Project Report
Topic: Increasing and Decreasing Functions
Name: ____________________
Class: ____________________
Subject: Mathematics (Class 12)
Teacher: ____________________
1. Introduction
Calculus provides powerful tools to study how quantities change. One of the first concepts encountered is
monotonicity — whether a function moves consistently upwards or downwards over an interval. This
project explains increasing and decreasing functions in detail, relates them to derivatives, and
demonstrates methods to determine monotonicity. Understanding these concepts builds the foundation for
curve sketching, optimization, and mathematical modelling in science and economics.
2. Precise Definitions
(a) Strictly Increasing Function
A function f(x) is said to be strictly increasing on an interval I if for all x1, x2 in I with x1 < x2 we have f(x1) <
f(x2). Strict increase means the function never stays constant on any subinterval.
(b) Non-decreasing (Weakly Increasing) Function
If for x1 < x2 we have f(x1) ≤ f(x2), the function is non-decreasing on I. Here flat (constant) segments are
allowed.
(c) Strictly Decreasing and Non-increasing
Definitions for strictly decreasing and non-increasing are analogous: strictly decreasing means f(x1) > f(x2)
when x1 < x2, and non-increasing allows equality.
3. Derivative and Geometrical Significance
The derivative f'(x) represents the instantaneous rate of change of f at x and equals the slope of the
tangent line to the curve y = f(x). The sign of f'(x) is used to test monotonicity: positive slope → increasing,
negative slope → decreasing. We summarize in the following theorem:
Theorem (Monotonicity Test):
If f is differentiable on an open interval I, then • If f'(x) ≥ 0 for all x in I and f' is not identically zero on any
subinterval, then f is non-decreasing on I. • If f'(x) ≤ 0 for all x in I and f' is not identically zero on any
subinterval, then f is non-increasing on I. • If f'(x) > 0 for all x in I, f is strictly increasing on I; if f'(x) < 0 for all
x in I, f is strictly decreasing on I.
Proof (Sketch):
Use the Mean Value Theorem: for any x1 < x2 in I, there exists c in (x1,x2) with f'(c) = (f(x2)-f(x1))/(x2-x1).
If f'(c) ≥ 0 for all c, then f(x2)-f(x1) ≥ 0, proving non-decrease. Strict inequalities follow from strict positivity.
4. Critical Points and Classification
Points where f'(x) = 0 or f' is undefined are called critical points. They are candidates for local maxima,
minima, or stationary points. To classify them we use the first derivative test and the second derivative
test.
(a) First Derivative Test
Examine the sign of f'(x) to the left and right of a critical point x = c. - If f' changes from positive to negative
at c, f has a local maximum at c. - If f' changes from negative to positive at c, f has a local minimum at c. -
If f' does not change sign, c is not a local extremum (could be a plateau point).
(b) Second Derivative Test
If f''(c) exists and f'(c)=0, then: - If f''(c) > 0, f has a local minimum at c (curve is concave up). - If f''(c) < 0, f
has a local maximum at c (curve is concave down). - If f''(c) = 0, the test is inconclusive — higher
derivatives or the first derivative test may be needed.
5. Detailed Examples (Step-by-step)
Example 1: f(x) = x^3 − 3x + 1
Compute derivatives: f'(x) = 3x^2 − 3 = 3(x^2 − 1). Critical points: x = −1, 1. Sign chart for f': • For x < −1:
x^2 − 1 > 0 ⇒ f'(x) > 0 (increasing). • For −1 < x < 1: x^2 − 1 < 0 ⇒ f'(x) < 0 (decreasing). • For x > 1: x^2 −
1 > 0 ⇒ f'(x) > 0 (increasing). Thus f increases on (−∞, −1), decreases on (−1, 1), and increases on (1, ∞).
At x = −1 there is a local maximum and at x = 1 a local minimum.
Example 2: f(x) = (x−2)/(x+1), domain x ≠ −1
Compute derivative using quotient rule: f'(x) = [(x+1)·1 − (x−2)·1]/(x+1)^2 = (3)/(x+1)^2. Note f'(x) =
3/(x+1)^2 > 0 for all x ≠ −1. Therefore f is increasing on each interval of its domain: (−∞, −1) and (−1, ∞).
6. Properties and Important Results
• A continuous and strictly monotone function on an interval is one-to-one and hence invertible on that
interval. • Monotone functions have limits from the left and right at every point in their domain. • A
monotone function can have only jump discontinuities (if any); it cannot oscillate wildly.
Monotonicity and Inverse Functions
If f is strictly increasing and continuous on an interval I, then its inverse f^{−1} exists and is also strictly
increasing. Derivative relation: (f^{−1})'(y) = 1 / f'(x) where y = f(x) provided f'(x) ≠ 0.
Applications (Expanded)
• Economics: Marginal cost and marginal revenue are derivatives. Sign changes indicate zones of
profit/loss. • Physics: Velocity is derivative of displacement; sign of velocity tells direction of motion. •
Biology: Dose-response curves and growth models rely on monotonicity to describe stable growth or
decay.
7. Exercises (with brief solutions)
Exercise 1: Determine intervals of increase/decrease for f(x) = x^4 − 4x^2.
Solution: f'(x) = 4x^3 − 8x = 4x(x^2 − 2). Critical points: x = 0, ±√2. Test intervals to find signs of f' and
conclude: increases on (−∞, −√2), decreases on (−√2, 0), decreases/increases accordingly, etc. (Student
may fill full steps).
Exercise 2: Show that ln(x) is increasing on (0, ∞).
Solution: (ln x)' = 1/x > 0 for x > 0, hence ln x is increasing on its domain.
8. Summary and Formula Sheet
• f'(x) > 0 ⇒ f increasing. f'(x) < 0 ⇒ f decreasing. f'(x) = 0 ⇒ stationary point. • Use Mean Value Theorem
to justify monotonicity results. • First and second derivative tests classify local extrema.
References and Further Reading
1. Thomas' Calculus (for rigorous theorems) 2. NCERT Class 12 Mathematics – Calculus chapters 3. Any
standard calculus textbook for more exercises
