SAMPLING AND SAMPLING METHODS

SAMPLING
Sampling is a process of selecting representative units from an entire
population of a study (or) It is a process of selecting a subset of randomized
number of members of the population of a study and collecting data about their
attributes.

Sampling is not a new development, but in recent times, it is used by the

people in all fields, even in day-to-day life, to get an understanding about
societies, opinions, or situations. Similarly, in research studies: it is not always
possible to study an entire population; therefore, the researcher draws a
representative part of a population through sampling process.

TERMINOLOGY USED IN SAMPLING

Some of the main terms used in sampling process are as follows:

1.POPULATION:
Population is the aggregation of all the units in which a researcher is
interested. In other words, population is the set of people or entities to which the
results of a research are to be generalized. For example, a researcher needs to
study the problems faced by post-graduate nurses of India; in this the ‘Population’
will be all the post-graduate nurses who are Indian citizens.
2.TARGET POPULATION:
A target population consists of the total number of people or objects which
meet the designated set of criteria. In other words, it is the aggregate of all the
cases with a certain phenomenon (or phenom-ena) about which the researcher
would like to make a generalization. For example, a researcher is interested in
identifying the complication of diabetes mellitus type-II among people who have
migrated to Ludhiana. In this instance, the target population are all the migrants
at Ludhiana suffering with diabetes mellitus type-II.

3.ACCESSIBLE POPULATION:
It is the aggregate of cases that conform to designated criteria and are also
accessible as subjects for a study. For example, 'a researcher is conducting a study
on the registered nurses (RN) working in Dayanand Medical College and Hospital
(DMCH), Ludhiana. In this case, the population for this study is all the RNs
working in DMCH, but some of them may be on leave and may not be accessible
for research study. Therefore, accessible population for this study will be RNs
who meet the designated criteria and who are also available for the research study.

4.SAMPLING:
Sampling is the process of selecting a representative segment of the
population under study.

5.SAMPLE:
Sample may be defined as representative unit of a target population, which
is to be worked upon by researchers during their study. In other words, sample
consists of a subset of units which comprise the population selected by
investigators or researchers to participate in their research project.
6.ELEMENT:
The individual entities that comprise the samples and population are known
as elements, and an element is the most basic unit about whom/which information
is collected. An element is also known as a subject in research. The most common
element in nursing research is an individual. The sample or population depends
on the phenomenon under study.

7.SAMPLING UNITS:
The limited members of population selected for sampling are called as
sampling units.

8.SAMPLING FRAME:
It is a list of all the elements or subjects in the population from which the
sample is drawn. Sampling frame could be prepared by the researcher or an
existing frame may be used. For example, research may prepare a list of all the
households of a locality which have pregnant women or may use a register of
pregnant women for antenatal care available with the local Anganwadi worker.

9.SAMPLING ERROR:
There may be fluctuations in the values of the statistics of characteristics
from one sample to an-other, or even those drawn from the same population.

10.SAMPLING BIAS:
Distortion that arises when a sample is not representative of the population
from which it was drawn.
11.SAMPLING PLAN:
The formal plan specifying a sampling method, a sample size and the
procedure of selecting the subjects.

POPULATION

TARGET POPULATION

ACCESSIBLE POPULATION

SAMPLE

SUBJECTS

PURPOSE OF SAMPLING
ECONOMICAL:

In most cases, it is not possible and economical for researchers to study an

entire popula-tion. With the help of sampling, the researcher can save lots of time,
money and resources to study a phe-nomenon. Therefore, sampling provides an
economical option for the researcher to generate empirical evidences.

IMPROVED QUALITY OF DATA:

It is a proven fact that when a person handles less amount of work or fewer
number of people, then it is easier to ensure the quality of the outcome. Similarly
in research, when a researcher is handling the information from only a part of the
population under study, it is easier to maintain the quality of the research work,
which would not be possible in case the entire population was involved.

QUICK STUDY RESULTS:

Studying an entire population itself will take a lot of time, and generating
research results of a large mass will be almost impossible as most research studies
have time limits. But with a sample, it is possible to generate study results faster,
which is one of the important objectives of every researcher.

PRECISION AND ACCURACY OF DATA:

Conducting a study on an entire population provides researchers with

voluminous data, and maintaining precision of that data becomes a cumbersome
task, while carrying a study on a part of the population (sample) helps the
researcher to generate more precise data, where formulation of the interpretations
of the data becomes much easier. It is always easy to establish better rapport with
a sample and thus to collect more accurate data. Thus, a sample helps to generate
precise and accurate data in a research study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

There are various qualities and characteristic features that make a sample good.
To generalize the findings for an entire population, a good sample for the research
study must have following characteristics:

Representative:

A representative sample is one that the key characteristics of which are

closely related to those of the population. Representativeness of the sample makes
it possible to generalize the findings for the population.
Free from bias and errors:

A good sample is one which is free from deliberate selection of the subjects
for study. Sample should be free from simple random sampling errors or sampling
bias.

No substitution and incompleteness:

⁠A sample is said to be good if once a subject is selected for the study, it is

neither replaced nor is it incomplete in any aspect of researcher’s interest.

Appropriate sample size:

⁠Generally, it is believed that in quantitative studies the larger the sample

size, better is the probability of the goodness of the sample. However, in
qualitative studies this notion is not considered important.

SAMPLING PROCESS
Sampling is a process of selecting a part of the assigned population to
represent the entire population. The procedure of sampling should be
systematically organized. This helps to eliminate the data bias that can occur
during sample selection, which is mostly carried out inconsistently. The sampling
process consists of following stages:

1. Identifying and defining the target population.

2. Describing the accessible population and ensuring sampling frame.
3. Specifying the sampling unit.
4. Specifying the sample selection methods.
5. Determining the sample size.
6. Specifying the sampling plan.
7. Selecting a desired sample.
IDENTIFYING AND DEFINING THE TARGET POPULATION:

The first step of the sampling process is the identification and defining the
target population. Target population consists of the total group of people or
objects that meet the designated set of criteria of interest of the researcher. Target
population is the aggregate of cases about which the researcher would generalize
the information. Therefore, it is the first and the most essential stage of the
sampling process.

DESCRIBING THE ACCESSIBLE POPULATION AND ENSURING

SAMPLING FRAME:

It is not always possible to have access to each subject included in the target
population. Therefore, researcher must establish a description about the
accessible population, which is readily available for research. In addition, after
establishing a complete description of the accessible population, researchers must
have a sampling frame available to select a sample from accessible population.

SPECIFYING THE SAMPLING UNIT:

Next, the researcher must establish the specific inclusion and exclusion
criteria to select a particular sampling unit. Therefore, specifying the sampling
unit with specific inclusion and exclusion criteria helps researcher eliminate the
confusion while the selection of the sample.

SPECIFYING SAMPLE SELECTION METHOD:

It is one of the important stages of the sampling process, where the

researcher decides whether sample will be drawn from the population by using
probability or non-probability sampling techniques. Selection of the specific
method for selection of the sample depends on several factors, such as types of
population, kind of phenomenon under study and availability of resources and
knowledge of the researcher.

DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE:

It is very essential, so that the researcher can plan the implementation of

the sampling process accordingly.

SPECIFYING SAMPLING PLAN:

Before the selection of particular sample, the researcher must have a final
sampling plan, so that sampling process can be implemented without any undue
problems.

SELECTING A DESIRED SAMPLE:

Finally, a researcher draws a representative sample from the accessible

population, which requires the implementation of the plan of the sampling
process, and ultimately selects a representative part of the population, which is
used by the researcher for data collection in research study.

FACTORS INFLUENCING SAMPLING PROCESS

Following are some of the factors which may affect the sampling process:

NATURE OF THE RESEARCHER:

Inexperienced investigator:

⁠If the investigator lacks adequate knowledge and experience about the
conditions of the research and methodology to be applied in the research process,
the sample selection may be adversely affected.
Lack of interest:

⁠ Lack of self-motivation and appreciation for carrying out tasks or

establishing research methodology on the part of the researcher also affects the
drawing of the sample.

Lack of honesty:

⁠Lack of honesty will affect sampling process in research. Researcher

should be honestly involved in each step of the research process.

Intensive workload:

Lack of adequate resources and ability to carry out the research process
results in inadequate selection and application of all resources, which results in
adverse handling of research process including the sampling process.

Inadequate supervision:

There should be adequate supervision of the research activity to ensure

appropriate implementation of the research process including the sampling.

NATURE OF THE SAMPLE:

Inappropriate sampling technique:

If a researcher fails to choose an appropriate sampling technique, the whole

sampling process may get affected.

Sample size:

Very large samples become heterogeneous and do not exhibit

characteristics of whole population in general also there are always chances of a
biased sample. if sample is 100 small, a researcher may not be able to generalize
the study findings to the whole population.
Defective sampling frame:

Defective sampling frame leads to faulty sampling process. Researcher

should have adequate knowledge about population under study to have an
appropriate sampling frame.

CIRCUMSTANCES:

Lack of time:

⁠Adequate time should be available with the researcher to have adequate

planning and implementation of the sampling process. Otherwise, the sampling
process gets adversely affected.

Large geographic area:

⁠A large geographic area needs lots of time and resources to accomplish the
sampling process. In addition, large geographical areas can also lead to mental
and physical exhaustion and thus, the sampling process can get adversely
affected.

Lack of cooperation:

⁠During sampling process, researcher needs cooperation from competent

authorities as well as from the study subjects. In the absence of cooperation of the
requisite authorities and study subjects, the sampling process may be adversely
affected.

Natural calamities:

Sometimes the sampling process is affected by natural calamities, such as

floods and other natural disasters, deaths, or other environmental constraints.
TYPES OF SAMPLING
TYPES OF SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. Simple random sampling 1. Purposive sampling

2. Stratified random sampling 2. Convenience sampling

3. Systematic random sampling 3. Consecutive sampling

4. Cluster/multistage sampling 4. Quota sampling

5. Sequential sampling 5. Snowball sampling

6. Volunteer sampling

7. Genealogy sampling

PROBABILITY SAMPLING
It is based on the theory of probability. It involves random selection of the
elements/members of the population. In this, every subject in a population has
equal chance to be selected as study sample. Probability sampling technique is
used to enhance the representativeness of the selected sample for a study. In
probability sampling techniques, the chances of systematic bias are relatively less
because subjects are randomly selected.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING TECHNIQUE:

This is the most pure and basic probability sampling design. In this type of
sampling design, every population member has a similar chance of being picked
as the subject. The whole process of sampling is carried out in a single step, with
each subject chosen independently of the other members of the population.

There is need of two essential prerequisites to implement the simple

random techniques population must be homogeneous and researcher must have
list of the elements/ members of the accessible population.

The first step of the simple random sampling technique Is to identify the
accessible population and prepare a list of all the elements/members of the
population. The list of the subjects in population is known as sampling frame and
a sample can be drawn from sampling frame by using following methods:

 The lottery method

 The use of table of random numbers
 The use of computer

STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

This method is used for heterogeneous population. Stratified sampling is a

probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the entire
population into different homogeneous subgroups or strata, and then randomly
selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata.

The strata are divided according to selected traits of the population, such as age,
gender, religion, socio-economic status, diagnosis, education, geographical
region, type of institution, type of care, type of RNs, nursing area specialization,
site of care, etc.

According to the weightage of the sample and proportion, stratified random

sampling is further divided into two categories:

 Proportionate stratified random sampling.

 Disproportionate stratified random sampling.

Proportionate stratified random sampling:

In this, the sample chosen from each stratum is in proportion to the size of
total population.

Disproportionate stratified random sampling:

In this subtype, the sample chosen from each stratum is not in proportion
to size of total population in that stratum.
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING:

Systematic random sampling can be likened to an arithmetic progression,

wherein the difference between any two consecutive numbers is the same. It
involves the selection of every Kth case from a list of groups, such as every 10th
person on a patient list or every 100th person from a phone directory. Systematic
sampling is sometimes used to sample every Kth person entering a book-store, or
passing down the street or leaving a hospital and so forth. Systematic sampling
can be applied so that an essentially random sample is drawn. If we had a list of
subjects or sampling frame, the following procedure could be adopted. The
desired sample size is established at some number (n) and the size of population
must be known or estimated (N).

Number of subjects in target population(N)

K=N/n (or) K=

Size of sample (n)

CLUSTER OR MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING:

When simple random sampling is not possible due to the size of the
population, cluster random sampling is carried out. Cluster sampling means
random selection of sampling unit consisting of population elements. Then from
each selected sampling unit, a sample of population elements is drawn by either
simple random selection or stratified random sampling. This method is used in
cases where the population elements are scattered over a wide area, and it is
impossible to obtain a list of all the elements.

The important thing to remember about this sampling technique is to give all the
clusters equal chances of being selected. Geographical units are the most
commonly used ones in research.
TYPES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING:

 One-stage cluster sample

 Two-stage cluster sample
 Multi-stage cluster sample
 Probability proportionate to size cluster sampling

SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING:

This method of sample selection is slightly different from other methods.

Here the sample size is not fixed. The investigator initially selects small sample
and tries out to make inferences; if not able to draw results, he or she then adds
more subjects until clear-cut inferences can be drawn.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Non-probability sampling is a technique wherein the samples are gathered
in a process that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances
of being selected in the sample. In other words, in this type of sampling, every
subject does not have equal chance to be selected because elements are chosen
by choice not by chance through non-random sampling methods. Generally, it is
believed that non-random methods of sampling are more likely to produce a
biased sample than random methods.

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING:

Purposive sampling is more commonly known as ‘judg-mental’ or

‘authoritative sampling’. In this type of sampling subjects are chosen to be part
of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. In purposive sampling, the
researcher believes that some subjects are fit for research compared to other
individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.

In this sampling technique, samples are chosen by choice not by chance,

through a judgement made by the researcher based on his or her knowledge about
the population who are judged or believed to be typical or representative. of the
accessible population. Particularly experts who have in-depth knowledge about
the accessible population under study may be asked to provide help to select the
sample in purposive sampling.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:

Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling

techniques because it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily
available. In convenience sampling, which is a non-probability sampling
technique, subjects are selected due to their convenient accessibility and
proximity to the researcher. The subjects are chosen because of the fact that they
are very easy to recruit for the study. Moreover, the researcher does not opt for
choosing subjects that are representative of the entire population. Sometimes, it
is also known as an accidental sampling. Subjects are chosen simply because they
are easy to recruit.
VOLUNTEER SAMPLING:

It is a type of non-probability sampling technique in which participants

themselves volunteer to participate in the study, and they only approach the
researcher to be the part of study sample. Researcher publishes an advertisement
or informs target population through mass media to participate in the study, and
interested participants may voluntarily contact researcher to participate in the
study.

CONSECUTIVE SAMPLING:

Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling, except that

it seeks to include all accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-
probability sampling technique can be considered as the best of all non-
probability samples because it includes all the subjects that are available, which
makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.

It is also known as total enumerative sampling. In this sampling technique,

the investigator picks up all the available subjects who are meeting the preset
inclusion and exclusion criteria. This technique is generally used in small-sized
populations.

QUOTA SAMPLING:

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the

researcher ensures equal or proportionate representation of subjects, depending
on which trait is considered as the basis of the quota. The bases of the quota are
usually age, gender, education, race, religion and socio-economic status.
SNOWBALL SAMPLING:

Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by

researchers to identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to
locate, such as commercial sex workers, drug abusers, etc. researchers use this
sampling method if the sample for studies are very rare or are limited to very
small subgroups of the population: This type of sampling technique works like
chain referral. Therefore, it is also known as chain referral sampling. The
researcher asks for assistance from the subject to identify people with a similar
trait of interest after observing the initial subject. Asking subjects to nominate
another person with the same trait is similar to the process of snowball sampling.
Until he or she obtains sufficient number of subjects, the researcher observes the
nominated subjects and continues in the same way.

TYPES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING:

 Linear snowball sampling

 Exponential non-discriminative snowball sampling
 Exponential discriminative snowball sampling
GENEALOGY SAMPLING:

This is a non-probability sampling technique in which all the members of

entire related families are selected rather than selecting different households in
the village or area. The genealogy sampling begins with identifying a first
participant, who is convinced to participate in the study and then further he/she is
asked to refer to close relatives of his family, who even may be living in other
areas of the village or area. This sampling technique is primarily used in rural
population, which are socio-culturally and economically homogenous, and it is
also frequently used in genetic studies to identify trends of genes in traditional
families and so on. This sampling technique provides significant cross-section of
selected community by age, gender and so on.

PROBABILITY AND SAMPLING ERRORS

Sampling error is the deviation of the selected sample from the true
characteristics, traits, behaviors, qualities or figures of the entire population. In
other words, sampling errors are random variations in the sampling estimates
around the population parameters. Sampling errors leads to systematic bias in the
study.

REASONS OF THE SAMPLING ERRORS:

*Sampling process error occurs because researchers draw different

subjects from the same population, but the subjects have individual differences.
Keep in mind that when a researcher selects a sample, it is only a subset of the
entire population; therefore, there may be a difference between the sample and
population. The defective sampling frame and poor response rate of participants
significantly contribute in sampling errors.
 * The most frequent cause of the said error is a biased sampling procedure.
Every researcher must seek to establish a sample that is free from bias and is
representative of the entire population. In this case, the researcher is able to
minimize or eliminate sampling error.

* Another possible cause of this error is chance. The process of random

sample selection and probability sampling is done to minimize sampling process
error, but it is still possible that all the randomly chosen subjects are not
representative of the population.

* The most common result of sampling error is systematic error wherein

the results from the sample differ significantly from the results from the entire
population. It is logical that if the sample is not the representative of the entire
population, the results from it will most likely differ from the results taken from
the entire population.

Two basic reasons of sampling error are:

Chance error:

* ⁠The error occurs by chance. For example, someone did a comparative

study on malnutrition in under 5-year children in two cities, A and B.
Unfortunately, city B had a large number of slum dwellers. So, it comprised a
large number of malnourished children, thus skewing the result.

Sampling bias:

* ⁠Sampling bias is a tendency to favor a selection of sample units that

possess particular characteristics. It may occur in the form of over-representation
bias.
TYPES OF SAMPLING BIAS:
SELF-SELECTION BIAS:

This type of bias happens in a situation when the participants in the study
have some kind of control over the study to participate or not. For example, if a
study is conducted on the number of people who can carry a load of 10 kg for 20
minutes, then only well-built people will have a preference to participate.

EXCLUSION BIAS:

This type of bias happens when some people of the group are eliminated
from the study as the instance of day scholars mentioned above.

HEALTHY USER BIAS:

⁠This type of bias occurs when the sample selected has more likelihood to
be healthier as compared to general population. For example, if the sample is
selected from students who take the food from the mess and not the canteen where
junk food is not served, thus there will be chances of healthy user bias.

MINIMIZE SAMPLING ERRORS/BIAS

There is only one way to eliminate this error. This solution is to eliminate
the concept of sample, and to test the entire population. In most cases, this is not
possible; consequently, what a researcher must do is to minimize sampling
process error. This can be achieved by a proper and unbiased probability sampling
and by using a large sample size. However, to minimize sampling bias, following
things should be done:

* Avoid convenience or judgement sampling.

* To ensure that the target population is well defined and the sample frame should
match it as much as possible.
* When complete population cannot be sampled then care should be taken that
the population that is excluded one is not taking away the desired features, which
were supposed to be measured from the population.

PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING

 Sampling errors

 Lack of sample representativeness

 Difficulty in estimation of sample size

 Lack of knowledge about the sampling process

 Lack of resources

 Lack of cooperation

 Lack of existing appropriate sampling frames for larger population

 Callous approach for the researcher towards sampling process

REFERENCES:

 Nursing Research and Statistics – Suresh k. Sharma

 Research methodology – R. Panneerselvam
 Nursing and Research Statistics – BT Basavanthappa

SUBMITTED BY

KEERTHANA.J

MOT 2ND YEAR

(NEUROLOGY)