External: ELANGOVAN

What is super conductor?

“A superconductor is defined as a substance that offers no resistance to the electric current when it becomes
colder than a critical temperature.”. Example: Mercury below 4.2 K

What is thermistor? How it is working? Explain full detail. And

relation between resistance and temperature?
A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on
temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. The basic working principle of a
thermistor is that its resistance is dependent on temperature. Its resistance is measured by an ohm
meter, which is a device that measures electrical resistance.
What is happening inside when you parallel incoming generator?

How excitation given to generator?

What is the meaning of excitation in an alternator?
An electric generator or electric motor consists of a rotor spinning in a magnetic field. The magnetic
field may be produced by permanent magnets or by field coils. In the case of a machine with field
coils, a current must flow in the coils to generate the field, otherwise no power is transferred to or
from the rotor.
The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an electric current is called excitation.

How is the excitation achieved in this?

Varying the amount of current through the stationary exciter field coils varies the 3-phase output
from the exciter. This output is rectified by a rotating rectifier assembly, mounted on the rotor, and
the resultant DC supplies the rotating field of the main alternator and hence alternator output. The
result of all this is that a small DC exciter current indirectly controls the output of the main
alternator.

Power factor, PF leading and lagging what is ur action

Power factor is the cosine of the angle between voltage and current waveform.

What is power factor? What are the ways to improve it?

Ratio of true power and apparent power. Using capacitors and synchronous motors

WHAT IS THE BENEFIT OF IMPROVING POWER FACTOR?

Power factor close to 1 means for the same real power in kW, the load current is less and hence the I
2R losses are less. The system efficiency is higher as the losses are lower. Improved voltage
regulation is achieved.

HOW CAN IT BE IMPROVED?

Power factor improvement capacitor banks are used if the loads are mainly resistive.

Using capacitors and synchronous motors.

1.Static capacitors The power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors in parallel with the
equipment operating at lagging power factor. The capacitor (generally known as static capacitor)
draws a leading current and partly or completely neutralises the lagging reactive component of load
current. This raises the power factor of the load. For three-phase loads, the capacitors can be
connected in delta or star as shown in Fig. 6.4. Static capacitors are invariably used for Power Factor
Improvement Methods in factories.

2. Synchronous condenser: - when a synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over excited, then
it provides leading current and work like a capacitor.
When a synchronous condenser is connected across supply voltage (in parallel), then it draws leading
current and partially eliminates the reactive component and this way power to improved.

3.Phase advancer: Phase advancers are used to power factor correction of induction motor. The low
power factor of an induction motor is due to the fact that its stator winding draws exciting current
which lags behind the supply voltage by 90°. If the exciting ampere turns can be provided from some
other A.C. source, then the stator winding will be relieved of exciting current and the power factor of
the motor can be improved. This job is accomplished by the phase advancer which is simply an a.c.
exciter. The phase advancer is mounted on the same shaft as the main motor and is connected in the
rotor circuit of the motor. It provides exciting ampere turns to the rotor circuit at slip frequency. By
providing more ampere turns than required, the induction motor can be made to operate on leading
power factor like an over-excited synchronous motor.
Current is injected through the slip rings of motor, which is leading with regards to the rotor voltage.
This current relieves the stator circuit of the duty of magnetization thus improves power factor.
VFD function and construction
VFD working
Types of motor
Squirrel cage induction motor construction
Squirrel cage motors are widely used on ships due to their rugged construction and simple design,
few e.g. of their applications are:

 Lifts
 Cranes
 Large capacity exhaust fans
 Engine Auxiliary pumps
 Engine blower fan motor
 Engine room heavy load pumps –Ballast, Fire, Freshwater, Sea Water etc.
 Winch motor & Windlass motor
What all u prepare for electrical survey?
How will you prepare for main circuit breakers, motors and
starters survey?

Main Circuit Breakers

The following items and all the operational tests related to the main circuit breakers must be carried out
prior to the surveyor’s visit.
1. Carry out visual examination of circuit breakers in main, emergency and section boards.
2. Keep all internal wiring in good condition and tight end connections
3. Check Main, Arcing and Auxiliary contacts, all mechanical linkage for signs of wear, misalignment and
overheating.
4. Check Fixed and Moving isolator contacts at the rear of the circuit breaker.
5. Clean arc chutes, free of damage and correctly aligned.
6. Check overload current and short-circuit protection settings. within the declared specifications.
7. Check closing and trip operations of a circuit breaker while in its isolated position.
8. Check and test emergency hand charging (if fitted) of the closing spring
9. Check correct operation of the mechanical indicators to show whether breaker is open, closed or
isolated.
Motors and Starters
The following items and all the tests related to the motors and starters must be carried out prior to the
surveyor’s visit. This will ensure their correct operation and allows time to resolve any problems that may
occur.
1. Carry out IR tests and properly log in an official form.
2. Check motors’ frames and terminal boxes for any damaged or missing parts.
3. Clean motors and starters free of dirt, oil or rust.
4. Totally enclosed, fan ventilated (TEFV) induction motors, windings are protected against the external
atmosphere.
5. Check motors with drip-proof, weather-proof and deck-watertight enclosures.
6. Check starters and associated control gear, such as remote stop/start buttons, regulating resistors etc.,
for burned and misaligned contacts.
7. Check starter equipment for loose connections, signs of overheating on coils, transformers and
resistors.
8. Dust and weather-proof sealing features on the starters must be in place and in a serviceable
condition.
9. Carry out motor-running tests and check for any vibration problems, noise and worn out bearings.
On load, check motor running current against the value indicated on the motor rating plate.
10. Function correctly of indicator lamps showing motor/starter condition. e.g. running, off, tripped, etc
11. Check and test normal operation of starters from their local, remote and emergency control (if
applicable) positions.
12. Check over-current trip settings, and compare with the motor full-load current (FLC) rating.
13. Check motor starter back-up fuse size and type against ship’s/manufacturer’s drawings and the motor
rating.
Electrical Survey:
Electrical equipment inspected and tested, during complete engine survey, at 4 years interval.
Such a survey is prescribed, under the rules and regulations for the classification of ship.
Following survey items generally apply to all ships:
1. Generators and governors.
2. Circuit breakers
3. Switchboard and fittings (main and emergency switchboard, distributor switchboard).
4. Cables
5. Insulation resistance
6. Motors and Starters
7. Emergency power equipment
8. Parts of steering gear
9. Navigation light indicator
For UMS operation:
1. Alarms associated with ME, AE, lubricating and cooling, tested for correct operation.
2. Electrical circuits from various sensors such as pressurestat, flow switch, level switch, temperature
switch, tested.
3. Action of auto-shut down for ME and AE, auto-starting up of stand-by units, tested.
4. Auto-starting of emergency generator, demonstrated.
5. UMS requirements demand that a stand-by main generator should be automatically started on
loss of duty generator within 45 sec.
6. Bilge level alarm together with automatic bilge pumping, proved to correct action.
7. Main and stand-by electric power supply to overall alarms and monitoring system inspected and
tested.
8. Complete inspection and test of fire detection and alarm system.
9. ME control will function correctly and tested from bridge position, main control room and
emergency position alongside the engine.

For Tankers / Gas Carrier:

– Electrical equipment in hazardous area is surveyed every year, during each Docking Survey and
Annual Survey.

Alternator Survey:
Required conditions for Surveyor:

 Main and emergency generators are cleaned.

 Show stable operation when run in parallel with other generator.
  Generator windings on stator and rotor must be free of dust, rust, oil and moisture.
 Visual check made for any obvious deterioration, abrasion, and cracking of insulation
around winding coils in stator.
 The insulation test to earth and between stator phase windings is done while the
machine is still hot after running on load.
 Air gap between stator and rotor checked to ensure that pedestal bearings are in good
condition.
Switchboard Survey:
1. Thorough cleaning internally and externally at switchboard, when all generators are stopped and
their prime movers locked off.
2. Main bus bar and their connections checked for tightness.
3. Bus bar supports, checked for damage due to insulation material.
4. Overheating signs at connection junctions, due to loose joint.
5. Internal wiring securely fixed.
6. Cable entries at switchboard bottom, sealed with non-flammable material.
7. Earth bar, securely bonded to both frame and to the ship’s hull.
8. Hinged panel door bonded with an earth strap to main switchboard frame.
9. Insulation resistance of each terminal measured.
10. Voltmeters, Watt meters and Ammeters calibrated and tested.
11. All trips tested [Safety devices].
12. Synchronizing test [load sharing] demonstrated.
13. Earth lamps checked.
14. Automatic circuit breaker (ACB) and Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) tested.

Emergency Power and Associated Equipment Survey:

1. Emergency generator started manually and automatically.

2. Electrical supplies from emergency switchboard, checked for their proper voltage, ampere and
frequency.
3. Correct functioning of emergency lighting, fire pump, and other electrical equipment.
4. Electrical interlocking arrangement between main and emergency switchboard checked.
5. Emergency battery installation and its charging rectifier checked.
6. Keep battery environment dry and well ventilated, battery tops cleaned, electrolyte at proper level
and have correct value of specific gravity by checking with hydrometer.
7. Battery charging equipment checked for dirt, overheating, loose connection and correct
functioning of indicator instruments.
8. Battery locker ventilation arrangements should be checked.
 Insulation Resistance Survey:
1. Survey will require a list, which shows the results of recent insulation tests on all 440V and 220V
main circuits.
2. The list should also indicate the test date, weather condition, hot or humid etc. together with any
comment relevant to the test conditions such as machine is hot or cold.

Navigation light indicator survey:

1. Surveyor will ensure that Navigation light indicator operates correctly and has appropriate alarm.
2. Broken wire or lamp can be simulated by pulling appropriate fuse.
3. Power source for navigation lights must be duplicated [usually alternate power supply being used
from Emergency Switchboard].
4. Changeover facility for power source, to be checked.
5. Although the actual light fitting for Navigation is part of Safety Equipment Survey, the Electrical
Survey will naturally include a check on the supply cables to the Navigation lights.

How to check under voltage trip

How to check reverse power relay activate

Thyristor ,SCR difference

Working of transistor
Types of starters in ERoom
a. DOL (Direct On-Line)
b. Star-delta
c. Auto-transformer.
d. soft starter
Direct Online Starter
Star delta motor diagram, Star Delta connection in terminal box?
Explain auto transformer? Auto transformer working principle?
Soft starter working Principledol
Firing angle or delay angle is defined as the angle between the zero crossing of the input voltage and
the instant the thyristor is fired. Firing angle of SCR is the angle after which the thyristor conducts
How to check the capacity of battery

Capacity Test
While we use the above method for calculating the behavior of the battery at peak load, the second
one utilizes a constant rate discharge tester for a normal load. This test is the only way of knowing if
the battery will perform the same as the manufacturer has prescribed. The battery is forced to deliver
pre-set constant current until it is discharged fully. And time is measured to note how long it takes for
the terminal voltage to be dropped to discharged level voltage. This way, the capacity of the battery is
fully realized. This test is carried out with deep cycle batteries because only deep cycle batteries have
the ability to discharge themselves completely with no significant damage to health. But this test takes
too much time. For example, a 100 Ah battery discharging at 4 Amps will take 25 hours to pass the
test. Capacity test also includes usage of hydrometer and thermometer to calculate specific-gravity
(relative-density) of electrolyte to determine Depth-of-Discharge.
emergency generator Solas regulation
how to select a cable
Synchronous condenser
Types of avr, and anyone explanation, why amplifier how does it
amplify. What is avr where it is fitted, explain static avr
Explain carbon pile type
An Alternator with a Carbon Pile Regulator
As shown in the diagram, the alternator has a direct current exciter whose armature is mounted on the extension of
an alternator shaft. The D.C. exciter is a small shunt generator wherein the majority of the current of the armature
is supplied to the alternator rotor windings through a slip ring and carbon brush arrangement. The trimming
resistor and hand regulator shown in the sketch is for the adjustment of initial setting of the main regulator.
Operation of the Circuit

The current generated from the regulator arrangement produces a magnetic field. When rotating, the rotor causes
a magnetic flux to be produced, and this flux is cut by the stator windings. This results in the generation of a voltage
and current output in the stator windings.

A small part of the current produced in the stator windings is passed to the shunt field so as to provide excitation
for the DC exciter itself. The amount of current flow through the exciter shunt field is controlled by a resistance,
which is made up of carbon discs or a carbon pile packed into a ceramic tube.

The resistance of the carbon disc is varied by pressure change. This pressure is controlled by a magnetic field
produced by an electromagnet coil. The current for this electromagnetic coil is supplied through the transformer
and rectifier circuit from alternator output to the terminal board. This means that as the load changes the
alternator voltage also varies. The strength of the electromagnet also increases or decreases due to this load
change, resulting in the change in the compression on springs and thus the resistance of the carbon pile.

The resistance of the carbon is least when the pressure on springs is least and on the armature greatest. This occurs
only when there is low output voltage which causes solenoid to be weak. Due to this effect, low resistance and
more current flows to the shunt and high excitation is produced. This high excitation when fed to rotor produces
more voltage.

In the same manner, the pressure will be low when strong solenoid field is present in the arrangement, i.e. when
alternator voltage is high. Due to this a small amount of current is conveyed to the shunt, mainly because of high
resistance, resulting in less excitation and reduced output voltage.
AVR Working
What will happen in phase sequence is different... which trip ll
activate. What arrangement In generator During paralleling

In motor:
If your phase sequence changed due to main maintenance, it will cause reverse rotation for motors. In many
cases, it may damage mechanical equipment or cause product jam
4.Motor is seawater ingressed procedure for overhaul and repair

Single phasing, cause , effect and how to prevent ? protection

The Most commonly used protection for single phasing are..
1. Steering gear motor solas regulation
Shore connection requirements and interlock
Preparation and checks before drydock for receiving shore power:

Ship’s power receiving terminal is prepared well in advance of the drydock so that it can be
connected to the shore power without any trouble.
Normally, the ship’s electrical engineer will prepare the ship’s power receiving terminal box and
should do following things:

 Ensure the receiving box is not obstructed with any object, pipes or spares. It is usually
located either on the deck near accommodation entrance or the emergency generator room
 If the box is not used or maintained for long, clean the box and ensure the safety door hinges
and locks are functioning smoothly
 Ensure all the receiving terminals inside the box are present and in good working condition
 Ensure earthing cable is provided to earth the ship’s hull to shore earth
 Ensure measuring instrument such as voltmeter, phase sequence indicator, and tester etc. are
present
 Ensure the indication of shore power (in the form of light bulb) is present and working
 Ensure a safety device (circuit breaker or fuse) is provided in the terminal to protect the MSB
of the ship
 Ensure details of shore power requirement is pasted near the shore receiving terminal box,
which includes required voltage, frequency, and method of connecting the shore supply
 Ensure the ship’s batteries are tested for full charging
Preparation and checks in the drydock before taking shore supply-
The process of receiving shore supply to ship is critical as unprotected connection may lead to
accidents and wrong shore supply will hurt the efficiency and increase heat generation from onboard
equipment.

Following things to be checked before connecting shore supply to ship in a drydock:

 Check the cable drawn to ship for providing shore supply is in excellent condition
 Check the insulation resistance of the cable provided for the shore supply
 Check the insulation resistance of the shore supply box
 Check the polarity of shore supply using a voltmeter
 Check and ensure the frequency and voltage of shore supply are matching with the
specifications required by the ship

 Check the phase sequence of the shore supply using phase sequence tester
 Check the tightness of the shore cable connector clamp to ensure they are not loose
 Ensure to display notice near the vicinity of ship’s receiving terminal box about high power
cable in use
 Check and ensure the ship’s generators are disconnected from the Main Switch Board of the
ship
 A responsible officer must check and record the energy meter reading provided on shoreside
 Ensure ship’s hull is earthed to the shore before supplying shore power to the ship

Taking the Shore Supply-

Once all checks are performed by ship’s engineer and the ship is ready to take the shore power, take
the following steps:

 Once the shore supply power is made available to the vessel, the light indicator provided in
the terminal box will be ON
 Close the breaker to start the supply of the shore power to ship

 For checking the phase sequence, a bulb type phase sequence indicator can be used in which
two lamps are connected to unbalanced load across the 3 phase via capacitor and resistors.
The phase sequence will be considered “OK” when the right side lamp is bright, and the left
side one is dark
 Another instrument used to measure PSI is a small portable 3 phase induction motor driven
meter with a rotary pointer
 Check the frequency of the supply from the provided frequency meter or on the Main Switch
Board of the ship
 Ensure to keep the emergency generator in manual mode to use the same if the shore power
goes off abruptly and electricity supply is needed
Common problem faced by ship’s staff while taking shore supply-
1. Shore supply switched on, but the ship is not getting power

 Check the three fuses connected between the ship’s terminal and Main Switch Board (MSB)
 Check the circuit breaker located in shore supply switchboard
 Check circuit breaker interlocks which are arranged in the system to avoid paralleling of shore
and generator power

2. Shore power trips during supply

 Faulty shore cable. Ensure the cables used for supplying power is of proper size and as per the
maximum protective current value of the ship.
 Overload in the system. Ensure to correctly calculate the electrical load of the ship during the
drydock using electric power balance table to avoid overload trip.

Generator circuit breaker trip: It is possible that the safety breaker for the generator trips the shore
supply during the inspection or maintenance of generator’s interlock.

3. Wrong shore supply

Most countries have their local regulations which make the shore supply compulsory to avoid
emission problems. If the voltage and frequency of shore power do not match with the ship’s rating,
the machinery will operate at lower efficiency and may face overheating problems. The ship manager
must ensure to choose a drydock, which can provide shore supply as per the ship’s requirement.

checks when taking shore supply?

 Answer: connection box at entrance of accommodation or emergency generator room
CONNECTION box must have circuit breaker, isolator switch , fuses to protect cable linking to
connection box circuit board.
 A voltmeter is fitted correct polarity of DC shore connection
 for AC shore supply phase sequence indicator is used to indicate correct supply phase
sequence.
 Shore supply switch on MSB is interlocked with circuit breaker so that it cannot be closed
when generator still connected
 Reverse phase sequence will produce reverse phase rotation because the rotating magnetic
field will be reversed with disastrous result
 Phase sequence can be corrected by interchanging any two conductor of shore supply.
 Higher power supply frequency will cause motor to be overloaded and overheated
 a higher voltage be generally cause equipments to take excessive current so overheated
 lower voltage is generally cause motor to run slower and overheat main cause motor to stall.
 Voltage frequency and phase sequence should be same
 metre reading should be tested
 earthing insulation of so supply cable and shore connection box to be tested.

How will you know the shore power supply is correct or not?
 Phase sequence indicator.(inside shore connection box, turn clock wise direction)
  Operate E/R vent fan & check airflow direction.
Megger working
what are all navigational equipment from emergency supply
5. Synchroscopes working ? Other methods ? If lamps and synchro out of order how will your bring
other AE on load ? How to parallel the two generator with the aid of synchroscope on ships ?

1. All meters and indicators must have in good working order.

2. Start the incoming generator with the correct staring procedure.
3. Check the working condition by readings pressure gauges, thermometer and audible and visual.
4. Watch for a minutes until prime mover come to stable.
5. Check the voltage of existing and incoming generator on the switchboard, check trip if have reset.
6. Move the selector switch to incoming generator. At that time, synchroscope pointer will
rotate clockwise or counter clockwise direction.
7. Check the frequency and voltage of existing and incoming.
8. Carry out the adjustment by means of speed adjuster of prime mover to obtain the condition such
that synchroscope pointer rotate in the clockwise direction at a speed of about 4sec/rev.
9. Close the circuit breaker of incoming generator when the pointer reaches just before 12’ O clock
position.
10. Made off the selector switch.
11. Made load shearing the two generators by the speed adjuster of generator.
How do you parallel the two generators if synchroscope is out of order ?

Two Bright and One Dark Lamp Method:

1. If synchroscope is out of order, the two generators can be paralleled by emergency synchronizing
lamps with sequence method.
2. The lamps are fitted as triangle forms, one on top and two on bottom.
3. To make parallel, reset if any trip
4. Move the selector switch to incoming generator. At that time, synchronizing lamps will give bright and
dark sequence rotate clockwise or counter clockwise direction.
5. Check the frequency and voltage of existing and incoming.
6. Carry out the adjustment by means of speed adjuster of prime mover to obtain the
required frequency.
7. Adjust the speed to meet the slow clockwise direction.
8. Incoming machine breaker is closed by hand when the top lamp (key lamp) dark and the both bottom
lamps are equal brightness.
9. Off the selector switch and make load sharing the two generators by speed adjusting.
How do you monitor the correct instant for synchronizing without the aid of synchroscope or
synchronizing lamps ?

1. It can be synchronized with 500V voltmeter as follow.

2. Connect a pair of 500V voltmeter probes across the one phase of the incoming machine
circuit breaker and bus bar.
3. Adjust the generator speed until the voltmeter slowly fluctuates from zero to maximum.
4. Close the breaker when the voltmeter passes through zero.
Can you parallel the load of main G/E with emergency G/E and shore supply ?

 It cannot paralleled, circuit breaker interlocks are arranged in this system.

What happens if uneven airgap in alternator

What is residual magnetism? What it does ? What is there to
bring back and how explain procedure
Residual magnetism is defined as the amount of magnetization left behind after removing the
external magnetic field from the circuit.

Transformer maintenance and checks

The maintenance of the dry-type transformer is very simple because oil is not used. Maintenance and
inspection of the transformer are as follows.
(1) Clean dust Clean dust of dirt sticking to the transformer with a vacuum cleaner or compressed air.
The number of times to inspection is once a year.
(2) Clamping of Terminals Retighten all the nuts and clamp. And check if terminal or terminal metal is
melted off by poor contact etc. It is desirable to check the value of temperature rise of the terminals
in order to check poor (If the value of temperature rise is below 35 °C, it is normal.) The number of
times to inspection is once a month.
(3) Measurement of Temperature Rise To measure the temperature, open the front cover or the top
cover of the drip proof type case and insert the rod type thermometer to the upper part between

temperature rise is calculated from the following. (Temperature rise) ℃ = (Measured temperature)
primary and secondary windings. Measure the temperatures with on-load condition. The

℃ - (Ambient temperature) ℃ The tolerance for the temperature rise is: B class insulation 70 ℃
(Basic ambient temperature is 45℃ ) ℃ H class insulation 115 ℃ (As above) The number of times
to inspection in once a two month
(4) Measurement of Insulation Resistance Measure point of insulation resistance is 3 point, that is
primary winding and secondary winding, primary winding and ground, and secondary winding and
ground, with a megger. Measurement by a megger is not reliable other than judging whether the
insulation is destroyed or not and if the insulation is breathed moisture. It is recommended to
compare the measurement with the past record of the same transformer or of other transformers of
the same type. The number of times to inspection is once a three month.

Maintenance done on transformer

 Cleaning of dust dirt salts and ventilation duct.

 Cleaning of contact.
 IR testing
 Continuity testing of winding turns.
 Re-varnishing of windings.
 Tightness of housing and holding down bolts.
 Periodic checking of any loose connection of terminals on HV and LV side.
 Check grounding of transformer.
 Measurement of voltage ratio.
 Measurement of no load loss and current.
 Measurement of winding resistance.

What is dead front type panel

Dead front panel: It is another safety device provided on the Main switch board individual panels wherein you
cannot open the panel until the power of that panel is switched off.

Alternator maintenance
what checks made while receiving from shore after rewinding.
 First check landing report once you received motor from shore, confirm with landing permit whether
the received motor specification same as mentioned in landing permit.
 To confirm whether it is overhauled properly or not, carry out insulation resistance test.
 If IR value is infinity motor is overhauled properly
 Measure the insulation resistance. Measure the insulation resistances between the respective
windings of the motor and the earth by a 500 V megger, and confirm that they are not lower than the
following value.

 However, the minimum value shall be 1 MΩ or more.

How to check reverse power trip in front of surveyor (dont tell by manually adjusting load,he expects in safefy
point of view so answer him like reducing the setting in acb)

If 2 pumps are running in auto and u switched 1 pump to manual

and stop, will other pump ll get start in auto?
Ans No we need to keep both in auto..so if i stop one pump in auto then another ll get start? I answered
yes..then he asked how its getting started in auto...he need in what principle?)

Neutral system , earthed ,isolated

High voltage low voltage
Extra low voltage (ELV) means voltage of 50V or less (AC RMS), or 120V or less (ripple-free DC).
Low voltage (LV) means voltage greater than ELV, but not more than 1000V (AC RMS) or 1500V
(ripple-free DC).
High voltage (HV) means voltage greater than low voltage
Ext. Krishnan

Diode triode
A diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals. It conducts current only in one direction and restricts
the flow in the opposite direction. It is mainly used as a switch. The triode is a three-terminal device made
using metallic filaments. It is used as amplifiers for both audio and radio signals.

What is a triode?
A triode is a vacuum tube in which a small signal is amplified into a larger signal. It does this using a wire
mesh between the cathode and the anode of a vacuum tube. This wire mesh (called a grid) controls the
electron flow between the cathode and the anode of the vacuum tube. Bottom line is that a signal on the
grid is amplified, Vacuum tubes are largely obsolete now but are still used for audio amplifiers where
some people prefer vacuum tube audio amplifiers over solid state audio amplifiers.
The word ‘Triode’ means ‘tri- electrode’ - cathode filament, anode plate, and control grid—mounted in an
evacuated metal or glass container. Basically, this electronic device is used for ‘amplification’ purpose.

Zener diode complete explanation?

Half wave full wave rectifier how it works , application on ship
Forward bias reverse bias characteristics
Forward bias characteristics
  Forward bias allows the current flow easily and diminishes the potential barrier.

 In this process, the positive terminal of the voltage connects with the anode & the negative side connects
with the cathode.

 The anode voltage is greater than the cathode voltage.

 In forwarding bias, the current level depends on the forward voltage.

 A diode’s depletion layer is thinner in forward bias.

 The forward bias in a diode can decrease its resistance.

Reverse bias characteristics

 Reverse bias reinforces potential barriers and cuts the flow of current in the carriers.

 Reverse bias connects the negative voltage to the anode and the positive voltage to the cathode.

 In reverse bias, the anode voltage is less than its cathode voltage.

 The current is minimal in reverse bias.

 The depletion layer of a diode in reverse bias is thicker.

 The diode’s resistance is increased in the case of a reverse bias.

In reverse bias, the anode voltage is higher than the cathode voltage.

How to Test Diodes with a Digital Multimeter

Digital multimeters can test diodes using one of two methods:

1. Diode Test mode: almost always the best approach.

2. Resistance mode: typically used only if a multimeter is not equipped with a Diode Test mode.

Note: In some cases it may be necessary to remove one end of the diode from the circuit in order to test the
diode.
Things to know about the Resistance mode when testing diodes:

 Does not always indicate whether a diode is good or bad.

 Should not be taken when a diode is connected in a circuit since it can produce a false reading.
 CAN be used to verify a diode is bad in a specific application after a Diode Test indicates a diode is bad.

A diode is best tested by measuring the voltage drop across the diode when it is forward-biased. A
forward-biased diode acts as a closed switch, permitting current to flow.
A multimeter’s Diode Test mode produces a small voltage between test leads. The multimeter then
displays the voltage drop when the test leads are connected across a diode when forward-biased.
The Diode Test procedure is conducted as follows:

1. Make certain a) all power to the circuit is OFF and b) no voltage exists at the diode. Voltage may be
present in the circuit due to charged capacitors. If so, the capacitors need to be discharged. Set the
multimeter to measure ac or dc voltage as required.
2. Turn the dial (rotary switch) to Diode Test mode. It may share a space on the dial with another
function.
3. Connect the test leads to the diode. Record the measurement displayed.
4. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.

Diode test analysis

 A good forward-based diode displays a voltage drop ranging from 0.5 to 0.8 volts for the most
commonly used silicon diodes. Some germanium diodes have a voltage drop ranging from 0.2 to 0.3 V.
 The multimeter displays OL when a good diode is reverse-biased. The OL reading indicates the diode is
functioning as an open switch.
 A bad (opened) diode does not allow current to flow in either direction. A multimeter will display OL in
both directions when the diode is opened.
 A shorted diode has the same voltage drop reading (approximately 0.4 V) in both directions.

A multimeter set to the Resistance mode (Ω) can be used as an additional diode test or, as
mentioned previously, if a multimeter does not include the Diode Test mode.
A diode is forward-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the anode and the negative (black)
test lead is on the cathode.

 The forward-biased resistance of a good diode should range from 1000 Ω to 10 MΩ.
 The resistance measurement is high when the diode is forward-biased because current from the
multimeter flows through the diode, causing the high-resistance measurement required for testing.

A diode is reverse-biased when the positive (red) test lead is on the cathode and the negative (black) test lead
is on the anode.

 The reverse-biased resistance of a good diode displays OL on a multimeter. The diode is bad if
readings are the same in both directions.

The resistance mode procedure is conducted as follows:

 1. Make certain a) all power to the circuit is OFF and b) no voltage exists at the diode. Voltage may be
present in the circuit due to charged capacitors. If so, the capacitors need to be discharged. Set the
multimeter to measure ac or dc voltage as required.
2. Turn the dial to Resistance mode (Ω). It may share a space on the dial with another function.
3. Connect the test leads to the diode after it has been removed from the circuit. Record the
measurement displayed.
4. Reverse the test leads. Record the measurement displayed.
5. For best results when using the Resistance mode to test diodes, compare the readings taken with a
known good diode

Motor protection devices

 Ho
w thermal overload relay works
Explain IPS. What is IP54S?Explaination.
Why main contactor & auxiliary contactor
Why use an auxiliary contactor?

1. They protect your circuit breakers (and equipment) from damage

Since auxiliary contactors release a circuit’s overloads, they ensure that the main breaker or fuse isn’t
being worked too hard. That helps protect equipment from damage due to current spikes and heat
buildup caused by under-capacity fuses and breakers.

In addition, auxiliary contactors help increase circuit breaker life expectancy. Auxiliary contactors are
often equipped with their fuses, so if they are overloaded by an event short-circuit, the auxiliary
contactor will blow its fuse without affecting the main circuit breaker.

The auxiliary contactor saves equipment from dangerous situations resulting from under-capacity or
constantly tripping circuit breakers.

2. They offer enhanced protection against electrical hazards

Auxiliary contactors ensure that dangerous electrical malfunctions don’t occur because overloads have
been released. If an overload isn’t released, it can cause failures in circuits and result in shocks or fire
hazards due to overheating components. Auxiliary contactors minimize these risks and allow for a more
secure work environment.

3. They minimize electrical failure risks

Auxiliary contactors ensure that there isn’t a high load on the circuit breaker, which minimizes the risk of
electrical failures. An overloaded circuit will quickly work to blow its fuses or breakers, and this situation
can cause overheating and other malfunctions that result in equipment damage and electrical injuries.

Auxiliary contactors release overloads when they reach a certain level, allowing for optimal performance
and life expectancy for an electrical system.

4. They help increase circuit breaker life expectancy

If auxiliary contactors didn’t exist, main circuit breakers would be working harder to handle the extra
current needed by under-capacity circuits, which would worsen their heat dissipation capabilities.
In time, this would lead up to the deterioration of the circuit breaker and negatively affect its
performance. Auxiliary contactors act as current relief valves that ensure the main circuit breakers aren’t
exposed to dangerous overloads, which allows them to operate more securely.

ICCP

Cathodic protection explained

Cathodic protection prevents corrosion on submerged and underground metallic
structures.

WHAT IS CATHODIC PROTECTION?

Cathodic protection is one of the most effective methods for preventing corrosion
on a metal surface.
Cathodic protection is commonly used to protect numerous structures against
corrosion, such as ships, offshore floaters, subsea equipment, harbours,
pipelines, tanks; basically all submerged or buried metal structures.

Basic principles of cathodic protection

The technique is based on convertering active areas on a metal surface to

passive, in other words making them the cathode of an electrochemical cell.
Read more about electrochemical cells and corrosion.

By supply of current, the potential of the metal is reduced, the corrosion attack
will cease and cathodic protection is achieved. Cathodic protection can be
achieved by either:

 Sacrificial anode cathodic protection

 Impressed current cathodic protection, often referred to as ICCP

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Monitoring the level of cathodic protection

Sacrifical anode cathodic protecion

The simplest method to apply cathodic protection is by connecting the metal to

be protected with another more easily corroded metal to act as the anode. Zinc,
aluminium and magnesium are the metals commonly used as anodes.

Read more about the galvanic series and nobility of metals.

Principles of sacrificial cathodic protection

The most active metal (whis also is the less noble) becomes the anode to the
others, and sacrifices itself by corroding (giving up metal) to protect the cathode.
Hence, the term sacrificial anode.

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Corrosion explained
As the driving voltage of sacrificial anodes is low compared with impressed
current anodes, the sacrificial anodes must be well distributed and located closer
to the area being protected.

Which to use; aluminium or zinc anodes in salt water environments?

Due to the potential difference between the anodic (less noble) and the cathodic
area (steel), positively charged metal ions leave the anode surface, while
electrons leave the surface at the cathode. For aluminium alloy anodes, the
reaction at the anode surface is: 4Al → 4Al+ + + + 12e–.
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Different sacrificial anode models and designs

Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP)

ICCP systems uses an external source of electrical power provided by a regulated

DC power supply, often referred to as control panel. The control panel provides
the current necessary to polarise the surface to be protected.

Principles of ICCP – impressed current cathodic protection

The protective current is distributed by specially designed inert anodes, generally

a conductive material of a type that is not easily dissolved into metallic ions, but
rather sustain alternative anodic reactions.

An ICCP system continuously monitors the level of protection and adapts to the
current required to stop corrosion.
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