Chapter 7

The Nervous
System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functions of the Nervous System

1. Sensory input—gathering information

▪ Sensory receptors monitor changes, called stimuli,
occurring inside and outside the body
2. Integration
▪ Nervous system processes and interprets sensory
input and decides whether action is needed
3. Motor output
▪ A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands

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Figure 7.1 The nervous system’s functions.

Sensory
input
Integratio
Sensory receptor n

Motor
output

Brain and spinal cord

Effector

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© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Organization of the Nervous System

▪ Nervous system classifications are based on:

▪ Structures (structural classification)
▪ Activities (functional classification)

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Figure 7.2 Organization of the nervous system.

Central Nervous
System
(brain and spinal cord)

Peripheral Nervous
System
(cranial and spinal nerves)

Sensory Motor
(afferent (efferent
) )

Sense Somatic
organs Autonomi
(voluntary)
c
Skeletal (involuntary)
Cardiac and
muscles
smooth muscle,
glands

Parasympathetic Sympathetic

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 Structural Classification

▪ Central nervous system (CNS)

▪ Organs
▪ Brain
▪ Spinal cord
▪ Function
▪ Integration; command center
▪ Interprets incoming sensory information
▪ Issues outgoing instructions

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 Structural Classification

▪ Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

▪ Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
▪ Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and from the spinal
cord
▪ Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and from the brain
▪ Functions
▪ Serve as communication lines among sensory organs,
the brain and spinal cord, and glands or muscles

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 Functional Classification

▪ Sensory (afferent) division

▪ Nerve fibers that carry information to the central
nervous system
▪ Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from
the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
▪ Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information from
visceral organs
▪ Motor (efferent) division
▪ Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central
nervous system organs to effector organs (muscles
and glands)

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 Functional Classification

▪ Motor (efferent) division (continued)

▪ Two subdivisions
▪ Somatic nervous system = voluntary
▪ Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles
▪ Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
▪ Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles and
glands
▪ Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous systems

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 Nervous Tissue: Support Cells

▪ Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as

neuroglia
▪ General functions
▪ Support
▪ Insulate
▪ Protect neurons

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 Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

▪ Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell

types
▪ Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial cells, or glia)
▪ Resemble neurons
▪ Unable to conduct nerve impulses
▪ Never lose the ability to divide
▪ Neurons

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 Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

▪ CNS glial cells: astrocytes

▪ Abundant, star-shaped cells
▪ Brace and anchor neurons to blood capillaries
▪ Determine permeability and exchanges between blood
capillaries and neurons
▪ Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood
▪ Control the chemical environment of the brain

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Figure 7.3a Supporting cells (neuroglia) of nervous tissue.

Capillary

Neuron

Astrocyte

(a) Astrocytes are the most

abundant
and versatile neuroglia.

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 Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

▪ CNS glial cells: microglia

▪ Spiderlike phagocytes
▪ Monitor health of nearby neurons
▪ Dispose of debris

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Figure 7.3b Supporting cells (neuroglia) of nervous tissue.

Neuron
Microglial
cell

(b) Microglial cells are phagocytes

that
defend CNS cells.

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 Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

▪ CNS glial cells: ependymal cells

▪ Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
▪ Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

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Figure 7.3c Supporting cells (neuroglia) of nervous tissue.

Fluid-filled cavity
Ependymal
cells

Brain or
spinal cord
tissue
(c) Ependymal cells line
cerebrospinal
fluid–filled cavities.

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 Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

▪ CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes

▪ Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous
system
▪ Produce myelin sheaths

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Figure 7.3d Supporting cells (neuroglia) of nervous tissue.

Myelin sheath
Process of
oligodendrocyte

Nerve
fibers

(d) Oligodendrocytes have processes that

form
myelin sheaths around CNS nerve fibers.

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 Nervous Tissue: Supporting Cells

▪ PNS glial cells

▪ Schwann cells
▪ Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS
▪ Satellite cells
▪ Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

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Figure 7.3e Supporting cells (neuroglia) of nervous tissue.

Satellite Cell body of neuron

cells
Schwann cells
(forming myelin sheath)
Nerve fiber

(e) Satellite cells and Schwann cells (which

form
myelin) surround neurons in the PNS.

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Neurons = nerve cells

▪ Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulses)
▪ Major regions of all neurons
▪ Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
▪ Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron

▪ Nucleus with large nucleolus
▪ Nissl bodies
▪ Rough endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Neurofibrils
▪ Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape

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Figure 7.4a Structure of a typical motor neuron.
Dendrite Cell
Mitochondrion body

Nissl substance
Axon
hillock
Axon

Neurofibrils Collateral
Nucleus branch
Nucleolus

One
Schwann
cell

Node of
Axon
Ranvier
terminal
Schwann cells,
forming the myelin
sheath on axon

(a
) Ltd.
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Figure 7.4b Structure of a typical motor neuron.

Neuron
cell body

Dendrite

(b
)

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Processes (fibers)
▪ Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body
▪ Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites
▪ Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body
▪ Neurons have only one axon arising from the cell body
at the axon hillock
▪ End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
▪ Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron by a
gap

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Processes (fibers) (continued)

▪ Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals and the
next neuron
▪ Synapse—functional junction between nerves where a
nerve impulse is transmitted

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Myelin
▪ White, fatty material covering axons
▪ Protects and insulates fibers
▪ Speeds nerve impulse transmission

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Myelin sheaths
▪ Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–like fashion
(PNS) to form the myelin sheath
▪ Neurilemma—part of the Schwann cell external to the
myelin sheath
▪ Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the
axon
▪ Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths around
axons of the CNS
▪ Lack a neurilemma

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Figure 7.5 Relationship of Schwann cells to axons in the peripheral nervous system.

Schwann cell
cytoplasm
Schwann cell
Axon plasma membrane

Schwann cell
nucleus
(a
)

(b
)

Neurilemma

Myelin
sheath
(c
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)
 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Terminology
▪ Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
▪ Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in
the PNS
▪ Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
▪ Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
▪ White matter—collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
▪ Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell
bodies

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Functional classification
▪ Sensory (afferent) neurons
▪ Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS
▪ Receptors include:
▪ Cutaneous sense organs in skin
▪ Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons

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Figure 7.6 Neurons classified by function.

Central process (axon)

Sensory
neuron Spinal cord
Cell
(central nervous system)
body
Ganglion
Dendrites Peripheral
process (axon)

Afferent
transmission Interneuron
(association
neuron)
Receptors Periphera
l
nervous
system Efferent transmission

Motor neuron

To effectors
(muscles and glands)

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Figure 7.7a Types of sensory receptors.

(a) Free nerve endings (pain

and temperature
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receptors)
Figure 7.7b Types of sensory receptors.

(b) Meissner’s
corpuscle
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. (touch receptor)
Figure 7.7c Types of sensory receptors.

(c) Lamellar corpuscle

(deep
pressure receptor)
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Figure 7.7d Types of sensory receptors.

(d) Golgi tendon organ

(proprioceptor)
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Figure 7.7e Types of sensory receptors.

(e) Muscle spindle

(proprioceptor)

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Functional classification (continued)

▪ Motor (efferent) neurons
▪ Carry impulses from the central nervous system to
viscera and/or muscles and glands
▪ Interneurons (association neurons)
▪ Cell bodies located in the CNS
▪ Connect sensory and motor neurons

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Figure 7.6 Neurons classified by function.

Central process (axon)

Sensory
neuron Spinal cord
Cell
(central nervous system)
body
Ganglion
Dendrites Peripheral
process (axon)

Afferent
transmission Interneuron
(association
neuron)
Receptors Periphera
l
nervous
system Efferent transmission

Motor neuron

To effectors
(muscles and glands)

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Structural classification
▪ Based on number of processes extending from the cell
body
▪ Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell
body
▪ All motor and interneurons are multipolar
▪ Most common structural type

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Figure 7.8a Classification of neurons on the basis of structure.

Cell body
Axon
Dendrites
(a) Multipolar
neuron

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Structural classification (continued)

▪ Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite
▪ Located in special sense organs, such as nose and eye
▪ Rare in adults

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Figure 7.8b Classification of neurons on the basis of structure.

Cell body

Dendrite Axon
(b) Bipolar
neuron

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Structural classification (continued)

▪ Unipolar neurons—have a short single process leaving
the cell body
▪ Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
▪ Conduct impulses both toward and away from the cell
body

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Figure 7.8c Classification of neurons on the basis of structure.

Dendrites
Cell body
Short single
process

Axon
Peripheral Central
process process
(c) Unipolar
neuron

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Functional properties of neurons

▪ Irritability
▪ Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a nerve
impulse
▪ Conductivity
▪ Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons,
muscles, or glands

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s

membrane
▪ The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)
▪ Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma
membrane than outside
▪ K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell
▪ Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
▪ As long as the inside of the membrane is more
negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside, the cell
remains inactive

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Figure 7.9 The nerve impulse. Slide 2

[Na+ ]
1 Resting membrane is polarized. In the resting state,
[K+] the
external face of the membrane is slightly positive; its internal
face is slightly negative. The chief extracellular ion is sodium
(Na+), whereas the chief intracellular ion is potassium (K+). The
membrane is relatively impermeable to both ions.

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Action potential initiation and generation

▪ A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s
membrane to sodium ions
▪ Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+) diffuses
into the neuron
▪ The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity at
that site and is called depolarization

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Figure 7.9 The nerve impulse. Slide 3

Na+
2 Stimulus initiates local depolarization. A stimulus
Na+ changes the permeability of a local “patch” of the membrane,
and sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell. This changes the
polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more positive;
the outside becomes more negative) at that site.

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Action potential initiation and generation

(continued)
▪ A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists
where the inside of the membrane is more positive and
the outside is less positive
▪ If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx
great enough, local depolarization activates the neuron
to conduct an action potential (nerve impulse)

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Figure 7.9 The nerve impulse. Slide 4

Na+
3 Depolarization and generation of an action
potential.
Na+
If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes
membrane polarity to be completely reversed, and an action
potential is initiated.

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Propagation of the action potential

▪ If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential
(nerve impulse) starts and is propagated over the
entire axon
▪ All-or-none response means the nerve impulse either
is propagated or is not
▪ Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses
more quickly

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Figure 7.9 The nerve impulse. Slide 5

4 Propagation of the action potential. Depolarization of

the
first membrane patch causes permeability changes in the2
adjacent membrane, and the events described in step are
repeated. Thus, the action potential propagates rapidly along the
entire length of the membrane.

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Repolarization
▪ Membrane permeability changes again—becoming
impermeable to sodium ions and permeable to
potassium ions
▪ Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron,
repolarizing the membrane
▪ Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the
membrane to a negative charge and the outer surface
to a positive charge

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Figure 7.9 The nerve impulse. Slide 6

K+
5 Repolarization. Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as
K+ the membrane permeability changes again, restoring the
negative charge on the inside of the membrane and the
positive charge on the outside surface. Repolarization occurs
in the same direction as depolarization.

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Repolarization (continued)
▪ Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are
restored using the sodium-potassium pump
▪ This pump, using ATP, restores the original
configuration
▪ Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two
potassium ions are returned to the cell
▪ Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot
conduct another nerve impulse

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Figure 7.9 The nerve impulse. Slide 7

Cell
Na+ – K+
exterior pump
6 Initial ionic conditions restored. The ionic
Na+ Diffusion
K+ Diffusion

Plasma conditions
membrane of the resting state are restored later by the activity of the
sodium-potassium pump. Three sodium ions are ejected for
Cell every two potassium ions carried back into the cell.
interior

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Transmission of the signal at synapses

▪ Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon
terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium channels

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 2

Axon of
transmitting
neuron
Receiving
neuron

1 Action
Dendrite potential
arrives.
Vesicle
Axon terminal sSynapti
c
cleft

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Transmission of the signal at synapses

(continued)
▪ Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
containing the neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with
the axonal membrane

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 3

2 Vesicle Transmitting
fuses with neuron
plasma
membrane.

Synaptic
cleft Ion Neurotransmitter
channels molecules

Receiving
neuron
Receiving
neuron
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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Transmission of the signal at synapses

(continued)
▪ Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal
causes porelike openings to form, releasing the
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 4

2 Vesicle Transmitting
fuses with neuron
plasma 3 Neurotrans-
membrane. mitter is
released into
synaptic cleft.

Synaptic
cleft Ion Neurotransmitter
channels molecules

Receiving
neuron
Receiving
neuron
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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Transmission of the signal at synapses

(continued)
▪ Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across
the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
membrane of the next neuron

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 5

2 Vesicle Transmitting
fuses with neuron 4 Neurotrans-
plasma 3 Neurotrans- mitter binds
membrane. mitter is to receptor
released into on receiving
synaptic cleft. neuron’s
membrane.

Synaptic
cleft Ion Neurotransmitter
channels molecules

Receiving
neuron
Receiving
neuron
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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Transmission of the signal at synapses

(continued)
▪ Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, a
graded potential will be generated
▪ Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse) will occur
in the neuron beyond the synapse

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 6

5 Ion channel opens.

Neurotransmitter

Receptor
Na+

Receiving
neuron
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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Transmission of the signal at synapses

(continued)
▪ Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by
neurotransmitter binding are brief
▪ The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
synapse either by reuptake or by enzymatic activity
▪ Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
▪ Transmission down neuron is electrical
▪ Transmission to next neuron is chemical

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Figure 7.10 How neurons communicate at chemical synapses. Slide 7

6 Ion channel closes.

Neurotransmitter is
broken down and
released.
Na+

Receiving
neuron
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 BioFlix: How Synapses Work

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary

responses to stimuli
▪ Reflexes occur over neural pathways called reflex
arcs
▪ Two types of reflexes
▪ Somatic reflexes
▪ Autonomic reflexes

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Figure 7.11a Simple reflex arcs.

Stimulus at distal Skin Spinal cord

end of neuron (in cross section)
2 Sensory neuron
3Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Interneuron

(a) Five basic elements of reflex

arc

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Somatic reflexes
▪ Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
▪ Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under
voluntary control
▪ Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
▪ Autonomic reflexes
▪ Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and
glands
▪ Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and
blood pressure, glands, digestive system

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Five elements of a reflex arc

1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration
center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and
directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be
stimulated

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Figure 7.11a Simple reflex arcs. Slide 2

Stimulus at distal Skin

end of neuron

1 Receptor

(a) Five basic elements of reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11a Simple reflex arcs. Slide 3

Stimulus at distal Skin Spinal cord

end of neuron (in cross section)
2 Sensory neuron
1 Receptor

Interneuron

(a) Five basic elements of reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11a Simple reflex arcs. Slide 4

Stimulus at distal Skin Spinal cord

end of neuron (in cross section)
2 Sensory neuron
3 Integration
1 Receptor center

Interneuron

(a) Five basic elements of reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11a Simple reflex arcs. Slide 5

Stimulus at distal Skin Spinal cord

end of neuron (in cross section)
2 Sensory neuron
3 Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
Interneuron

(a) Five basic elements of reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11a Simple reflex arcs. Slide 6

Stimulus at distal Skin Spinal cord

end of neuron (in cross section)
2 Sensory neuron
3 Integration
1 Receptor center
4 Motor neuron
5 Effector Interneuron

(a) Five basic elements of reflex

arc

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Two-neuron reflex arcs

▪ Simplest type
▪ Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex

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Figure 7.11b Simple reflex arcs. Slide 1

1 Sensory (stretch) receptor

2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

4 Motor (efferent) neuron

5 Effector organ

(b) Two-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11b Simple reflex arcs. Slide 2

1 Sensory (stretch) receptor

(b) Two-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11b Simple reflex arcs. Slide 3

1 Sensory (stretch) receptor

2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

(b) Two-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11b Simple reflex arcs. Slide 4

1 Sensory (stretch) receptor

2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

(b) Two-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11b Simple reflex arcs. Slide 5

1 Sensory (stretch) receptor

2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

4 Motor (efferent) neuron

(b) Two-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11b Simple reflex arcs. Slide 6

1 Sensory (stretch) receptor

2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

4 Motor (efferent) neuron

5 Effector organ

(b) Two-neuron reflex

arc

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 Nervous Tissue: Neurons

▪ Three-neuron reflex arcs

▪ Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron,
interneuron, motor neuron, and effector
▪ Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex

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Figure 7.11c Simple reflex arcs. Slide 1

1 Sensory receptor 2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

3 Interneuron

4 Motor (efferent) neuron

5 Effector organ
(c) Three-neuron reflex
arc

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Figure 7.11c Simple reflex arcs. Slide 2

1 Sensory receptor

(c) Three-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11c Simple reflex arcs. Slide 3

1 Sensory receptor 2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

(c) Three-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11c Simple reflex arcs. Slide 4

1 Sensory receptor 2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

3 Interneuron

(c) Three-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11c Simple reflex arcs. Slide 5

1 Sensory receptor 2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

3 Interneuron

4 Motor (efferent) neuron

(c) Three-neuron reflex

arc

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Figure 7.11c Simple reflex arcs. Slide 6

1 Sensory receptor 2 Sensory (afferent) neuron

3 Interneuron

4 Motor (efferent) neuron

5 Effector organ
(c) Three-neuron reflex
arc

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 Central Nervous System (CNS)

▪ Functional anatomy of the brain

▪ Brain regions
▪ Cerebral hemispheres
▪ Diencephalon
▪ Brain stem
▪ Cerebellum

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 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right)

superior parts of the brain
▪ Include more than half of the brain mass
▪ The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves
(sulci)
▪ Fissures are deeper grooves
▪ Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie over
them

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 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere

1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter

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Figure 7.12a Development and regions of the human brain.

Cerebral
hemisphere
Outline of
diencephalon
Midbrain
Cerebellum
Brain stem

(a) 13
weeks

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Figure 7.12b Development and regions of the human brain.

Cerebral
hemisphere

Diencephalon

Cerebellum

Brain stem

(b) Adult
brain

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Figure 7.13ab Left lateral view of the brain.

Precentral gyrus Central sulcus Parietal lobe

Postcentral gyrus
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Left cerebral
Parieto-occipital
hemisphere
sulcus (deep)

Lateral sulcus
Frontal
Occipital lobe lobe
Occipital
Temporal lobe Temporal lobe
Cerebellum lobe
Pons Superior
Cerebral cortex Medulla Brain Cerebellum
Inferior
(gray matter) oblongata stem
Gyrus Spinal (b
cord )
Sulcus
Cerebral
Fissure white
(a deep sulcus) matter
(a
)

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Table 7.1 Functions of Major Brain Regions (1 of 2)

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Table 7.1 Functions of Major Brain Regions (2 of 2)

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 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebral cortex
▪ Primary somatic sensory area
▪ Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
▪ Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors
▪ Pain, temperature, light touch (except for special senses)
▪ Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
▪ Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives
impulses from right side (and vice versa)

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Figure 7.13c Left lateral view of the brain.

Central sulcus
Primary motor area Primary somatic sensory
Premotor area area
Anterior Gustatory area (taste)
association area
• Working memory Speech/language
and judgment (outlined by dashes)

• Problem Posterior association

solving area
• Language
comprehension
Visual area
Broca’s area
(motor speech)
Olfactory
Auditory area
area
(c
)

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Figure 7.14 Sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex.
Posterior

Moto Sensor
Motor map in r Anterior y
Sensory map in

Shoul
precentral postcentral

Head

Ha earm
Trunk
gyrus

Neck
gyrus

Trunk

Arm
ow
Hip
Leg
der

Knee
Elb t
Arm
Wri

Hip
Ha

s
r
nd
Elb

er
Fi

Fo
nd

ow
s
ng

ng
e

Fi
Knee
rs

Th

b
u

um
m

Foot
b

Th
Nec

e
Ey
Bro k se
w o
N
Eye Toes ce
Fa
s
Face Genitals Lip

Lips Teeths
Gum
Jaw
Jaw
Tongue

Tongue Primary motor Primary Pharynx

cortex somatic Intra-
Swallowing
(precentral gyrus) sensory cortex abdominal
(postcentral gyrus)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebral areas involved in special senses

▪ Visual area (occipital lobe)
▪ Auditory area (temporal lobe)
▪ Olfactory area (temporal lobe)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebral cortex (continued)

▪ Primary motor area
▪ Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
▪ Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
▪ Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract,
which descends to spinal cord
▪ Motor homunculus is a spatial map

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.13a Left lateral view of the brain.

Precentral gyrus Central sulcus

Postcentral gyrus
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Parieto-occipital
sulcus (deep)

Lateral sulcus
Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe
Cerebellum
Pons
Cerebral cortex Medulla
(gray matter) oblongata
Gyrus Spinal
cord
Sulcus
Cerebral
Fissure white
(a deep sulcus) matter
(a
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 7.14 Sensory and motor areas of the cerebral cortex.
Posterior

Moto Sensor
Motor map in r Anterior y
Sensory map in

Shoul
precentral postcentral

Head

Ha earm
Trunk
gyrus

Neck
gyrus

Trunk

Arm
ow
Hip
Leg
der

Knee
Elb t
Arm
Wri

Hip
Ha

s
r
nd
Elb

er
Fi

Fo
nd

ow
s
ng

ng
e

Fi
Knee
rs

Th

b
u

um
m

Foot
b

Th
Nec

e
Ey
Bro k se
w o
N
Eye Toes ce
Fa
s
Face Genitals Lip

Lips Teeths
Gum
Jaw
Jaw
Tongue

Tongue Primary motor Primary Pharynx

cortex somatic Intra-
Swallowing
(precentral gyrus) sensory cortex abdominal
(postcentral gyrus)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebral cortex (continued)

▪ Broca’s area (motor speech area)
▪ Involved in our ability to speak
▪ Usually in left hemisphere
▪ Other specialized areas
▪ Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
▪ Posterior association area (posterior cortex)
▪ Speech area (for sounding out words)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.13c Left lateral view of the brain.

Central sulcus
Primary motor area Primary somatic sensory
Premotor area area
Anterior Gustatory area (taste)
association area
• Working memory Speech/language
and judgment (outlined by dashes)

• Problem Posterior association

solving area
• Language
comprehension
Visual area
Broca’s area
(motor speech)
Olfactory
Auditory area
area
(c
)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebral white matter

▪ Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
▪ Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
▪ Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known as
commissures
▪ Association fiber tracts connect areas within a
hemisphere
▪ Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower
CNS centers

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.13a Left lateral view of the brain.

Precentral gyrus Central sulcus

Postcentral gyrus
Frontal lobe Parietal lobe
Parieto-occipital
sulcus (deep)

Lateral sulcus
Occipital lobe

Temporal lobe
Cerebellum
Pons
Cerebral cortex Medulla
(gray matter) oblongata
Gyrus Spinal
cord
Sulcus
Cerebral
Fissure white
(a deep sulcus) matter
(a
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 7.15 Frontal section (facing posteriorly) of the brain showing commissural, association, and projection fibers running through the cerebrum
and the lower CNS.

Longitudinal fissure Association

Superior
fibers
Commissural
Lateral
ventricle fibers
(corpus
Corona callosum)
Basal nuclei radiata

Fornix
Internal
Thalamus capsule

Third
ventricle
Pons Projectio
n
Medulla oblongata fibers
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Basal nuclei
▪ “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the white
matter of the cerebrum
▪ Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying
instructions sent to skeletal muscles by the primary
motor cortex

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Diencephalon
▪ Sits on top of the brain stem
▪ Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
▪ Made of three structures
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.12b Development and regions of the human brain.

Cerebral
hemisphere

Diencephalon

Cerebellum

Brain stem

(b) Adult
brain

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.16a Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Third ventricle
Choroid plexus of third
ventricle
Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
Thalamus
Anterior (encloses third ventricle)
commissure Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Hypothalamu Corpora
s quadrigemina
Optic chiasma
Cerebral
Midbrai
aqueduct
Pituitary gland n
Cerebral
peduncle
Mammillary body
Fourth ventricle
Pon
s Choroid plexus
Medulla (part of epithalamus)
oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.16b Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Radiations
to cerebral
cortex

Auditory
Visual impulses impulses

Reticular formation Descending

motor projections
Ascending general sensory to spinal cord
tracts (touch, pain, temperature)
(b
)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Diencephalon: thalamus
▪ Encloses the third ventricle
▪ Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to
the cerebral cortex
▪ Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cortex for
localization and interpretation

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Diencephalon: hypothalamus
▪ Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
▪ Important autonomic nervous system center
▪ Regulates body temperature
▪ Regulates water balance
▪ Regulates metabolism
▪ Houses the limbic center for emotions
▪ Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
▪ Houses mammillary bodies for olfaction (smell)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Diencephalon: epithalamus
▪ Forms the roof of the third ventricle
▪ Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
▪ Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Brain stem
▪ Attaches to the spinal cord
▪ Parts of the brain stem
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.16a Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Third ventricle
Choroid plexus of third
ventricle
Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
Thalamus
Anterior (encloses third ventricle)
commissure Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Hypothalamu Corpora
s quadrigemina
Optic chiasma
Cerebral
Midbrai
aqueduct
Pituitary gland n
Cerebral
peduncle
Mammillary body
Fourth ventricle
Pon
s Choroid plexus
Medulla (part of epithalamus)
oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Brain stem: midbrain

▪ Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons
inferiorly
▪ Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the third and
fourth ventricles
▪ Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, convey
ascending and descending impulses
▪ Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, are
visual and auditory reflex centers

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Brain stem: pons

▪ The rounded structure protruding just below the
midbrain
▪ Mostly composed of fiber tracts
▪ Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Brain stem: medulla oblongata

▪ The most inferior part of the brain stem that merges
into the spinal cord
▪ Includes important fiber tracts
▪ Contains important centers that control:
▪ Heart rate
▪ Blood pressure
▪ Breathing
▪ Swallowing
▪ Vomiting
▪ Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and medulla

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Brain stem: reticular formation

▪ Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
▪ Involved in motor control of visceral organs
▪ Reticular activating system (RAS)
▪ Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
▪ Filter for incoming sensory information

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.16b Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Radiations
to cerebral
cortex

Auditory
Visual impulses impulses

Reticular formation Descending

motor projections
Ascending general sensory to spinal cord
tracts (touch, pain, temperature)
(b
)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Functional Anatomy of the Brain

▪ Cerebrum
▪ Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
▪ Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of white
matter
▪ Controls balance
▪ Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and
coordination of body movements

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.16a Diencephalon and brain stem structures.

Cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum
Third ventricle
Choroid plexus of third
ventricle
Occipital lobe of
cerebral hemisphere
Thalamus
Anterior (encloses third ventricle)
commissure Pineal gland
(part of epithalamus)
Hypothalamu Corpora
s quadrigemina
Optic chiasma
Cerebral
Midbrai
aqueduct
Pituitary gland n
Cerebral
peduncle
Mammillary body
Fourth ventricle
Pon
s Choroid plexus
Medulla (part of epithalamus)
oblongata
Spinal cord Cerebellum
(a)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Meninges
▪ Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
▪ Blood-brain barrier

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 Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Meninges (continued)
▪ Dura mater
▪ Outermost leathery layer
▪ Double-layered external covering
▪ Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull
▪ Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
▪ Folds inward in several areas
▪ Falx cerebri
▪ Tentorium cerebelli

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Meninges (continued)
▪ Arachnoid layer
▪ Middle layer
▪ Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid space to
attach it to the pia mater
▪ Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
▪ Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater
and absorb cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
▪ Pia mater
▪ Internal layer
▪ Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.17a Meninges of the brain.

Skin of scalp
Periosteum
Bone of skull
Periosteal Dura
Meningeal mater
Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid mater
Subdural Pia mater
space Arachnoid granulation
Subarachnoid Blood
space vessel
Falx cerebri
(in longitudinal
(a
fissure only)
)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.17b Meninges of the brain.

Skull
Scalp
Superior
sagittal sinus
Occipital lobe Dura mater
Tentorium
cerebelli Transverse
Cerebellum sinus
Temporal
Arachnoid mater bone
over medulla oblongata
(b
)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Cerebrospinal fluid
▪ Similar to blood plasma in composition
▪ Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
▪ Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of the
brain
▪ CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and
spinal cord
▪ Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Cerebrospinal fluid circulation

1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each
ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the
subarachnoid space via the median and lateral
apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal
of the spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via
the arachnoid villi

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.18a Ventricles and location of the cerebrospinal fluid.

Lateral
ventricle

Anterior horn
Septum
pellucidum Interventricular
foramen
Inferior
horn
Third
ventricle
Lateral Cerebral
aperture aqueduct
Fourth
ventricle
Central canal

(a) Anterior
view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.18b Ventricles and location of the cerebrospinal fluid.

Lateral
ventricle
Anterior horn
Posterior
Interventricular horn
foramen

Third Inferior horn

ventricle Median
Cerebral
aqueduct aperture
Fourth
ventricle Lateral
Central canal
aperture
(b) Left lateral
view

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.18c Ventricles and location of the cerebrospinal fluid.

4
Superior
sagittal sinus Arachnoid granulation

Choroid plexuses Subarachnoid space

of lateral and Arachnoid mater
third ventricles
Meningeal dura mater
Corpus callosum
Periosteal dura mater
1
Interventricular Right lateral ventricle
foramen (deep to cut)
Third ventricle
3
Choroid plexus
of fourth ventricle
Cerebral aqueduct
Lateral aperture
1 CSF is produced by the
Fourth ventricle
2 choroid plexus of each
Median aperture ventricle.
2 CSF flows through the ventricles
and into the subarachnoid space via
Central canal
the median and lateral apertures.
of spinal cord
Some CSF flows through the central
canal of the spinal cord.
3 CSF flows through the
subarachnoid space.
4 CSF is absorbed into the dural
venous sinuses via the arachnoid
granulations.
(c) CSF
circulation
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Protection of the Central Nervous System

▪ Blood-brain barrier
▪ Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
▪ Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass
through the capillary walls
▪ Excludes many potentially harmful substances from
entering the brain, such as wastes
▪ Useless as a barrier against some substances

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Brain Dysfunctions

▪ Traumatic brain injuries

▪ Concussion
▪ Slight brain injury
▪ Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
▪ Contusion
▪ Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
▪ Coma may occur
▪ Death may occur after head blows due to:
▪ Intracranial hemorrhage
▪ Cerebral edema

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Brain Dysfunctions

▪ Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke

▪ Results when blood circulation to a brain area is
blocked and brain tissue dies
▪ Loss of some functions or death may result
▪ Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
▪ Aphasia—damage to speech center in left hemisphere
▪ Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
▪ Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
▪ Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Spinal Cord

▪ Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to

the first or second lumbar vertebra
▪ Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at
the inferior end
▪ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
from the brain
▪ 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
cord

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.19 Anatomy of the spinal cord, posterior view.

Cervical
Cervical spinal nerves
enlargement C8

Dura and
arachnoid Thoracic
mater spinal nerves

Lumbar
enlargement T12
End of spinal cord

Lumbar
Cauda spinal nerves
equina L5
End of S1 Sacral
meningeal
spinal nerves
coverings
S5

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Spinal Cord

▪ Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots

▪ Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
▪ Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons
▪ Receive information from sensory neurons in the dorsal
root; cell bodies housed in dorsal root ganglion
▪ Anterior (ventral) horns house motor neurons of the
somatic (voluntary) nervous system
▪ Send information out ventral root
▪ Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which is filled
with cerebrospinal fluid

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Spinal Cord

▪ White matter of the spinal cord

▪ Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
▪ Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
▪ Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses toward
brain
▪ Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from brain to
skeletal muscles

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.20 Spinal cord with meninges (three-dimensional, anterior view).

White matter Dorsal (posterior)

Dorsal root Central canal horn of gray matter
ganglion Lateral horn of
gray matter

Spinal nerve
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal root of
horn of gray matter
spinal nerve

Ventral root Pia mater

of spinal nerve

Arachnoid mater

Dura mater

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.21 Schematic of ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) pathways between the brain and the spinal cord.

Interneuron carrying sensory

information to cerebral cortex

Integration (processing and

interpretation of sensory input)
Cerebral cortex occurs
(gray matter) Interneuron carrying
White matter response to
Thalamus motor neurons
Cerebru
m

Interneuron
carrying response Brain
to motor neuron stem
Cell body of sensory
neuron in sensory
ganglion
Interneuron carrying
Nerve
sensory information to
Skin
cerebral cortex
Sensory
receptors
Cervical spinal
cord
Muscle
White matter
Motor output Gray matter
Interneuron
Motor neuron
cell body
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

▪ PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the

CNS

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Structure of a Nerve

▪ Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the

CNS
▪ Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber
▪ Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a
fascicle
▪ Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.22 Structure of a nerve.
Axon

Myelin sheath

Endoneurium

Perineurium

Epineurium

Fascicle

Blood
vessels

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Structure of a Nerve

▪ Mixed nerves
▪ Contain both sensory and motor fibers
▪ Sensory (afferent) nerves
▪ Carry impulses toward the CNS
▪ Motor (efferent) nerves
▪ Carry impulses away from the CNS

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Cranial Nerves

▪ 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and

neck
▪ Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic
and abdominal cavities
▪ Most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory
only
1. Optic
2. Olfactory
3. Vestibulocochlear

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device

▪ Oh – Olfactory
▪ Oh – Optic
▪ Oh – Oculomotor
▪ To – Trochlear
▪ Touch – Trigeminal
▪ And – Abducens
▪ Feel – Facial
▪ Very – Vestibulocochlear
▪ Green – Glossopharyngeal
▪ Vegetables – Vagus
▪ A – Accessory
▪ H – Hypoglossal

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.23 Distribution of cranial nerves.

III Oculomotor
IV Trochlear
VI Abducens
I Olfactory II Optic
V Trigeminal V Trigeminal

VII Facial

Vestibular
branch

Cochlear
branch
VIII Vestibulocochlear

X Vagus
IX Glossopharyngeal
XII Hypoglossal XI Accessory

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (1 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (2 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (3 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (4 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (5 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (6 of 6)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Spinal Nerves

▪ Spinal nerves
▪ 31 pairs
▪ Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal
roots of the spinal cord
▪ Named for the region of the spinal cord from which
they arise

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.24a Spinal nerves.

C1
2
3 Ventral rami form
Cervical 4
nerves 5 cervical plexus
6 (C1 – C5)
7 Ventral rami form
8*
T1 brachial plexus
2 (C5 – C8; T1)
3
4
Thoracic 5
nerves 6
7
8 No plexus
9 formed
10 (intercostal
Lumbar 1 nerves)
nerves 1
12 (T2 – T12)
Sacral L1
nerves 2
3 Ventral rami form
4 lumbar plexus
(L1 – L4)
5

S1 Ventral rami form

2 sacral plexus
3 (L4 – L5; S1 – S4)
4
(a
)*Note that the cervical nerve C8 emerges inferior to the C7 vertebra, while the other seven cervical nerves
emerge superior to the vertebrae for which they are named.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Spinal Nerves

▪ Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal

cord into a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus
▪ Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor
and sensory fibers
▪ Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
▪ Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal nerves that
supply muscles and skin of the ribs and trunk
▪ Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a complex of
networks (plexus) for the anterior

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.24b Spinal nerves.

Dorsal root Dorsal

Dorsal root ramus
ganglion

Spinal
cord
Ventral
Ventral ramus
root
Spinal nerve

(b
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
 Spinal Nerves

▪ Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and

sensory needs of the limbs
▪ Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions
▪ Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Table 7.3 Spinal Nerve Plexuses (1 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.25a Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the upper and lower limbs.

Axillary
nerve

Humerus

Radia
l
nerve
Musculo-
cutaneou
s
Ulna
nerve
Radius
Ulnar
nerve
Media
n
nerve

(a) Brachial
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
plexus,
Table 7.3 Spinal Nerve Plexuses (2 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.25b Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the upper and lower limbs.

Femoral
nerve
Lateral femoral
cutaneous
nerve
Obturator
nerve
Femur
Anterior
femoral
cutaneous
nerve
Saphenous
nerve

(b) Lumbar
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
plexus,
Table 7.3 Spinal Nerve Plexuses (3 of 3)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.25c Distribution of the major peripheral nerves of the upper and lower limbs.

Superior
gluteal
nerve
Inferior
gluteal
nerve
Sciatic
nerve
Posterior
femoral
cutaneous nerve
Common
fibular
nerve
Tibial
nerve
Sural (cut)
nerve
Deep
fibular
Superficial
nerve
fibular
nerve
Plantar
branches

(c) Sacral plexus, posterior

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
view
 Autonomic Nervous System

▪ Motor subdivision of the PNS

▪ Consists only of motor nerves
▪ Controls the body automatically (and is also known as
the involuntary nervous system)
▪ Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
Compared
▪ Somatic nervous system
▪ Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS
▪ Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served
▪ Autonomic nervous system
▪ Chain of two motor neurons
▪ Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord
▪ Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
▪ Has two arms
▪ Sympathetic division
▪ Parasympathetic division

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.26 Comparison of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

Central
nervous system Peripheral nervous system Effector organs

Acetylcholine

Somatic nervous Skeletal muscle

system

Acetylcholine Norepinephrine Smooth muscle

(e.g., in stomach)

Sympatheti Ganglion
c Acetylcholine Epinephrine and
Autonomi division norepinephrine
c Blood Glands
nervous vessel
system Adrenal medulla
Acetylcholine
Parasympatheti Cardiac
c muscle
division
Ganglion

KEY
: Preganglionic Postganglionic Myelination Preganglionic Postganglionic
axons axons axons axons
(sympathetic) (sympathetic) (parasympathetic) (parasympathetic)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

▪ Parasympathetic division is also known as the

craniosacral division
▪ Preganglionic neurons originate in:
▪ Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
▪ S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
▪ Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend
to organs that are served

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Figure 7.27 Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system.

Parasympatheti Sympatheti
c Eye c Eye
Brain stem
Salivary Skin
glands Cranial
Sympathetic Salivary
ganglia glands
Heart Cervical

Lungs Lungs
T1 Heart

Stomach
Thoracic
Stomach Pancreas

Liver
Pancreas and gall-
L1
bladder
Liver and Adrenal
Lumbar
gall- gland
bladder

Bladder Bladder
Sacral
Genitals nerves Genitals
(S2–S4)
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 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

▪ Sympathetic division is also known as the

thoracolumbar division
▪ Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through
L2
▪ Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a
sympathetic trunk ganglion
▪ Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord

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 Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division

▪ After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may

synapse with a second neuron at the same or
different level
▪ Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through
the ganglion without synapsing and form part of
the splanchnic nerves
▪ Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion
▪ Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic
organs

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Figure 7.27 Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system.

Parasympatheti Sympatheti
c Eye c Eye
Brain stem
Salivary Skin
glands Cranial
Sympathetic Salivary
ganglia glands
Heart Cervical

Lungs Lungs
T1 Heart

Stomach
Thoracic
Stomach Pancreas

Liver
Pancreas and gall-
L1
bladder
Liver and Adrenal
Lumbar
gall- gland
bladder

Bladder Bladder
Sacral
Genitals nerves Genitals
(S2–S4)
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Figure 7.28 Sympathetic pathways.

Lateral horn of Dorsal ramus

gray matter of spinal nerve
Dorsal root
Ventral ramus
of spinal nerve
Sympathetic
trunk
(a To effector:
) blood vessels,
Spinal (c (b
) arrector pili
nerve )
muscles, and
sweat glands
of the skin
Ventral root Gray ramus
communicans
Sympathetic Splanchnic White ramus
trunk ganglion nerve communicans

Collateral ganglion
(such as the celiac)

Visceral effector organ

(such as small intestine)

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 Autonomic Functioning

▪ Body organs served by the autonomic nervous

system receive fibers from both divisions
▪ Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin, some
glands, and the adrenal medulla
▪ These exceptions receive only sympathetic fibers

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 Autonomic Functioning

▪ When body divisions serve the same organ, they

cause antagonistic effects due to different
neurotransmitters
▪ Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
acetylcholine
▪ Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers release
norepinephrine
▪ Preganglionic axons of both divisions release
acetycholine

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 Autonomic Functioning

▪ Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division

▪ Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally or
physically stressed or threatened
▪ Takes over to increase activities
▪ Remember as the “E” division
▪ Exercise
▪ Excitement
▪ Emergency
▪ Embarrassment

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 Autonomic Functioning

▪ Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
▪ “Rest-and-digest” system
▪ Conserves energy
▪ Maintains daily necessary body functions
▪ Remember as the “D” division
▪ Digestion
▪ Defecation
▪ Diuresis

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Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (1 of 2)

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Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System (2 of 2)

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 Developmental Aspects of the Nervous
System
▪ The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development
▪ Any maternal infection can have extremely
harmful effects
▪ Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
▪ The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the
brain to develop

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 Developmental Aspects of the Nervous
System
▪ Severe congenital brain diseases include:
▪ Cerebral palsy
▪ Anencephaly
▪ Hydrocephalus
▪ Spina bifida

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 Developmental Aspects of the Nervous
System
▪ Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of
the last brain areas to mature prenatally
▪ Development of motor control indicates the
progressive myelination and maturation of a
child’s nervous system

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 Developmental Aspects of the Nervous
System
▪ Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die
throughout life and are not replaced; thus, brain
mass declines with age
▪ Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to
changes in body position
▪ Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal
intellectual function
▪ Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the
major cause of declining mental function with age
▪ Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels

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