must never intersect the graph in
more than one place.
Use Function Notation
When we write functions we often use the notation f(x) = in place of y =. f(x) = is read
f of x.
Example 1
Rewrite the following equations so that y is a function of x and written f(x).
a. y = 2x + 5
b. y = 0.2x + 7
c. x = 4y 5
d. 9x + 3y = 6
Solution
a. Simply replace y with f(x). f(x) = 2x + 5
b. f(x) = 0.2x + 7
c. Rearrange to isolate y.
x = 4y 5 Add 5 to both sides.
x + 5 = 4y Divide by 4.
x + 5
4
= y
f(x) =
x + 5
4
d. Rearrange to isolate y.
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9x + 3y = 6 Subtract 9x from both sides.
3y = 6 9x Divide by 3.
y =
6 x
3
= 2 3x
f(x) = 2 3x
You can think of a function as a machine made up from a number of separate processes. For
example, you can look at the function 3x+2 and break it down to the following instructions.
Take a number
Multiply it by 3
Add 2
We can visualize these processes like this:
In this case, the number we chose was 2. Multiplied by 3 it becomes 6. When we add 2 our
output is 8.
Lets try that again. This time we will put 3 through our machine to get 7.
On the bottom of this process tree you can see what happens when we put the letter n (the
variable used to represent any number) through the function. We can write the results of
these processes.
f(2) = 8
f(3) = 7
f(n) = 3n + 2
Example 2
A function is dened as f(x) = 6x 36. Evaluate the following:
a. f(2)
b. f(0)
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c. f(36)
d. f(z)
e. f(p)
Solution
a. Substitute x = 2 into the function f(x) f(2) = 6 2 36 = 12 36 = 24
b. Substitute x = 0 into the function f(x) f(0) = 6 0 36 = 0 36 = 36
c. Substitute x = 36 into the function f(x) f(36) = 6 36 36 = 216 36 = 180
d. Substitute x = z into the function f(x) f(z) = 6z + 36
e. Substitute x = p into the function f(x) f(p) = 6p + 36
Graph a Linear Function
You can see that the notation f(x) = and y = are interchangeable. This means that we
can use all the concepts we have learned so far to graph functions.
Example 3
Graph the function f(x) =
3x+5
4
Solution
We can write this function in slope intercept form (y = mx +b form).
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f(x) =
3
4
x +
5
4
= 0.75x + 1.25
So our graph will have a yintercept of (0, 1.25) and a slope of 0.75.
Remember that this slope rises by 3 units for every 4 units we move right.
Example 4
Graph the function f(x) =
7(5x)
5
Solution
This time we will solve for the x and y intercepts.
To solve for yintercept substitute x = 0.
f(0) =
7(5 0)
5
=
35
5
= 7
To solve for xintercept substitute use f(x) = 0.
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0 =
7(5 x)
5
Multiply by 5 and distribute 7.
5.0 = 35 7x Add 7x to both sides:
7x = 35
x = 5
Our graph has intercepts (0, 7) and (5, 0).
Arithmetic Progressions
You may have noticed that with linear functions, when you increase the x value by one unit,
the y value increases by a xed amount. This amount is equal to the slope. For example, if
we were to make a table of values for the function f(x) = 2x + 3 we might start at x = 0
then add one to x for each row.
x f(x)
0 3
1 5
2 7
3 9
4 11
Look at the values for f(x). They go up by two (the slope) each time. When we consider
continually adding a xed value to numbers, we get sequences like 3, 5, 7, 9, 11.... We call
these arithmetic progressions. They are characterized by the fact that each number is
greater than (or lesser than) than the preceding number by a xed amount. This amount
is called the common dierence. The common dierence can be found by taking two
consecutive terms in a sequence and subtracting the rst from the second.
Example 5
Find the common dierence for the fol lowing arithmetic progressions:
a. 7, 11, 15, 19 . . .
b. 12, 1, 10, 21 . . .
c. 7, , 12, , 17 . . .
Solution
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a.
11 7 = 4
15 11 = 4
19 15 = 4.
The common dierence is 4.
b. 1 12 = 11. The common dierence is 11.
c. There are not two consecutive terms here, but we know that to get the term after 7, we
would add the common dierence. Then to get to 12, we would add the common dierence
again. Twice the common dierence is 12 7 = 5. So the common dierence is 2.5.
Arithmetic sequences and linear functions are very closely related. You just learned that to
get to the next term in a arithmetic sequence you add the common dierence to last term.
We have seen that with linear functions the function increases by the value of the slope every
time the xvalue is increased by one. As a result, arithmetic sequences and linear functions
look very similar.
The graph to the right shows the arithmetic progression 2, 0, 2, 4, 6 . . . with the function
y = 2x 4. The fundamental dierence between the two graphs is that an arithmetic
sequence is discrete while a linear function is continuous.
Discrete means that the sequence has x values only at distinct points (the 1
st
term,
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2
nd
term, etc). The domain is not all real numbers (often it is whole numbers).
Continuous means that the function has values for all possible values of x, the integers
and also all of the numbers in between. The domain is all real numbers.
We can write a formula for an arithmetic progression. We will dene the rst term as a
1
and d as the common dierence. The sequence becomes the following.
a
1
, a
1
+d, a
1
+ 2d, a
1
+ 3d, . . . , a
1
+n d
To nd the second term (a
2
) we take the rst term (a
1
) and add d.
To nd the third term (a
3
) we take the rst term (a
1
) and add 2d.
To nd the nth term (a
n
) we take the rst term (a
1
) and add (n 1)d.
Analyze Graphs of Real-World Functions
Example 6
Use the diagram below to determine the three decades since 1940 in which the infant mortality
rate decreased most.
Lets make a table of the infant mortality rate in the years 1940, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000.
Table 4.3: Infant Mortality Rates: United States,
Year Mortality rate (per 100, 000) change over decade
1940 47 N/A
1950 30 17
1960 26 4
1970 20 6
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Table 4.3: (continued)
Year Mortality rate (per 100, 000) change over decade
1980 13 7
1990 9 4
2000 7 2
Solution
The best performing decades were the 1940s (1940 1950) with a drop of 17 deaths per
100000. The 1970s (19701980) with a drop of 7 deaths per 100000. The 1960s (19601970)
with a drop of 6 deaths per 100000.
Lesson Summary
In order for an equation to be a function, the relationship between the two variables,
x and y, must map each xvalue to exactly one yvalue, or y = f(x).
The graph of a function of y versus x must pass the vertical line test. Any vertical
line will only cross the graph of the function in one place.
The sequence of f(x) values for a linear function form an arithmetic progression. Each
number is greater than (or less than) the preceding number by a xed amount, or
common dierence.
Review Questions
1. When an object falls under gravity, it gains speed at a constant rate of 9.8 m/s every
second. An item dropped from the top of the Eiel Tower, which is 300 meters tall,
takes 7.8 seconds to hit the ground. How fast is it moving on impact?
2. A prepaid phone card comes with $20 worth of calls on it. Calls cost a at rate of
$0.16 per minute. Write the value of the card as a function of minutes per calls. Use
a function to determine the number of minutes you can make with the card.
3. For each of the following functions evaluate:
(a) f(x) = 2x + 3
(b) f(x) = 0.7x + 3.2
(c) f(x) =
5(2x)
11
i. f(3)
ii. f(7)
iii. f(0)
iv. f(z)
4. Determine whether the following could be graphs of functions.
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(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
5. The roasting guide for a turkey suggests cooking for 100 minutes plus an additional 8
minutes per pound.
(a) Write a function for the roasting time the given the turkey weight in pounds (x).
(b) Determine the time needed to roast a 10 lb turkey.
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(c) Determine the time needed to roast a 27 lb turkey.
(d) Determine the maximum size turkey you could roast in 4
1
2
hours .
6. Determine the missing terms in the following arithmetic progressions.
(a) {11, 17, , 73}
(b) {2, , 4}
(c) {13, , , , 0}
Review Answers
1. 76.44 m/s
2. f(x) = 2000 16x125 minutes
3. (a) i. 9
ii. 11
iii. 3
iv. f(z) = 2z + 3
(b) i. 1.1
ii. 8.1
iii. 3.2
iv. f(z) = 0.7z + 3.2
(c) i. 2.27
ii. 2.27
iii. 0.909
iv. f(z) =
10
11

5
11
z
4. (a) yes
(b) no
(c) no
(d) yes
5. (a) f(x) = 8x + 100
(b) 180 min = 3 hrs
(c) 316 min = 5 hrs 16 min
(d) 21.25 lbs.
6. (a) 45
(b) 1
(c) 9.75, 6.5, 3.25
4.8 Problem-Solving Strategies - Graphs
Learning Objectives
Read and understand given problem situations.
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Use the strategy: read a graph.
Develop and apply the strategy: make a graph.
Solve real-world problems using selected strategies as part of a plan.
Introduction
In this chapter, we have been solving problems where quantities are linearly related to each
other. In this section, we will look at a few examples of linear relationships that occur in
real-world problems. Remember back to our Problem Solving Plan.
Step 1:
Understand the problem
Read the problem carefully. Once the problem is read, list all the components and data that
are involved. This is where you will be assigning your variables.
Step 2:
Devise a plan Translate
Come up with a way to solve the problem. Set up an equation, draw a diagram, make a
chart or construct a table as a start to solving your problem.
Step 3:
Carry out the plan Solve
This is where you solve the equation you came up with in Step 2.
Step 4:
Look Check and Interpret
Check to see if your answer makes sense.
Lets look at an example that investigates a geometrical relationship.
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Example 1
A cell phone company is oering its costumers the following deal. You can buy a new cell
phone for $60 and pay a monthly at rate of $40 per month for unlimited calls. How much
money will this deal cost you after 9 months?
Solution
Lets follow the problem solving plan.
Step 1:
cell phone = $60, calling plan = $40per month
Letx = number of months
Lety => cost in dollars
Step 2: Lets solve this problem by making a graph that shows the number of months on
the horizontal axis and the cost on the vertical axis.
Since you pay $60 for the phone when you get the phone, then the yintercept is (0, 60).
You pay $40 for each month, so the cost rises by $40 for one month, so the slope = 40.
We can graph this line using the slope-intercept method.
Step 3: The question was: How much wil l this deal cost after 9 months?
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We can now read the answer from the graph. We draw a vertical line from 9 months until it
meets the graph, and then draw a horizontal line until it meets the vertical axis.
We see that after 9 months you pay approximately $420.
Step 4: To check if this is correct, lets think of the deal again. Originally, you pay $60 and
then $40 for 9 months.
Phone = $60
Calling plan = $40 9 = $360
Total cost = $420.
The answer checks out.
Example 2
A stretched spring has a length of 12 inches when a weight of 2 lbs is attached to the spring.
The same spring has a length of 18 inches when a weight of 5 lbs is attached to the spring.
It is known from physics that within certain weight limits, the function that describes how
much a spring stretches with dierent weights is a linear function. What is the length of the
spring when no weights are attached?
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Solution
Lets apply problem solving techniques to our problem.
Step 1:
We know: the length of the spring = 12 inches when weight = 2 lbs.
the length of the spring = 18 inches when weight = 5 lbs.
We want: the length of the spring when the weight = 0 lbs.
Let x = the weight attached to the spring.
Let y = the length of the spring
Step 2
Lets solve this problem by making a graph that shows the weight on the horizontal axis and
the length of the spring on the vertical axis.
We have two points we can graph.
When the weight is 2 lbs, the length of the spring is 12 inches. This gives point (2, 12).
When the weight is 5 lbs, the length of the spring is 18 inches. This gives point (5, 18).
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If we join these two points by a line and extend it in both directions we get the relationship
between weight and length of the spring.
Step 3
The question was: What is the length of the spring when no weights are attached?
We can answer this question by reading the graph we just made. When there is no weight
on the spring, the x value equals to zero, so we are just looking for the y intercept of the
graph. Looking at the graph we see that the y intercept is approximately 8 inches .
Step 4
To check if this correct, lets think of the problem again.
You can see that the length of the spring goes up by 6 inches when the weight is increased
by 3 lbs, so the slope of the line is
6 inches
3 lbs
= 2 inches/lb.
To nd the length of the spring when there is no weight attached, we look at the spring when
there are 2 lbs attached. For each pound we take o, the spring will shorten by 2 inches.
Since we take o 2 lbs, the spring will be shorter by 4 inches. So, the length of the spring
with no weights is 12 inches 4 inches = 8 inches.
The answer checks out.
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Example 3
Christine took one hour to read 22 pages of Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. She
has 100 pages left to read in order to nish the book. Assuming that she reads at a constant
rate of pages per hour, how much time should she expect to spend reading in order to nish
the book?
Solution: Lets apply the problem solving techniques:
Step 1
We know that it takes Christine takes 1 hour to read 22 pages.
We want to know how much time it takes her to read 100 pages.
Let x = the time expressed in hours.
Let y = the number of pages.
Step 2
Lets solve this problem by making a graph that shows the number of hours spent reading
on the horizontal axis and the number of pages on the vertical axis.
We have two points we can graph.
Christine takes one hour to read 22 pages. This gives point (1, 22).
A second point is not given but we know that Christine takes 0 hours to read 0 pages. This
gives the point (0, 0).
If we join these two points by a line and extend it in both directions we get the relationship
between the amount of time spent reading and the number of pages read.
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Step 3
The question was: How much time should Christine expect to spend reading 100 pages?
We nd the answer from reading the graph we draw a horizontal line from 100 pages until
it meets the graph and then we draw the vertical until it meets the horizontal axis. We see
that it takes approximately 4.5 hours to read the remaining 100 pages.
Step 4
To check if this correct, lets think of the problem again.
We know that Christine reads 22 pages per hour. This is the slope of the line or the rate at
which she is reading. To nd how many hours it takes her to read 100 pages, we divide the
number of pages by the rate. In this case,
100 pages
22 pages per hour
= 4.54 hours. This is very close
to what we gathered from reading the graph.
The answer checks out.
Example 4
Aatif wants to buy a surfboard that costs $249. He was given a birthday present of $50 and
he has a summer job that pays him $6.50 per hour. To be able to buy the surfboard, how
many hours does he need to work?
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Solution
Lets apply the problem solving techniques.
Step 1
We know Surfboard costs $249.
He has $50.
His job pays $6.50 per hour.
We want How many hours does Aatif need to work to buy the surfboard?
Let x = the time expressed in hours
Let y = Aatifs earnings
Step 2
Lets solve this problem by making a graph that shows the number of hours spent working
on the horizontal axis and Aatifs earnings on the vertical axis.
Peter has $50 at the beginning. This is the yintercept of (0, 50).
He earns $6.50 per hour. This is the slope of the line.
We can graph this line using the slope-intercept method. We graph the y intercept of (0, 50)
and we know that for each unit in the horizontal direction the line rises by 6.5 units in the
vertical direction. Here is the line that describes this situation.
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Step 3
The question was How many hours does Aatif need to work in order to buy the surfboard?
We nd the answer from reading the graph. Since the surfboard costs $249, we draw a hori-
zontal line from $249 on the vertical axis until it meets the graph and then we draw a vertical
line downwards until it meets the horizontal axis. We see that it takes approximately 31
hours to earn the money.
Step 4
To check if this correct, lets think of the problem again.
We know that Aatif has $50 and needs $249 to buy the surfboard. So, he needs to earn
$24950 = 199 from his job.
His job pays $6.50 per hour. To nd how many hours he need to work we divide
$199
$6.50 per hour
=
30.6 hours. This is very close to the result we obtained from reading the graph.
The answer checks out.
Lesson Summary
The four steps of the problem solving plan are:
1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan Translate. Build a graph.
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3. Carry out the plan Solve. Use the graph to answer the question asked.
4. Look Check and Interpret
Review Questions
Solve the following problems by making a graph and reading a graph.
1. A gym is oering a deal to new members. Customers can sign up by paying a regis-
tration fee of $200 and a monthly fee of $39. How much will this membership cost a
member by the end of the year?
2. A candle is burning at a linear rate. The candle measures ve inches two minutes after
it was lit. It measures three inches eight minutes after it was lit. What was the original
length of the candle?
3. Tali is trying to nd the width of a page of his telephone book. In order to do this, he
takes a measurement and nds out that 550 pages measures 1.25 inches . What is the
width of one page of the phone book?
4. Bobby and Petra are running a lemonade stand and they charge 45 cents for each
glass of lemonade. In order to break even they must make $25. How many glasses of
lemonade must they sell to break even?
Review Answers
1. $668
2. 5.67 inches
3. 0.0023 inches
4. 56 glasses
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Chapter 5
Writing Linear Equations
5.1 Linear Equations in Slope-Intercept Form
Learning Objectives
Write an equation given slope and yintercept.
Write an equation given the slope and a point.
Write an equation given two points.
Write a linear function in slope-intercept form.
Solve real-world problems using linear models in slope-intercept form.
Introduction
We saw in the last chapter that linear graphs and equations are used to describe a variety
of real-life situations. In mathematics, we want to nd equations that explain a situation as
presented in a problem. In this way, we can determine the rule that describes the relationship
between the variables in the problem. Knowing the equation or rule is very important since
it allows us to nd the values for the variables. There are dierent ways to nd an equation
that describes the problem. The methods are based on the information you can gather
from the problem. In graphing these equations, we will assume that the domain is all real
numbers.
Write an Equation Given Slope and yintercept
Lets start by learning how to write an equation in slopeintercept form y = mx +b.
b is the yintercept (the value of y when x = 0. This is the point where the line crosses the
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yaxis).
m is the slope how the quantity y changes with each one unit of x.
If you are given the slope and yintercept of a line:
1. Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b.
2. Substitute the given values of m and b into the equation.
Example 1
a) Write an equation with a slope = 4 and a yintercept = 3.
b) Write an equation with a slope = 2 and a yintercept = 7.
c) Write an equation with a slope =
2
3
and a yintercept =
4
5
.
a) Solution
We are given m = 4 and b = 3. Plug these values into the slopeintercept form y = mx+b.
y = 4x 3
b) Solution
We are given m = 2 and b = 7. Plug these values into the slopeintercept form y = mx+b..
y = 2x + 7
c) Solution
We are given m =
2
3
and b =
4
5
. Plug these values into the slopeintercept form y = mx +b.
y =
2
3
x +
4
5
You can also write an equation in slope-intercept form if you are given the graph of the line.
Example 2
Write the equation of each line in slopeintercept form.
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a)
b)
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c)
d)
a) The yintercept = 4 and the slope =
5
2
. Plug these values into the slopeintercept
form y = mx +b.
Solution
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5
2
x 4
b) The yintercept = 2 and the slope =
3
1
. Plug these values into the slopeintercept form
y = mx +b.
Solution
y = 3x + 2
c) The yintercept = 4 and the slope =
1
1
. Plug these values into the slopeintercept form
y = mx +b.
Solution
y = x + 4
d) The yintercept = 2 and the slope =
1
2
. Plug these values into the slopeintercept form
y = mx +b.
Solution
y =
1
2
x 2.
Write an Equation Given the Slope and a Point
Often, we dont know the value of the yintercept, but we know the value of y for a non-zero
value of x. In this case we can still use the slopeintercept form to nd the equation of the
line.
For example, we are told that the slope of a line is two and that the line passes through the
point (1, 4). To nd the equation of the line, we start with the slopeintercept form of a line.
y = mx +b
Plug in the value of the slope.
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We dont know the value of b but we know that the slope is two, and that point (1, 4) is
on this line. Where the x value is one , and the y value is four. We plug this point in the
equation and solve for b.
4 = 2(1) +b
4 = 2 +b
2 = 2
2 = b
Therefore the equation of this line is y = 2x + 2.
If you are given the slope and a point on the line:
1. Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b.
2. Plug in the given value of m into the equation.
3. Plug the x and y values of the given point and solve for b.
4. Plug the value of b into the equation.
Example 3
Write the equation of the line in slopeintercept form.
a) The slope of the line is 4 and the line contains point (1, 5).
b) The slope of the line is
2
3
and the line contains point (2, 2).
c) The slope of the line is 3 and the line contains point (3, 5).
Solution
a)
Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b
Plug in the slope. y = 4x +b
Plug point (1, 5) into the equation. 5 = 4(1) +b b = 9
Plug the value of b into the equation. y = 4x + 9
b)
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Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b
Plug in the slope. y =
2
3
x +b
Plug point (2, 2) into the equation. 2 =
2
3
(2) +b b = 2 +
4
3
=
2
3
Plug the value of b into the equation. y =
2
3
x
2
3
c)
Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b
Plug in the slope. y = 3x +b
Plug point (3, 5) into the equation. 5 = 3(3) +b b = 4
Plug the value of b into the equation. y = 3x + 4
Write an Equation Given Two Points
One last case is when we are just given two points on the line and we are asked to write the
line of the equation in slopeintercept form.
For example, we are told that the line passes through the points (2, 3) and (5, 2). To nd
the equation of the line we start with the slopeintercept form of a line
y = mx +b
Since we dont know the slope, we nd it using the slope formula m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
.
Now substitute the x
1
and x
2
and the y
1
and y
2
values into the slope formula to solve for
the slope.
m =
2 3
5 (2)
=
1
7
We plug the value of the slope into the slopeintercept form y =
1
7
x +b
We dont know the value of b but we know two points on the line. We can plug either point
into the equation and solve for b. Lets use point (2, 3).
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Therefore, the equation of this line is y =
1
7
x +
19
7
.
If you are given two points on the line:
1. Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b
2. Use the two points to nd the slope using the slope formula m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
.
3. Plug the given value of m into the equation.
4. Plug the x and y values of one of the given points into the equation and solve for b.
5. Plug the value of b into the equation.
6. Plug the other point into the equation to check the values of m and b.
Example 4
Write the equations of each line in slopeintercept form.
a) The line contains the points (3, 2) and (2, 4).
b) The line contains the points (4, 1) and (2, 3).
Solution:
a)
1. Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b.
2. Find the slope of the line. m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
42
23
=
2
5
3. Plug in the value of the slope. y =
2
5
x +b
4. Plug point (3, 2) into the equation. 2 =
2
5
(3) +b b = 2 +
6
5
=
16
5
5. Plug the value of b into the equation. y =
2
5
x +
16
5
6. Plug point (2, 4) into the equation to check. 4 =
2
5
(2) +
16
5
=
4
5
+
16
5
=
20
5
= 4
b)
1. Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b.
2. Find the slope of the line. m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
31
2(4)
=
2
2
= 1
3. Plug in the value of the slope. y = x +b
4. Plug point (2, 3) into the equation. 3 = 2 +b b = 5
5. Plug the value of b into the equation. y = x + 5
6. Plug point (4, 1) into the equation to check. 1 = 4 + 5 = 1
Write a Linear Function in Slope-Intercept Form
Remember that you write a linear function in the form f(x) = mx + b. Here f(x) rep-
resents the y values of the equation or the graph. So y = f(x) and they are often used
interchangeably. Using the functional notation in an equation gives us more information.
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For instance, the expression f(x) = mx +b shows clearly that x is the independent variable
because you plug in values of x into the function and perform a series of operations on the
value of x in order to calculate the values of the dependent variable, y.
In this case when you plug x into the function, the function tells you to multiply it by m
and then add b to the result. This generates all the values of y you need.
Example 5
Consider the linear function f(x) = 3x 4. Find f(2), f(0) and f(1).
Solution
All the numbers in the parentheses are the values of x that you need to plug into the equation
of the function.
When you plug values into a function, it is best to plug in the whole parenthesis, not just the
value inside the parenthesis. We often plug expressions into the function instead of numbers,
and it is important to keep the expression inside the parenthesis in order to perform the
correct order of operations. For example, we want to nd f(2x 1) for the same function
we used before.
Functional notation is a very compact way of giving information. For example you are told
that f(3) = 2.
To read this information, remember a few things.
The value inside the parentheses is the xvalue.
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The value equal to the function is the dependent value (i.e. the yvalue for lines).
So, f(3) = 2 tells you that x = 3 and y = 2 or that point (3, 2) is on the line.
We will now use functional notation to write equations of lines in slopeintercept form.
Example 6
Find the equation of the fol lowing lines in slopeintercept form
a) m = 2 and f(0) = 5.
b) m = 3.5 and f(2) = 1.
c) f(1) = 1 and f(1) = 1.
Solution
a) We are told that m = 2 and the line contains point (0, 5), so b = 5.
Plug the values of m and b into the slopeintercept form f(x) = mx +b.
f(x) = 2x + 5.
b) We are told that m = 3.5 and line contains point (2, 1).
Start with slopeintercept form. f(x) = mx +b
Plug in the value of the slope. f(x) = 3.5x +b
Plug in the point (2, 1). 1 = 3.5(2)+ b = 1 + 7 = 8
Plug the value of b in the equation. f(x) = 3.5x + 8
c) We are told that the line contains the points (1, 1) and (1, 1).
Start with slopeintercept form. f(x) = mx +b
Find the slope. m =
1 1
1 (1)
=
2
2
= 1
Plug in the value of the slope. f(x) = 1x +b
Plug in the point (1, 1).1 = 1(1) +b b = 0
Plug the value of b in the equation. f(x) = x
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Solve Real-World Problems Using Linear Models in Slope-
Intercept Form
Lets apply the methods we just learned to a few application problems that can be modeled
using a linear relationship.
Example 7
Nadia has $200 in her savings account. She gets a job that pays $7.50 per hour and she
deposits al l her earnings in her savings account. Write the equation describing this problem
in slopeintercept form. How many hours would Nadia need to work to have $500 in her
account?
Lets dene our variables
y = amount of money in Nadias savings account
x = number of hours
You can see that the problem gives us the yintercept and the slope of the equation.
We are told that Nadia has $200 in her savings account, so b = 200.
We are told that Nadia has a job that pays $7.50 per hour, so m = 7.50.
If we plug these values in the slopeintercept form y = mx +b we obtain y = 7.5x + 200.
To answer the question, we plug in y = 500 and solve for x. 500 = 7.5x + 200 7.5x =
300 x = 40 hours.
Solution
Nadia must work 40 hours if she is to have $500 in her account.
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Example 8
A stalk of bamboo of the family Phyl lostachys nigra grows at steady rate of 12 inches per
day and achieves its full height of 720 inches in 60 days. Write the equation describing this
problem in slopeintercept form.
How tal l is the bamboo 12 days after it started growing?
Lets dene our variables
y = the height of the bamboo plant in inches
x = number of days
You can see that the problem gives us the slope of the equation and a point on the line.
We are told that the bamboo grows at a rate of 12 inches per day, so m = 12.
We are told that the plant grows to 720 inches in 60 days, so we have the point (60, 720).
Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b
Plug in the slope. y = 12x +b
Plug in point (60, 720). 720 = 12(60) +b b = 0
Plug the value of b back into the equation. y = 12x
To answer the question, plug in x = 12 to obtain y = 12(12) = 144 inches.
Solution
The bamboo is 144 inches (12 feet!) tall 12 days after it started growing.
Example 9
Petra is testing a bungee cord. She ties one end of the bungee cord to the top of a bridge
and to the other end she ties dierent weights and measures how far the bungee stretches.
She nds that for a weight of 100 lb, the bungee stretches to 265 feet and for a weight of
120 lb, the bungee stretches to 275 feet . Physics tells us that in a certain range of values,
including the ones given here, the amount of stretch is a linear function of the weight. Write
the equation describing this problem in slopeintercept form. What should we expect the
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stretched length of the cord to be for a weight of 150 lbs?
Lets dene our variables
y = the stretched length of the bungee cord in feet in feet
x = the weight attached to the bungee cord in pounds
You can see that the problem gives us two points on the line.
We are told that for a weight of 100 lbs the cord stretches to 265 feet, so we have point
(100, 265).
We are told that for a weight of 200 lbs the cord stretches to 275 feet, so we have point
(120, 270).
Start with the slopeintercept form of the line y = mx +b
Find the slope of the line. m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
=
270 265
120 100
=
5
20
=
1
4
Plug in the value of the slope. y =
1
4
x +b
Plug point (100, 265) into the equation. 265 =
1
4
(100) +b b = 265 25 = 240
Plug the value of b into the equation. y =
1
4
x + 240
To answer the question, we plug in x = 150. y =
1
4
(150) + 240 y = 37.5 + 240 = 277.5
feet
Solution
For a weight of 150 lbs we expect the stretched length of the cord to be 277.5 feet.
Lesson Summary
The equation of a line in slope-intercept form is y = mx +b.
Where m is the slope and (0, b) is the yintercept).
If you are given the slope and yintercept of a line:
1. Simply plug m and b into the equation.
If you are given the slope and a point on the line:
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1. Plug in the given value of m into the equation.
2. Plug the x and y values of the given point and solve for b.
3. Plug the value of b into the equation.
If you are given two points on the line:
1. Use the two points to nd the slope using the slope formula m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
.
2. Plug the value of m into the equation.
3. Plug the x and y values of one of the given points and solve for b.
4. Plug the value of b into the equation.
5. Plug the other point into the equation to check the values of m and b.
Review Questions
Find the equation of the line in slopeintercept form.
1. The line has slope of 7 and yintercept of 2.
2. The line has slope of 5 and yintercept of 6.
3. The line has slope of
1
4
and contains point (4, 1).
4. The line has slope of
2
3
and contains point
_
1
2
, 1
_
.
5. The line has slope of 1 and contains point
_
4
5
, 0
_
.
6. The line contains points (2, 6) and (5, 0).
7. The line contains points (5, 2) and (8, 4).
8. The line contains points (3, 5) and (3, 0).
9. The line contains points (10, 15) and (12, 20).
Write the equation of each line in slope-intercept form.
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10.
11.
Find the equation of the linear function in slopeintercept form.
12. m = 5, f(0) = 3
13. m = 7, f(2) = 1
14. m =
1
3
, f(1) =
2
3
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15. m = 4.2, f(3) = 7.1
16. f
_
1
4
_
=
3
4
, f(0) =
5
4
17. f(1.5) = 3, f(1) = 2
18. To buy a car, Andrew puts a down payment of $1500 and pays $350 per month in
installments. Write an equation describing this problem in slope-intercept form. How
much money has Andrew paid at the end of one year?
19. Anne transplants a rose seedling in her garden. She wants to track the growth of the
rose so she measures its height every week. On the third week, she nds that the rose
is 10 inches tall and on the eleventh week she nds that the rose is 14 inches tall.
Assuming the rose grows linearly with time, write an equation describing this problem
in slope-intercept form. What was the height of the rose when Anne planted it?
20. Ravi hangs from a giant spring whose length is 5 m. When his child Nimi hangs from
the spring its length is 2 m. Ravi weighs 160 lbs. and Nimi weighs 40 lbs. Write the
equation for this problem in slope-intercept form. What should we expect the length
of the spring to be when his wife Amardeep, who weighs 140 lbs., hangs from it?
Review Answers
1. y = 7x 2
2. y = 5x + 6
3. y =
1
4
x
4. y =
2
3
x +
2
3
5. y = 1x +
4
5
6. y = 2x + 10
7. y = 2x 12
8. y =
5
6
x +
5
2
9. y =
5
2
x 10
10. y = x + 3
11. y = 4x 6
12. f(x) = 5x 3
13. f(x) = 7x + 13
14. f(x) =
1
3
x + 1
15. f(x) = 4.2x + 19.7
16. f(x) = 2x +
5
4
17. f(x) = 2x
18. y = 350x + 1500; y = $5700
19. y = 0.5x + 8.5; y = 8.5 inches
20. y = .025x + 1 or y =
1
40
x + 1; y = 4.5 m
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5.2 Linear Equations in Point-Slope Form
Learning Objectives
Write an equation in point-slope form.
Graph an equation in point-slope form.
Write a linear function in point-slope form.
Solve real-world problems using linear models in point-slope form.
Introduction
In the last lesson, we saw how to write the equation of a straight line in slope-intercept form.
We can rewrite this equation in another way that sometimes makes solving the problem
easier. The equation of a straight line that we are going to talk about is called point-slope
form.
y y
0
= m(x x
0
)
Here m is the slope and (x
0
, y
0
) is a point on the line. Lets see how we can use this form of
the equation in the three cases that we talked about in the last section.
Case 1: You know the slope of the line and the yintercept.
Case 2: You know the slope of the line and a point on the line.
Case 3: You know two points on the line.
Write an Equation in Point-Slope Form
Case 1 You know the slope and the yintercept.
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form y y
0
= m(x x
0
).
2. Plug in the value of the slope.
3. Plug in 0 for x
0
and b for y
0
.
Example 1
Write the equation of the line in point-slope form, given that the slope = 5 and the
yintercept = 4.
Solution:
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1. Start with the equation in point-slope form. y y
0
= m(x x
0
)
2. Plug in the value of the slope. y y
0
= 5(x x
0
)
3. Plug in 0 for x
0
and 4 for y
0
. y (4) = 5(x (0))
Therefore, the equation is y + 4 = 5x
Case 2 You know the slope and a point on the line.
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form y y
0
= m(x x
0
).
2. Plug in the value of the slope.
3. Plug in the x and y values in place of x
0
and y
0
.
Example 2
Write the equation of the line in point-slope form, given that the slope =
3
5
and the point
(2, 6) is on the line.
Solution:
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form. y y
0
= m(x x
0
)
2. Plug in the value of the slope. y y
0
=
3
5
(x x
0
)
3. Plug in 2 for x
0
and 6 for y
0
. y (6) =
3
5
(x (2))
The equation is y 6 =
3
5
(x 2)
Notice that the equation in point-slope form is not solved for y.
Case 3 You know two points on the line.
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form y y
0
= m(x x
0
).
2. Find the slope using the slope formula. m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
3. Plug in the value of the slope.
4. Plug in the x and y values of one of the given points in place of x
0
and y
0
Example 3
Write the equation of the line in point-slope form, given that the line contains points (4, 2)
and (8, 12).
Solution
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form. y y
0
= m(x x
0
)
2. Find the slope using the slope formula. m =
12(2)
8(4)
=
14
12
=
7
6
3. Plug in the value of the slope. y y
0
=
7
6
(x x
0
)
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4. Plug in 4 for x
0
and 2 for y
0
. y (2) =
7
6
(x (4))
Therefore, the equation is y + 2 =
7
6
(x + 4) Answer 1
In the last example, you were told that for the last step you could choose either of the points
you were given to plug in for the point (x
0
, y
0
) but it might not seem like you would get the
same answer if you plug the second point in instead of the rst. Lets redo Step 4.
4. Plug in 8 for x
0
and 12 for y
0
y 12 =
7
6
(x 8) Answer 2
This certainly does not see like the same answer as we got by plugging in the rst point.
What is going on?
Notice that the equation in point-slope form is not solved for y. Lets change both answers
into slope-intercept form by solving for y.
Answer 1 Answer 2
y + 2 =
7
6
(x + 4) y 12 =
7
6
(x 8)
y + 2 =
7
6
x +
28
6
y 12 =
7
6
x
56
6
y =
7
6
x +
14
3
2 y =
7
6
x
28
3
+ 12
y =
7
6
x +
8
3
y =
7
6
x +
8
3
Now that the two answers are solved for y, you can see that they simplify to the same
thing. In point-slope form you can get an innite number of right answers, because there
are an innite number of points on a line. The slope of the line will always be the same but
the answer will look dierent because you can substitute any point on the line for (x
0
, y
0
).
However, regardless of the point you pick, the point-slope form should always simplify to
the same slope-intercept equation for points that are on the same line.
In the last example you saw that sometimes we need to change between dierent forms of
the equation. To change from point-slope form to slope-intercept form, we just solve for y.
Example 4
Re-write the following equations in slope-intercept form.
a) y 5 = 3(x 2)
b) y + 7 = (x + 4)
Solution
a) To re-write in slope-intercept form, solve for y.
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y 5 = 3(x 2)
5 = 3x 6
y = 3x 1
b) To re-write in slope-intercept form, solve for y.
y + 7 = (x + 4)
y + 7 = x 4
y = x 11
Graph an Equation in Point-Slope Form
If you are given an equation in point-slope form, it is not necessary to re-write it in slope-
intercept form in order to graph it. The point-slope form of the equation gives you enough
information so you can graph the line y y
0
= m(x x
0
). From this equation, we know a
point on the line (x
0
, y
0
) and the slope of the line.
To graph the line, you rst plot the point (x
0
, y
0
). Then the slope tells you how many units
you should go up or down and how many units you should go to the right to get to the next
point on the line. Lets demonstrate this method with an example.
Example 5
Make a graph of the line given by the equation y 2 =
2
3
(x + 2)
Solution
Lets rewrite the equation y (2) =
2
3
(x + 2).
Now we see that point (2, 2) is on the line and that the slope =
2
3
.
First plot point (2, 2) on the graph.
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A slope of
2
3
tells you that from your point you should move. 2 units up and 3 units to the
right and draw another point.
Now draw a line through the two points and extend the line in both directions.
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Write a Linear Function in Point-Slope Form
The functional notation for the point-slope form of the equation of a line is:
f(x) f(x
0
) = m(x x
0
)
Note that we replaced the each y with the f(x)
y = f(x) and y
0
= f(x
0
)
That tells us more clearly that we nd values of y by plugging in values of x into the function
dened by the equation of the line. Lets use the functional notation to solve some examples.
Example 6
Write the equation of the fol lowing linear functions in point-slope form.
a) m = 25 and f(0) = 250
b) m = 9.8 and f(5.5) = 12.5
c) f(32) = 0 and f(77) = 25
a) Here we are given the slope = 25 and the point on the line gives x
0
= 0, f(x
0
) = 250
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form. f(x) f(x
0
) = m(x x
0
)
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2. Plug in the value of the slope. f(x) f(x
0
) = 25(x x
0
)
3. Plug in 0 for x
0
and 250 for f(x
0
). f(x) 250 = 25(x 0)
Solution
The linear function is f(x) 250 = 25x.
b) Here we are given that slope = 9.8 and the point on the line gives x
0
= 5.5, f(x
0
) = 12.5
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form. f(x) f(x
0
) = m(x x
0
)
2. Plug in the value of the slope. f(x) f(x
0
) = 9.8(x x
0
)
3. Plug in 5.5 for x
0
and 12.5 for f(x
0
). f(x) 12.5 = 9.8(x 5.5)
Solution
The linear function is f(x) 12.5 = 9.8(x 5.5).
c) Here we are given two points (32, 0) and (77, 25).
1. Start with the equation in point-slope form. f(x) f(x
0
) = m(x x
0
)
2. Find the value of the slope. m =
250
7732
=
25
45
=
5
9
3. Plug in the value of the slope. f(x) f(x
0
) =
5
9
(x x
0
)
4. Plug in 32 for and 0 for f(x
0
). f(x) 0 =
5
9
(x 32)
Solution
The linear function is f(x) 0 =
5
9
(x 32).
Solve Real-World Problems Using Linear Models in Point-
Slope Form
Lets solve some word problems where we need to write the equation of a straight line in
point-slope form.
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Example 7
Marciel rented a moving truck for the day. Marciel only remembers that the rental truck
company charges $40 per day and some amount of cents per mile. Marciel drives 46 miles
and the nal amount of the bil l (before tax) is $63 . What is the amount per mile the truck
rental company charges per day? Write an equation in point-slope form that describes this
situation. How much would it cost to rent this truck if Marciel drove 220 miles?
Lets dene our variables:
x = distance in miles
y = cost of the rental truck in dollars
We see that we are given the yintercept and the point (46, 63).
Peter pays a at fee of $40 for the day. This is the yintercept.
He pays $63 for 46 miles this is the coordinate point (46, 63).
Start with the point-slope form of the line. (y y
0
) = m(x x
0
)
Plug in the coordinate point. 63 y
0
= m(46 x
0
)
Plug in point (0, 40). 63 40 = m(46 0)
Solve for the slope. 23 = m(46) m =
23
46
= 0.5
The slope is : 0.5 dollars per mile
So, the truck company charges 50 cents per mile. ($0.5 = 50 cents)Equation of line is : y = 0.5x + 40
To answer the question of 220 miles we plug in x = 220.
Solution
y 40 = 0.5(220) y = $150
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Example 8
Anne got a job selling window shades. She receives a monthly base salary and a $6 commission
for each window shade she sel ls. At the end of the month, she adds up her sales and she gures
out that she sold 200 window shades and made $2500 . Write an equation in point-slope form
that describes this situation. How much is Annes monthly base salary?
Lets dene our variables
x = number of window shades sold
y = Annes monthly salary in dollars
We see that we are given the slope and a point on the line:
Anne gets $6 for each shade, so the slope = 6 dollars/shade.
She sold 200 shades and made $2500, so the point is (200, 2500).
Start with the point-slope form of the line. y y
0
= m(x x
0
)
Plug in the coordinate point. y y
0
= 6(x x
0
)
Plug in point (200, 2500). y 2500 = 6(x 200)
Annes base salary is found by plugging in x = 0. We obtain y 2500 = 1200 y = $1300
Solution
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Annes monthly base salary is $1300.
Lesson Summary
The point-slope form of an equation for a line is: y y
0
= m(x x
0
).
If you are given the slope and a point on the line:
1. Simply plug the point and the slope into the equation.
If you are given the slope and yintercept of a line:
1. Plug the value of m into the equation
2. Plug the yintercept point into the equation y
0
= yintercept and x
0
= 0.
If you are given two points on the line:
1. Use the two points to nd the slope using the slope formula m =
y
2
y
1
x
2
x
1
.
2. Plug the value of m into the equation.
3. Plug either of the points into the equation as (x
0
, y
0
).
The functional notation of point-slope form is f(x) f(x
0
) = m(x x
0
).
Review Questions
Write the equation of the line in point-slope form.
1. The line has slope
1
10
and goes through point (10, 2).
2. The line has slope 75 and goes through point (0, 125).
3. The line has slope 10 and goes through point (8, 2).
4. The line goes through the points (2, 3) and (1, 2).
5. The line contains points (10, 12) and (5, 25).
6. The line goes through points (2, 3) and (0, 3).
7. The line has a slope
3
5
and a yintercept 3.
8. The line has a slope 6 and a yintercept 0.5.
Write the equation of the linear function in point-slope form.
9. m =
1
5
and f(0) = 7
10. m = 12 and f(2) = 5
11. f(7) = 5 and f(3) = 4
12. f(6) = 0 and f(0) = 6
13. m = 3 and f(2) = 9
14. m =
9
5
and f(0) = 32
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15. Nadia is placing dierent weights on a spring and measuring the length of the stretched
spring. She nds that for a 100 gram weight the length of the stretched spring is 20 cm
and for a 300 gram weight the length of the stretched spring is 25 cm. Write an
equation in point-slope form that describes this situation. What is the unstretched
length of the spring?
16. Andrew is a submarine commander. He decides to surface his submarine to periscope
depth. It takes him 20 minutes to get from a depth of 400 feet feet to a depth of 50 feet
. Write an equation in point-slope form that describes this situation. What was the
submarines depth ve minutes after it started surfacing?
Review Answers
1. y 2 =
1
10
(x 10)
2. y 125 = 75x
3. y + 2 = 10(x 8)
4. y + 2 = 5(x + 1) or y 3 = 5(x + 2)
5. y 25 =
13
5
(x 5) or y 12 =
13
5
(x 10)
6. y 3 = 0
7. y + 3 =
3
5
x
8. y 0.5 = 6x
9. f(x) 7 =
1
5
x
10. f(x) 5 = 12(x + 2)
11. f(x) 5 =
9
10
(x + 7)or f(x) + 4 =
9
10
)x 3)
12. f(x) = x(x 6) or f(x) 6 = x
13. f(x) + 9 = 3(x 2)
14. f(x) 32 =
9
5
x
15. y 20 =
1
40
(x 100) unstretched length = 17.5 cm
16. y 50 = 17.5(x 20) or y 400 = 17.5x depth = 312.5 feet
5.3 Linear Equations in Standard Form
Learning Objectives
Write equivalent equations in standard form.
Find the slope and yintercept from an equation in standard form.
Write equations in standard form from a graph.
Solve real-world problems using linear models in standard form.
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Introduction
In this section, we are going to talk about the standard form for the equation of a straight
line. The following linear equation is said to be in standard form.
ax +by = c
Here a, b and c are constants that have no factors in common and the constant a is a
non-negative value. Notice that the b in the standard form is dierent than the b in the
slope-intercept form. There are a few reasons why standard form is useful and we will talk
about these in this section. The rst reason is that standard form allows us to write equations
for vertical lines which is not possible in slope-intercept form.
For example, lets nd the equation of the line that passes through points (2, 6) and (2, 9).
Lets try the slope-intercept form y = mx +b
We need to nd the slope m =
96
22
=
3
0
. The slope is undened because we cannot divide
by zero.
The point-slope form yy
0
= m(xx
0
) also needs the slope, so we cannot write an equation
for this line in either the slope-intercept or the point-slope form.
Since we have two points in a plane, we know that a line passes through these two points,
but how do we nd the equation of that line? It turns out that this line has no y value in
it. Notice that the value of x in both points is two for the dierent values of y, so we can
say that it does not matter what y is because x will always equal two. Here is the equation
in standard form.
1 x + 0 y = 2 or x = 2
The line passing through point (2, 6) and (2, 9) is a vertical line passing through x = 2.
Note that the equation of a horizontal line would have no x variable, since y would always
be the same regardless of the value of x. For example, a horizontal line passing through
point (0, 5) has this equation in standard form.
0 x + 1 y = 5 or y = 5
Write Equivalent Equations in Standard Form
So far you have learned how to write equations of lines in slope-intercept form and point-slope
form. Now you will see how to rewrite equations in standard form.
Example 1
Rewrite the following equations in standard form.
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a) y = 5x 7
b) y 2 = 3(x + 3)
c) y =
2
3
x +
1
2
Solution
We need to rewrite the equations so that all the variables are on one side of the equation
and the coeicient of x is not negative.
a) y = 5x 7
Subtract y from both sides. 0 = 5x y 7
Add 7 to both sides. 7 = 5x y
The equation in standard form is : 5x y = 7
b) y 2 = 3(x + 3)
Distribute the 3 on the right-hand-side. y 2 = 3x 9
Add 3x to both sides. y + 3x 2 = 9
Add 2 to both sides. y + 3x = 7
The equation in standard form is : y + 3x = 7
c) y =
2
3
x +
1
2
Find the common denominator for all terms in the equation. In this case, the common
denominator equals 6.
Multiply all terms in the equation by 6. 6
_
y =
2
3
x +
1
2
_
6y = 4x + 3
Subtract 6y from both sides. 0 = 4x 6y + 3
Subtract 3 from both sides. 3 = 4x 6y
The equation in standard form is : 4x 6y = 3
Find the Slope and yintercept From an Equation in Stan-
dard Form
The slope-intercept form and the point-slope form of the equation for a straight line both
contain the slope of the equation explicitly, but the standard form does not. Since the slope
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is such an important feature of a line, it is useful to gure out how you would nd the slope
if you were given the equation of the line in standard form.
ax +by = c
Lets rewrite this equation in slope-intercept form by solving the equation for y.
Subtract ax from both sides. by = ax +c
Divide all terms by b. y =
a
b
x +
c
b
If we compare with the slope-intercept form y = mx +b, we see that the slope, m =
a
b
and
the yintercept =
c
b
. Again, notice that the b in the standard form is dierent than the b in
the slope-intercept form.
Example 2
Find the slope and the yintercept of the following equations written in standard form:
a) 3x + 5y = 6
b) 2x 3y = 8
c) x 5y = 10
Solution
The slope m =
a
b
and the yintercept =
c
b
.
a) 3x + 5y = 6 m =
3
5
and yintercept =
6
5
b) 2x 3y = 8 m =
2
3
and y intercept =
8
3
c) x 5y = 10 m =
1
5
and yintercept =
10
5
= 2
Write Equations in Standard Form From a Graph
If we are given a graph of a straight line, it is fairly simple to write the equation in slope-
intercept form by reading the slope and yintercept from the graph. Lets now see how to
write the equation of the line in standard form if we are given the graph of the line.
First, remember that to graph an equation from standard form we can use the cover-up
method to nd the intercepts of the line. For example, lets graph the line given by the
equation 3x 2y = 6.
To nd the xintercept, cover up the y term (remember, xintercept is where y = 0).
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3x = 6 x = 2
The xintercept is (2, 0)
To nd the yintercept, cover up the x term (remember, yintercept is where x = 0).
3y = 6 y = 3
The yintercept is (0, 3)
We plot the intercepts and draw a line through them that extends in both directions.
Now we want to apply this process in reverse. If we have the graph of the line, we want to
write the equation of the line in standard form.
Example 3
Find the equation of the line and write in standard form.
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a)
b)
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c)
Solution
a) We see that the xintercept is (3, 0) x = 3 and the yintercept is (0, 4) y = 4.
We saw that in standard form ax +by = c,
if we cover up the y term, we get ax = c
if we cover up the x term, we get by = c
We need to nd the numbers that when multiplied with the intercepts give the same answer
in both cases. In this case, we see that multiplying x = 3 by 4 and multiplying y = 4 by
3 gives the same result.
(x = 3) 4 4x = 12 and (y = 4) (3) 3y = 12
Therefore, a = 4, b = 3 and c = 12 and the standard form is:
4x 3y = 12
b) We see that the xintercept is (3, 0) x = 3 and the yintercept is (0, 3) y = 3.
The values of the intercept equations are already the same, so a = 1, b = 1 and c = 3. The
standard form is:
x +y = 3
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c) We see that the xintercept is (
3
3
, 0) x =
3
2
and the yintercept is (0, 4) y = 4.
Lets multiply the xintercept equation by 2 2x = 3
Then we see we can multiply the xintercept again by 4 and the yintercept by 3.
8x = 12 and 3y = 12
The standard form is 8x + 3y = 12.
Solve Real-World Problems Using Linear Models in Stan-
dard Form
Here are two examples of real-world problems where the standard form of the equation is
useful.
Example 4
Nimitha buys fruit at her local farmers market. This Saturday, oranges cost $2 per pound
and cherries cost $3 per pound. She has $12 to spend on fruit. Write an equation in standard
form that describes this situation. If she buys 4 pounds of oranges, how many pounds of
cherries can she buy?
Solution
Lets dene our variables
x = pounds of oranges
y =pounds of cherries
The equation that describes this situation is: 2x + 3y = 12
If she buys 4 pounds of oranges, we plug x = 4 in the equation and solve for y.
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2(4) + 3y = 12 3y = 12 8 3y = 4 y =
4
3
Nimitha can buy 1
1
3
pounds of cherries.
Example 5
Jethro skateboards part of the way to school and walks for the rest of the way. He can
skateboard at 7 miles per hour and he can walk at 3 miles per hour. The distance to school
is 6 miles. Write an equation in standard form that describes this situation. If Jethro
skateboards for
1
2
an hour, how long does he need to walk to get to school?
Solution
Lets dene our variables.
x = hours Jethro skateboards
y = hours Jethro walks
The equation that describes this situation is 7x + 3y = 6
If Jethro skateboards
1
2
an hour, we plug x = 0.5 in the equation and solve for y.
7(0.5) + 3y = 6 3y = 6 3.5 3y = 2.5 y =
5
6
Jethro must walk
5
6
of an hour.
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Lesson Summary
A linear equation in the form ax + by = c is said to be in standard form. Where a,
b and c are constants (b is dierent than the yintercept b) and a is non-negative.
Given an equation in standard form, ax + by = c, the slope, a =
a
b
, and the
yintercept =
c
b
.
The cover-up method is useful for graphing an equation in standard form. To nd
the yintercept, cover up the x term and solve the remaining equation for y. Likewise,
to nd the xintercept, cover up the y term and solve the remaining equation for x.
Review Questions
Rewrite the following equations in standard form.
1. y = 3x 8
2. y 7 = 5(x 12)
3. 2y = 6x + 9
4. y =
9
4
x +
1
4
5. y +
3
5
=
2
3
(x 2)
6. 3y + 5 = 4(x 9)
Find the slope and yintercept of the following lines.
7. 5x 2y = 15
8. 3x + 6y = 25
9. x 8y = 12
10. 3x 7y = 20
11. 9x 9y = 4
12. 6x +y = 3
Find the equation of each line and write it in standard form.
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13.
14.
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15.
16.
17. Andrew has two part time jobs. One pays $6 per hour and the other pays $10 per hour.
He wants to make $366 per week. Write an equation in standard form that describes
this situation. If he is only allowed to work 15 hour per week at the $10 per hour job,
how many hours does he need to work per week in his $6 per hour job in order to
achieve his goal?
18. Anne invests money in two accounts. One account returns 5% annual interest and the
other returns 7% annual interest. In order not to incur a tax penalty, she can make no
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more than $400 in interest per year. Write an equation in standard form that describes
this problem. If she invests $5000 in the 5% interest account, how much money does
she need to invest in the other account?
Review Answers
1. 3x y = 8
2. 5x +y = 67
3. 6x 2y = 9
4. 9x 4y = 1
5. 10x 15y = 29
6. 4x 3y = 41
7. m = (5/2), b = 15/2
8. m = (1/2), b = 25/6
9. m = (1/8), b = 3/2
10. m = (3/7), b = 20/7
11. m = 1, b = 4/9
12. m = 6, b = 3
13. x 2y = 4
14. 6x + 5y = 30
15. 10x + 14y = 35
16. 3x 8y = 24
17. x = number of hours per week worked at $6 per hour job y = number of hours per
week worked at $10 per hour job Equation 6x + 10y = 366 Answer 36 hours
18. x = amount of money invested at 5% annual interest y = amount of money invested
at 7% annual interest Equation 5x + 7y = 40000 Answer $2142.86
5.4 Equations of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Learning Objectives
Determine whether lines are parallel or perpendicular.
Write equations of perpendicular lines.
Write equations of parallel lines.
Investigate families of lines.
Introduction
In this section, you will learn how parallel lines are related to each other on the coordinate
plane. You will also learn how perpendicular lines are related to each other. Lets start
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by looking at a graph of two parallel lines.
The two lines will never meet because they are parallel. We can clearly see that the two
lines have dierent yintercepts, more specically 6 and 4.
How about the slopes of the lines? Are they related in any way? Because the lines never
meet, they must rise at the same rate. This means that the slopes of the two lines are the
same.
Indeed, if we calculate the slopes of the lines, we nd the following results.
Line A: m =
62
0(2)
=
4
2
= 2
Line B: m =
0(4)
20
=
4
2
= 2
For Parallel Lines: the slopes are the same, m
1
= m
2
, and the yintercepts are dierent.
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Now lets look at a graph of two perpendicular lines.
We nd that we cant say anything about the yintercepts. In this example, they are
dierent, but they would be the same if the lines intersected at the yintercept.
Now we want to gure out if there is any relationship between the slopes of the two lines.
First of all we see that the slopes must have opposite signs, one negative and one positive.
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To nd the slope of line A, we pick two points on the line and draw the blue (upper) right
triangle. The legs of the triangle represent the rise and the run.
Looking at the gure m
1
=
b
a
To nd the slope of line B, we pick two points on the line and draw the red (lower) right
triangle. If we look at the gure, we see that the two triangles are identical, only rotated by
90

.
Looking at the diagram m
2
=
a
b
For Perpendicular Lines: the slopes are negative reciprocals of each other. m
1
=
1
m
2
or
m
1
m
2
= 1
Determine Whether Lines are Parallel or Perpendicular
You can nd whether lines are parallel or perpendicular by comparing the slopes of the lines.
If you are given points on the line you can nd the slope using the formula. If you are given
the equations of the lines, rewrite each equation in a form so that it is easy to read the slope,
such as the slope-intercept form.
Example 1
Determine whether the lines are parallel or perpendicular or neither.
a) One line passes through points (2, 11) and (1, 2); another line passes through points
(0, 4) and (2, 10).
b) One line passes through points (2, 7) and (1, 5); another line passes through points
(4, 1) and (8, 4).
c) One lines passes through points (3, 1) and (2, 2); another line passes through points
(5, 5) and (4, 6).
Solution
Find the slope of each line and compare them.
a) m
1
=
211
12
=
9
3
= 3 and m
2
=
10(4)
20
=
6
2
= 3
The slopes are equal, so the lines are parallel.
b) m
1
=
5(7)
1(2)
=
12
3
= 4 and m
2
=
41
84
=
3
12
=
1
4
The slopes are negative reciprocals of each other, so the lines are perpendicular.
c) m
1
=
21
23
=
3
5
=
3
5
and m
2
=
65
45
=
13
1
= 13
The slopes are not the same or negative reciprocals of each other, so the lines are neither
parallel nor perpendicular.
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Example 2
Determine whether the lines are parallel or perpendicular or neither.
a) Line 1: 3x + 4y = 2 Line 2: 8x 6y = 5
b) Line 1: 2x = y 10 Line 2: y = 2x + 5
c) Line 1: 7y + 1 = 7x Line 2: x + 5 = y
Solution
Write each equation in slope-intercept form.
a) Line 1 3x + 4y = 2 4y = 3x + 2 y =
3
4
x +
1
2
slope =
3
4
Line 2: 8x 6y = 5 8x 5 = 6y y =
8
6
x
5
6
y =
4
3
x
5
6
slope =
4
3
The slopes are negative reciprocals of each other, so the lines are perpendicular to each other.
b) Line 1 2x = y 10 y = 2x + 10 slope = 2
Line 2 y = 2x + 5 slope = 2
The slopes are not the same or negative reciprocals of each other, so the lines are neither
parallel nor perpendicular.
c) Line 1 7y + 1 = 7x 7y = 7x 1 y = x
1
7
slope = 1
Line 2: x + 5 = y y = x + 5 slope = 1
The slopes are the same so the lines are parallel.
Write Equations of Perpendicular Lines
We can use the properties of perpendicular lines to write an equation of a line perpendicular
to a given line. You will be given the equation of a line and asked to nd the equation of the
perpendicular line passing through a specic point. Here is the general method for solving
a problem like this.
Find the slope of the given line from its equation. You might need to rewrite the
equation in a form such as the slope-intercept form.
Find the slope of the perpendicular line by writing the negative reciprocal of the slope
of the given line.
Use the slope and the point to write the equation of the perpendicular line in point-
slope form.
Example 3
Find the equation perpendicular to the line y = 3x + 5 that passes through point (2, 6).
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Solution
Find the slope of the given line y = 3x + 5 has a slope = 3.
The slope of the perpendicular line is the negative reciprocal m =
1
3
Now, we are trying to nd the equation of a line with slope m =
1
3
that passes through point
(2, 6).
Use the point-slope form with the slope and the point y 6 =
1
3
(x 2)
The equation of the line could also be written as y =
1
3
x +
16
3
Example 4
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to x 5y = 15 that passes through the point
(2, 5).
Solution
Rewrite the equation in slope-intercept form x 5y = 15 5y = x + 15 y =
1
5
x 3
The slope of the given line is m =
1
5
and the slope of the perpendicular is the negative
reciprocal or m = 5. We are looking for a line with a slope m = 5 that passes through
the point (2, 5).
Use the point-slope form with the slope and the point y 5 = 5(x + 2)
The equation of the line could also be written as y = 5x 5
Example 5
Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y = 2 that passes through the point (4, 2).
Solution
The equation is already in slope intercept form but it has an x term of 0 y = 0x 2. This
means the slope is m = 0.
Wed like a line with slope that is the negative reciprocal of 0. The reciprocal of 0 is m =
1
0
=
undened. Hmmm. . . It seems like we have a problem. But, look again at the desired slope
in terms of the denition of slope m =
rise
run
=
1
0
. So our desired line will move 0 units in x
for every 1 unit it rises in y. This is a vertical line, so the solution is the vertical line that
passes through (4, 2). This is a line with an x coordinate of 4 at every point along it.
The equation of the line is: x = 4
Write Equations of Parallel Lines
We can use the properties of parallel lines to write an equation of a line parallel to a given
line. You will be given the equation of a line and asked to nd the equation of the parallel
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line passing through a specic point. Here is the general method for solving a problem like
this.
Find the slope of the given line from its equation. You might need to rewrite the
equation in a form such as the slope-intercept form.
The slope of the parallel line is the same as that of the given line.
Use the slope and the point to write the equation of the perpendicular line in slope-
intercept form or point-slope form.
Example 6
Find the equation parallel to the line y = 6x 9 that passes through point (1, 4).
Solution
Find the slope of the given line y = 6x 9 has a slope = 6.
Since parallel lines have the same slope, we are trying to nd the equation of a line with
slope m = 6 that passes through point (1, 4).
Start with the slope-intercept form. y = mx +b
Plug in the slope y = 6x +b
Plug in point (1, 4). 4 = 6(1) +b b = 4 + 6 b = 10
The equation of the line is y = 6x + 10.
Example 7
Find the equation of the line parallel to 7 4y = 0 that passes through the point (9, 2).
Solution
Rewrite the equation in slope-intercept form.
7 4y = 0 4y 7 = 0 4y = 7 y =
7
4
y = 0x +
7
4
The slope of the given line is m = 0. This is a horizontal line.
Since the slopes of parallel lines are the same, we are looking for a line with slope m = 0
that passes through the point (9, 2).
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Start with the slope-intercept form. y = 0x +b
Plug in the slope. y = 0x +b
Plug in point (9, 2). 2 = 0(9) +b
b = 2
The equation of the line is y = 2.
Example 8
Find the equation of the line parallel to 6x 5y = 12 that passes through the point (5, 3).
Solution
Rewrite the equation in slope-intercept form.
3x 5y = 12 5y = 6x 12 y =
6
5
x
12
5
The slope of the given line is m =
6
5
.
Since the slopes of parallel lines are the same, we are looking for a line with slope m =
6
5
that passes through the point (5, 3).
Start with the slope-intercept form. y = mx +b
Plug in the slope. y =
6
5
x +b
Plug in point (5, 3). 3 =
6
5
(5) +b 3 = 6 +b b = 3
The equation of the line is: y =
6
5
x + 3
Investigate Families of Lines
A straight line has two very important properties, its slope and its yintercept. The
slope tells us how steeply the line rises or falls, and the yintercept tells us where the line
intersects the yaxis. In this section, we will look at two families of lines. A family of lines
is a set of lines that have something in common with each other. Straight lines can belong
to two types of families. One where the slope is the same and one where the y intercept is
the same.
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Family 1
Keep slope unchanged and vary the yintercept.
The gure to the right shows the family of lines y = 2x +b.
All the lines have a slope of 2 but the value of b is dierent for each of the lines.
Notice that in such a family all the lines are parallel. All the lines look the same but they
are shifted up and down the yaxis. As b gets larger the line rises on the yaxis and as
b gets smaller the line goes lower on the yaxis. This behavior is often called a vertical
shift.
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Family 2
Keep the yintercept unchanged and vary the slope.
The gure to the right shows the family of lines y = mx + 2.
All lines have a yintercept of two but the value of the slope is dierent for each of the lines.
The lines start with y = 2 (red line) which has a slope of zero. They get steeper as the
slope increases until it gets to the line x = 0 (purple line) which has an undened slope.
Example 9
Write the equation of the family of lines satisfying the given condition:
a) Parallel to the xaxis
b) Through the point (0, 1)
c) Perpendicular to 2x + 7y 9 = 0
d) Parallel to x + 4y 12 = 0
Solution
a) All lines parallel to the xaxis will have a slope of zero. It does not matter what the
yintercept is.
The family of lines is y = 0 x +b or y = b.
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b) All lines passing through the point (0, 1) have the same yintercept, b = 1.
The family of lines is y = mx 1.
c) First we need to nd the slope of the given line.
Rewrite 2x + 7y 9 = 0 in slope-intercept form y =
2
7
x +
9
7
.
The slope is
2
7
.
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The slope of our family of lines is the negative reciprocal of the given slope m =
7
2
.
All the lines in this family have a slope of m =
7
2
but dierent yintercepts.
The family of lines is y =
7
2
x +b.
d) First we need to nd the slope of the given line.
Rewrite x + 4y 12 = 0 in slope-intercept form y =
1
4
x + 3.
The slope is m =
1
4
.
All the lines in the family have a slope of m =
1
4
but dierent yintercepts.
The family of lines is y =
1
4
x +b.
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Lesson Summary
Parallel lines have the same slopes, m
1
= m
2
, but dierent yintercepts.
Perpendicular lines have slopes which are the negative reciprocals of each other.
m
1
=
1
m
2
or m
1
m
2
= 1
To nd the line parallel (or perpendicular) to a specic line which passes through
a given point:
1. Find the slope of the given line from its equation.
2. Compute the slope parallel (or perpendicular) to the line.
3. Use the computed slope and the specied point to write the equation of the new line
in point-slope form.
4. Transform from point-slope form to another form if required.
A family of lines is a set of lines that have something in common with each other.
There are two types of line families. One where the slope is the same and one where
the yintercept is the same.
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Review Questions
Determine whether the lines are parallel, perpendicular or neither.
1. One line passes through points (1, 4) and (2, 6); another line passes through points
(2, 3) and (8, 1).
2. One line passes through points (4, 3) and (8, 0); another line passes through points
(1, 1) and (2, 6).
3. One line passes through points (3, 14) and (1, 2); another line passes through points
(0, 3) and (2, 5).
4. One line passes through points (3, 3) and (6, 3); another line passes through points
(2, 8) and (6, 4).
5. Line 1: 4y +x = 8 Line 2: 12y + 3x = 1
6. Line 1: 5y + 3x + 1 Line 2: 6y + 10x = 3
7. Line 1: 2y 3x + 5 = 0 Line 2: y + 6x = 3
8. Find the equation of the line parallel to 5x2y = 2 that passes through point (3, 2).
9. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y =
2
5
x 3 that passes through point
(2, 8).
10. Find the equation of the line parallel to 7y +2x10 = 0 that passes through the point
(2, 2).
11. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to y +5 = 3(x2) that passes through the
point (6, 2). Write the equation of the family of lines satisfying the given condition.
12. All lines pass through point (0, 4).
13. All lines are perpendicular to 4x + 3y 1 = 0.
14. All lines are parallel to y 3 = 4x + 2.
15. All lines pass through point (0, 1).
Review Answers
1. parallel
2. neither
3. parallel
4. perpendicular
5. parallel
6. perpendicular
7. neither
8. y =
5
2
x
19
2
9. y =
5
2
x + 3
10. y =
2
7
x +
18
7
11. y =
1
3
x + 4
12. y = mx + 4
13. y =
3
4
x +b
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14. y = 4x +b
15. y = mx 1
5.5 Fitting a Line to Data
Learning Objectives
Make a scatter plot.
Fit a line to data and write an equation for that line.
Perform linear regression with a graphing calculator.
Solve real-world problems using linear models of scattered data.
Introduction
Often in application problems, the relationship between our dependent and independent
variables is linear. That means that the graph of the dependent variable vs. independent
variable will be a straight line. In many cases we dont know the equation of the line but we
have data points that were collected from measurements or experiments. The goal of this
section is to show how we can nd an equation of a line from data points collected from
experimental measurements.
Make a Scatter Plot
A scatter plot is a plot of all the ordered pairs in the table. This means that a scatter
plot is a relation, and not necessarily a function. Also, the scatter plot is discrete, as it is a
set of distinct points. Even when we expect the relationship we are analyzing to be linear,
we should not expect that all the points would t perfectly on a straight line. Rather, the
points will be scattered about a straight line. There are many reasons why the data does
not fall perfectly on a line such as measurement error and outliers.
Measurement error is always present as no measurement device is perfectly accurate. In
measuring length, for example, a ruler with millimeter markings will be more accurate than
a ruler with just centimeter markings.
An outlier is an accurate measurement that does not t with the general pattern of the
data. It is a statistical uctuation like rolling a die ten times and getting the six side all ten
times. It can and will happen, but not very often.
Example 1
Make a scatter plot of the fol lowing ordered pairs: (0, 2), (1, 4.5), (2, 9), (3, 11), (4, 13), (5, 18), (6, 19.5)
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Solution
We make a scatter plot by graphing all the ordered pairs on the coordinate axis.
Fit a Line to Data
Notice that the points look like they might be part of a straight line, although they would
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not t perfectly on a straight line. If the points were perfectly lined up it would be quite
easy to draw a line through all of them and nd the equation of that line. However, if the
points are scattered, we try to nd a line that best ts the data.
You see that we can draw many lines through the points in our data set. These lines have
equations that are very dierent from each other. We want to use the line that is closest to
all the points on the graph. The best candidate in our graph is the red line A. We want
to minimize the sum of the distances from the point to the line of t as you can see in the
gure below.
Finding this line mathematically is a complex process and is not usually done by hand. We
usually eye-ball the line or nd it exactly by using a graphing calculator or computer
software such as Excel. The line in the graph above is eye-balled, which means we drew a
line that comes closest to all the points in the scatter plot.
When we use the line of best t we are assuming that there is a continuous linear function
that will approximate the discrete values of the scatter plot. We can use this to interpret
unknown values.
Write an Equation for a Line of Best Fit
Once you draw the line of best t, you can nd its equation by using two points on the line.
Finding the equation of the line of best t is also called linear regression.
Caution: Make sure you dont get caught making a common mistake. In many instances
the line of best t will not pass through many or any of the points in the original data set.
This means that you cant just use two random points from the data set. You need to use
two points that are on the line.
We see that two of the data points are very close to the line of best t, so we can use these
points to nd the equation of the line (1, 4.5) and (3, 11).
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Start with the slope-intercept form of a line y = mx +b.
Find the slope m =
114.5
31
=
6.5
2
= 3.25
Then y = 3.25x +b
Plug (3, 11) into the equation. 11 = 3.25(3) +b b = 1.25
The equation for the line that ts the data best is y = 3.25x + 1.25.
Perform Linear Regression with a Graphing Calculator
Drawing a line of t can be a good approximation but you cant be sure that you are getting
the best results because you are guessing where to draw the line. Two people working with
the same data might get two dierent equations because they would be drawing dierent
lines. To get the most accurate equation for the line, we can use a graphing calculator. The
calculator uses a mathematical algorithm to nd the line that minimizes the sum of the
squares.
Example 2
Use a graphing calculator to nd the equation of the line of best t for the following data
(3, 12), (8, 20), (1, 7), (10, 23), (5, 18), (8, 24), (11, 30), (2, 10).
Solution
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Step 1 Input the data in your calculator.
Press [STAT] and choose the [EDIT] option.
Input the data into the table by entering the x values in the rst column and the y values
in the second column.
Step 2 Find the equation of the line of best t.
Press [STAT] again use right arrow to select [CALC] at the top of the screen.
Chose option number 4: LinReg(ax +b) and press [ENTER]
The calculator will display LinReg(ax +b)
Press [ENTER] and you will be given the a and b values.
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Here a represents the slope and b represents the y-intercept of the equation. The linear
regression line is y = 2.01x + 5.94.
Step 3 Draw the scatter plot.
To draw the scatter plot press [STATPLOT] [2nd] [Y=].
Choose Plot 1 and press [ENTER.
Press the On option and choose the Type as scatter plot (the one highlighted in black).
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Make sure that the X list and Y list names match the names of the columns of the table in
Step 1.
Choose the box or plus as the mark since the simple dot may make it diicult to see the
points.
Press [GRAPH] and adjust the window size so you can see all the points in the scatter
plot.
Step 4 Draw the line of best t through the scatter plot.
Press [Y=]
Enter the equation of the line of best t that you just found Y
1
= 2.01X + 5.94
Press [GRAPH].
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Solve Real-World Problems Using Linear Models of Scat-
tered Data
In a real-world problem, we use a data set to nd the equation of the line of best t. We
can then use the equation to predict values of the dependent or independent variables. The
usual procedure is as follows.
1. Make a scatter plot of the given data.
2. Draw a line of best t.
3. Find an equation of a line either using two points on the line or the TI-83/84 calculator.
4. Use the equation to answer the questions asked in the problem.
Example 3
Gal is training for a 5 K race (a total of 5000 meters , or about 3.1 miles ). The following
table shows her times for each month of her training program. Assume here that her times
will decrease in a straight line with time (does that seem like a good assumption?) Find an
equation of a line of t. Predict her running time if her race is in August.
Table 5.1:
Month Month number Average time (minutes)
January 0 40
February 1 38
March 2 39
April 3 38
May 4 33
June 5 30
Solution
Lets make a scatter plot of Gals running times. The independent variable, x, is the month
number and the dependent variable, y, is the running time in minutes. We plot all the points
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in the table on the coordinate plane.
Draw a line of t.
Choose two points on the line (0, 41) and (4, 34).
Find the equation of the line.
m =
34 41
4 0
=
7
4
= 1
3
4
y =
7
4
x +b
41 =
7
2
(0) +b b = 41
y =
7
4
x + 41
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In a real-world problem, the slope and yintercept have a physical signicance.
Slope =
number of minutes
month
Since the slope is negative, the number of minutes Gal spends running a 5K race decreased
as the months pass. The slope tells us that Gals running time decreases by
7
4
or 1.75 minutes
per month.
The yintercept tells us that when Gal started training, she ran a distance of 5K in 41 minutes
, which is just an estimate, since the actual time was 40 minutes .
The problem asks us to predict Gals running time in August. Since June is assigned to
month number ve, then August will be month number seven. We plug x = 7 into the
equation of the line of best t.
y =
7
4
(7) + 41 =
49
4
+ 41 =
49
4
+
164
4
=
115
4
= 28
3
4
The equation predicts that Gal will be running the 5K race in 28.75 minutes .
In this solution, we eye-balled a line of best t. Using a graphing calculator, we found this
equation for a line of t y = 2.2x + 43.7.
If we plug x = 7 in this equation, we get y = 2.2(7) + 43.7 = 28.3. This means that Gal
ran her race in 28.3 minutes . You see that the graphing calculator gives a dierent equation
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and a dierent answer to the question. The graphing calculator result is more accurate but
the line we drew by hand still gives a good approximation to the result.
Example 4
Baris is testing the burning time of BriteGlo candles. The following table shows how long
it takes to burn candles of dierent weights. Assume its a linear relation and we can then
use a line to t the data. If a candle burns for 95 hours , what must be its weight in ounces?
Table 5.2: Candle Burning Time Based on Candle Weight
Candle weight (oz) Time (hours)
2 15
3 20
4 35
5 36
10 80
16 100
22 120
26 180
Solution
Lets make a scatter plot of the data. The independent variable, x, is the candle weight in
ounces and the dependent variable, y, is the time in hours it takes the candle to burn. We
plot all the points in the table on the coordinate plane.
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Then we draw the line of best t.
Now pick two points on the line (0, 0) and (30, 200).
Find the equation of the line:
m =
200
30
=
20
3
y =
20
3
x +b
0 =
20
3
(0) +b b = 0
y =
20
3
x
In this problem the slope is burning time divided by candle weight. A slope of
20
3
= 6
2
3
tells
us for each extra ounce of candle weight, the burning time increases by 6
2
3
hours .
A yintercept of zero tells us that a candle of weight 0 oz will burn for 0 hours .
The problem asks for the weight of a candle that burns 95 hours . We are given the value of
y = 95. We need to use the equation to nd the corresponding value of x.
y =
20
3
x =
20
3
x x =
285
20
=
57
4
= 14
1
4
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A candle that burns 95 hours weighs 14.25 oz.
The graphing calculator gives the linear regression equation as y = 6.1x + 5.9 and a result
of 14.6 oz.
Notice that we can use the line of best t to estimate the burning time for a candle of any
weight.
Lesson Summary
A scatter plot is a plot of all ordered pairs of experimental measurements.
Measurement error arises from inaccuracies in the measurement device. All mea-
surements of continuous values contain measurement error.
An outlier is an experimental measurement that does not t with the general pattern
of the data.
For experimental measurements with a linear relationship, you can draw a line of best
t which minimizes the distance of each point to the line. Finding the line of best t
is called linear regression. A statistics class can teach you the math behind linear
regression. For now, you can estimate it visually or use a graphing calcula