CHEMISTRY

GRADE 11
SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON NOTES FOR
THIRD TERM 2024/2025 SESSION

APRIL 28, 2025

PRINCETON COLLEGE
9/33, OLATUNDE ONIMOLE STREET, SURULERE, LAGOS
Week Topics Sub-topics

1 Revision/Electrochemistry I Metal ion and Metal System

Electrode and Standard Hydrogen
Electrode
Standard Electrode Potential
Calculation
2 Electrochemistry II Primary and Secondary Cells
Cathodic Protection
Rusting as an Electrochemical
Process

3 Rate of Chemical Reaction Rate of Reaction Definition

Collision Theory
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate

4 and Energy of Chemical eaction I Types and Determination of Energy

5 of Reaction
Enthalpy Change
Endothermic and Exothermic
Reaction
Standard Energies of Reactions
6 Thermodynamics Enthropy Change
Free Gibb’s Energy
Spontaneity of Chemical Reaction

7 Mid- Term Break

8 Chemical Equilibrium Factors Affecting Equilibrium
Equilibrium Constant
Le chartelier Principle
Chemical Equilibrium in Practice
9 Practical Chemistry I Identification of Gases
10 Practical Chemistry II Identification of Anions
11 Revision and Examination

12 Examination

13 Examination
Week 1
Period 1

Topic Revision of last term examination question

Learning objectives At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• provide solutions to last term’s examination
questions.

Reference book Last term examination paper

2. (ii) List the periodic property that

(a) increases down the group

Atomic size or ionic size [1]

(b) decreases down the group

Electronegativity, ionization energy [1]
(c) describe the tendency to withdraw shared electrons to itself
Electronegativity [1]
(d) explains the relative ease with which metal releases release electrons
Metallic character [
 2a

Cathode

Anode

Oxygen gas

Gas bubbles is formed

Hydrogen gas

Gas bubbles is formed

(iii) Calculate the oxidation number of the following underlined element in the compounds below:

(a) Cr2O72- (b) H2S2O7

2Cr + 2 x7= -2 (2 x+1)+ 2S + (-2x7) = 0

2Cr + 14b= -2 +2 + 2S -14 = 0

Cr = +6 S = +6

TOTAL [10]
3a

Chlorinated compound was discovered to be highly carcinogenic (causing cancer)

Molecular mass= 146.99g/mol). 0.250g of the compound was taking to the
laboratory for combustion analysis to determine the molecular formation of the
compound. 0.450g of CO2 and 0.0618 H2O was liberated. Calculate the molecular
formula of the chlorinated compound. [C=12, H=1, O=16 Cl=35.5]

Since CO2 contains carbon

44g of CO2 → 12g of carbon
0.45g of CO2→ Xg of carbon
44 x X = 0.450 x 12
44x = 5.4
X= 5.4/44
=0.1227g
Therefore mass of C = 0.1227g
Since H2O contains Hydrogen gas
18g of water→ 2g of hydrogen
0.01025 of water→X
18 xX = 2 x 0.0618
18X = 2 x 0.0618
18x = 0.1236
X= 0.1236/18
X=0.0687g
Since the man of chlorinated compounds taken to laboratory is 0.280g,
mass of chlorine
= 0.250 – (0.1227 + 0.00687)
0.250 – (0.12957 )= 0.12043g
Mass of chlorine = 0.1204g
C H Cl
0.1227 0.00687 0.1204
0.1227/12 0.00687 /1 0. 1.204/35.5
0.01025 0.00687 0.003392
0.01025/0.003392 0.00687/0.003392 0.003392/0.003392
3.04 2.03 1.0
321
The empirical formula = C3H2C1
C3H2C1
But recall that (EF)n = (Mr).
Since molecular mass of the chlorinated compound = 146.99g/mol
(C3H2Cl)n = 146.99
(12 x 3 + 1 x 2 + 35.5 x 1)n = 146.99
(36 + 2 + 35.5)n = 146.99
73.5n = 146.99
n=146.99/73.5
n= 2
Therefore, molecular formula = (C3H2Cl)2
= C6H4Cl2
b. Classify the chemical reactions below into their types:
CaCO3(s) →CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Thermal decomposition reaction [1]

AgNO3 + NaCl→ AgCl + NaNO3

Double decomposition or precipitation reaction [1]
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Displacement reaction .[1]

c. What is the type of catalytic reaction below:

C2H4(g) + H2(g) Ni C2H6(g)

Heterogenous catalyzed reaction

Balance the following redox reaction in acidic medium:

i Cr2 O72- + Fe2+ → Cr3+ + Fe3+

ii MnO4- + C2O42- → Mn2+ + CO2

b. Give two examples of

i. oxidizing agent MnO4, O2, HNO3, H2SO4

ii. reducing agent Carbon, SO2, KI, H2S, Sodium metal

5 a.
10.93g of hydrate magnesium tetraoxosulphate(vi)salt (MgSO4.XH2O) was heated
to a constant mass. The residue was weighed and found out to be 5.33g what is the
value of mole of water of crystallization present in the salt? [Mg=12, S=32, O=16,
H=1]
b.
Copy and complete the table below:

Salt to be prepared Starting materials Method of preparation

 1. PbSO4 Pb(NO3)2 Precipitation
2. KNO3 KOH Neutralization
3. CaCl2 CaCO3 Reaction of acid with
trioxocarbonate iv
4. FeCl2 Fe(s) Reaction of metal with
acid

c. Give the IUPAC name and formula of one each of the following:

i. acid salts

NaHCO3

Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate iv. Any other acid salt is correct.

ii. normal salts

KCl

Potassium chloride. Any other normal salt is correct.

6 a.

Iodine is below chlorine in group vii on the periodic table

b. In tabular form, give three differences between diamond and graphite. (the
allotropes of carbon)

Diamond Grahite
1 It is the hardest substance ever known
i. It is extremely soft
2 Its density is about 2.3g/cm3 Its density is about 3.1g/cm3
3 It is octahedral in shape It is hexagonal in shape

c. Vitamin C (molecular mass = 176.12) is a compound that consist of C, H and

O. When 1.00g sample of vitamin C was burned in combustion chamber, 1.5g of
CO2 and 0.4lg of water was released. Determine the molecular formula of vitamin
C. [ C=12, H=1, O=16]

Since CO2 contains carbon

44g of CO2 → 12g of carbon
1.5g of CO2→ Xg of carbon
44 x X = 1.5 x 12
44x = 18
X= 18/4
=0.409g
Therefore mass of C = 0.409g
Since H2O contains Hydrogen gas
18g of water→ 2g of hydrogen
0.41g of water→X
18 xX = 2 x 0.41
18X = 2 x 0.41
18x = 0.82
X= 0.82/18
X=0.0455g
Since the man of chlorinated compounds taken to laboratory is 0.280g,
mass of chlorine
= 1.0 – (0.409 + 0.0455)
1.0 – (0.4545 )= 0.54g
Mass of chlorine = 0.54g
C H O
0.409 0.0455 0.5455
0.409/12 0.0455 /1 0.5455/16
0.034 0.046 0.034
0.034/0.034 0.046/0.034 0.034/0.034
1 1 1.0
321
The empirical formula = C1H1O1
1HO

But recall that (EF)n = (Mr).

Since molecular mass of the chlorinated compound = 146.99g/mol
(CHO)n = 176.12
(12 + 1 + 16)n = 176.11
29n = 176.11
29n = 146.99
n=176.11/29
n= 6.07
Therefore, molecular formula =
= C6H6O6
Week 2

Period 1
Topic Electrochemistry I
Learning objectives At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• define electrochemistry.
• explain what happens in metal/metal ion
system.
• describe standard hydrogen electrode.

Reference book Effective chemistry, pages 299-306

Key words: electrochemical cells, electrolytic cells, standard electrode potential,

standard hydrogen electrode reactivity series.
Method of teaching: The students watch a short video on electrochemistry while
the teacher moderates and asks questions on the video.

Meaning of electrochemistry
Electrochemistry is the study of relationship between chemical change and
electrical work. This has been scientifically investigated by the use of
electrochemical cell which also works by redox reaction.
Electrochemical cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy.
Electrochemical cell works by the free energy from a spontaneous reaction which
can be used to produce electricity or drive car, robot, toys e.t.c. Examples of
electrochemical cell is Voltaic cell or galvanic cell. The table below shows the
differences between an electrolytic and an electrochemical cell:
Electrolytic cells Electrochemical cell
Electrical energy is It supplies electrical
supplied from an external energy by itself
source
 Anode is the positive Anode is the negative
electrode electrode
Salt bridge is absent Salt bridge is present
It is non-spontaneous It is a spontaneous
process process

Metal ion/Metal system

Considering a metal M dipped in the solution of its salt as seen in the diagram
below, two reactions will take place and one will be favoured:

[Link] metal can dissolve in the solution to form positively charged leaving behind
excess electrons on the metal i.e M(s) → M + + e-

2. The metallic ions (cations) present in the solution can take up the electrons
from the metal plate to become deposited as metallic actions on the plate
leaving behind excess anions in the solution
M+ + e- → M(s)

As this is happening, a potential is set up between the metal and the solution. This
potential difference is known as electrode potential. If the metal is dipped into 1
molar solution of its ions at 25oC, then have a standard electrode potential.

Stand electrode potential of a metal ion/ metal system can be defined as

potential difference set up between the metal and one-molar solution of its
ions at 25oC. Every metal has its own standard electrode potential. this standard
electrode potential cannot be determined directly. To determine it the metal ion
metal system is coupled with a standard electrode (hydrogen electrode).

STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE

To determine the standard electrode potential of a metal, a reference electrode is
also known as stand electrode. Scientists agreed internationally to select hydrogen
electrode as an arbitrary standard with an electrode potential value of 0.00 V at all
temperatures. Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a specially prepared
platinum wire immersed in a one molar HCl solution of aqueous strong acid (H+),
through which hydrogen gas is bubbled at l atm.

Thus, the standard electrode potential of a given metal ion/ metal system is
expressed as the potential difference that exist between the metallic electrode and
the hydrogen electrode. In the case of magnesium metal ion/ metal system, the
standard electrode potential (Eo) is determined by the difference between
electrode potential of Mg ion/ metal system and that of hydrogen electrode.
In figure above, electrons flow from magnesium to hydrogen electrode i.e
magnesium undergoes reduction by release of two electrons and the electrons are
taken up by hydrogen electrodes.
Mg→Mg2+ + 2e oxidation

2H+ + 2e-→H2(g) reduction

Mg(s) + 2H+ → H2(g) +Mg2+ overall

Thus, electrode potential is calculated by using the formula below .

Electrode potential = Ƹ
cathode – Ƹ anode

Electrode potential = Ƹ
+ve electrode – Ƹ -ve electrode

= Ƹ reduction – Ƹ oxidation

= Ƹ H+/H - Ƹ Zn2+/zn

= 0.00 - 0.76
=- 0.76V

Evaluation: Effective chemistry page 305 questions 9 and 10

Period 2
Topic Standard Electrode Potential
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• define standard electrode potential.
• write cell notation.
• calculate electrode potential.
Reference book Effective chemistry, pages 299-306

Key words: electrochemical cells, electrolytic cells, standard electrode potential,

standard hydrogen electrode reactivity series.
Method of teaching: The students measure voltage different cells while the
teacher explains the reason for different voltages.

STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIAL

The standard electrode potential for all others metal ions/systems are calculated
by coupling it as shown in figure above. The reading on the voltmeter will be the
standard electrode potential for the metal. However, it must be note that for all
metals above hydrogen on the electrochemical series, electrons flow from them
to hydrogen electrode. For this reason, they have negative standard potential
values. On the other hand, all metals below hydrogen on the electrochemical
series have positive electrode potential this is because electrons flow from the
S.H.E to them. For example, Cu2+/Cu //H2/H+, the half-cell equations are written
as follows:

Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu(s) + 2e- reduction

H2(s) → 2H+ + 2e- oxidation

Cu2+ + H2(s) → 2H+ + Cu(s) overall

Thus, electrode potential is calculated:

Electrode potential = Ƹ
cathode – Ƹ anode

Electrode potential = Ƹ
+ve electrode – Ƹ -ve electrode

= Ƹ reduction – Ƹ oxidation

= Ƹ Cu2+/Cu - Ƹ H2/H+

= +0.34 - 0.00 = +0.34

The table below shows the standard electrode potentials of some metal ion /metal system when
were obtained on voltmeter reading by coupling each of the metal with S.H.E.

1 Li+(aq) + e- →Li(s) -3.05

2 K+(aq) + e- →K(s) -2.93
3 Ba(aq)2+ + 2e- →Ba(s) -2.70
4 Na(aq)+ + e- →Na(s) -2.71
5 Mg(aq)2+ + 2e- →Mg(s) -2.71
6 Al(aq)3+ + 3e- →Al(s) -2.71
7 Zn(aq)2+ + 2e- →Zn(s) -0.76
8 Fe(aq)2+ + 2e- →Fe(s) -0.40
9 Sn(aq)2+ + 2e- →Sn(s) -0.14
10 Pb(aq)2+ + 2e- →Pb(s) -0.13
11 2H(aq)+ + 2e- →H2(g) 0.00
12 Cu(aq)2+ + 2e- →Cu(s) +0.34
13 Hg(aq)2+ + 2e- →Hg(s) +0.79
14 Au(aq)2+ + 2e- →Au(s) +1.50

It should be noted that S.E.P vary from one metal in to another. It depends on the
following factors:
(1) Overall energy change (2) Concentration of the ions (3) Temperature

Video link: [Link]

Week 3
Period 1
Topic Electrochemistry I
Learning objectives At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to
• describe electrochemical cell.
• calculate electrode potential and write cell
notation.

Reference book Effective chemistry, pages 299-306,

Key words: electrochemical cells, electrolytic cells, standard electrode potential,

standard hydrogen electrode reactivity series.
Method of teaching: The students calculate electrode potential of different cell
provided while the teacher corrects their error.

ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS
Since all electrodes have their electrode potentials, when two of metal ion/metal
system are connected, one of them becomes the anode and the other cathode.
Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode so that voltage is generated. It
should be noted that the metal above on the electrochemical series will always act
as anode, while metal below acts cathode. The magnitude of the flow of current
generated depends on the magnitude of the differences between the standard
electrode potential of the two relation/metal system.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL

An electrochemical cell comprises of the following:
(a) An anode compartment where half-cell oxidation reaction takes place.
(b) A cathode compartment where half-cell reduction reaction takes place
(c)The salt bridge
(d) The connecting wire to the load
(d) The electrolyte
The diagram above is a typical electrochemical cell and in this cell, zinc metal
undergoes oxidation by losing two electrons to form zinc ions which goes into the
solution, so that the zinc electrode becomes negatively charged (anode). The two
electrons released flows through the wire to copper compartment where the
electrons are taken up by the copper ions (Cu2+) and becomes deposited as copper
metal (cathode).

Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu(s) + 2e- reduction +0.34V

Zn(s) → Zn2+ + 2e- oxidation -0.76V

Cu2+ + Zn(s) → Zn2+ + Cu(s) overall -1.11V

Electrode potential = Ƹ
cathode – Ƹanode

Electrode potential = Ƹ
+ve electrode – Ƹ-ve electrode
 = Ƹ reduction – Ƹ
oxidation

= Ƹ Cu2+/Cu - Ƹ Zn2+/Zn

= +0.34 - (- 0.76)
= + 1.11V

This implies that the net voltage that would be produced from Zn/Zn 2+//Cu2+/Cu =
1.11V. This voltage is used for small bulbs, toys, clock etc.

Function of salt bridge in an electrochemical cell

Salt bridge is a solution of salt that is contained in a porous u-tube. Salt bridge
contains solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) or solution of Na2SO4 or NaNO3. It
allows the flow of ions through the two compartments. Salt bridge makes sure that
the current is always complete so that there is continuous supply of current by
neutralizing the excess ions each of the compartment.
CELL NOTATION
There is a useful short hand method for describing the component of an
electrochemical cell. For instance, the notation for the electrochemical cell above
is Zn/Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu
(1) Zn /Zn2+ is the anode compartment where oxidation takes place i.e
Zn→Zn2+ + 2e-
(2) Cu2+ / Cu is the cathode compartment where reduction takes place
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
(3) ‘//’ in the middle stands for the salt bridge.

Example 1: Write a cell notation for a voltaic cell containing tin (Sn) in SnCl2
solution and silver (Ag) in AgCl solution.
Solution
From the electro chemical series, tin (Sn) is above silver (Ag) and therefore Sn
will be negative electrode (anode) that is undergoing oxidation while Ag will be
the positive electrode (cathode) that is undergoing reduction.
Sn → Sn2+ + 2e-
Ag+ + e- → Ag
Sn + 2Ag+ → Sn2+ + 2Ag
So the cell notation is
Sn /Sn2+ // Ag+/Ag
Example 2: Calculate the standard cell potential of a voltaic cell that uses Ag/Ag +
(0.80V) and Sn/Sn2+ (0.14V) half-cell reactions. Write the balanced overall
equation and identify the anode and the cathode.
Solution
The silver cell will undergo reduction since it is below on the electrochemical
series while tin will undergo oxidation since it is above.
Ag+/Ag = 0.80
Sn/Sn2+ = -0.14v

Electrode potential = Ƹ
cathode – Ƹ anode

Electrode potential = Ƹ
+ve electrode – Ƹ -ve electrode

= Ƹ reduction – Ƹ oxidation

= Ƹ Ag+/Ag - Ƹ Sn/Sn2+

= +0.80 - (- 0.14)
= + 0.94V
The cell notation is Sn/Sn2+ // Ag+/Ag

Ag+ + e → Ag x2
2Sn → Sn2+ + 2 x1
2Ag+ + 2e → 2Ag
Sn → Sn2+ + 2

2Ag + + Sn → Sn2+ + 2Ag

(3) Oxidizing agent is substance that is reduced which is Ag+

Activity
Evaluation
Consider the information given below, what is the E.M.F of the cell represented
by Zn/Zn2+ // Ag+ / Ag.

Half cell equation Electrode potential

Zn/Zn2+ – 0.763 V
Ag+ / Ag + 0.404 V
 Period 2
Topic Electrochemistry I
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• describe types of electrochemical cells.
• describe charging and discharging in
secondary cells.
• explain corrosion and cathode protection as
electrochemical processes.
Reference book Effective chemistry, pages 299-306,
Method of teaching: The students describe various cells they have encountered
while the teacher moderates.

TYPES OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

Generally, electrochemical cells can be broadly be divided into two groups. These
are primary cells and secondary cells.
1. Primary Cells: These are cells that cannot be recharged when their chemical
component in them are used up. Such bateries are discarded once they are dead.
Examples are Leclanche cell, mercury and silver button cells and so on.
a. Daniel Cell
A simple Daniel cell consists of a copper vessel which act as positive electrode,
filled with CuSO4 solution with a porous partitioning pot filled with zinc(ii) tetra
oxo sulphate(vi) solution. In this solution is a zinc rod which acts as negative
electrode is dipped in it. Daniel cell works by electro chemical principle discussed
above. The cell notation is Zn/Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu with E.M.F of 1.10V.
Limitation
b. Leclanche cell: It consists of central carbon rod as the cathode dipped into a
crushed manganese (iv) oxide which acts as depolarizer. The zinc container act as
the negative electrode which has in it a solution of ammonium chloride as
electrolyte for the cell. When the ammonium chloride as in paste form, then it is a
dry Leclanche cell.
The Chemical Process that produces electricity starts with the zinc atoms from the
container (anode). Zinc atoms releases two electrons which are picked up by
ammonium ion (NH4 +) in the complementary reduction reaction at the cathode.
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e oxidation
2NH4 + + 2e →2NH3 + H2 reduction
The hydrogen gas that is produced at the cathode accumulate and prevent the flow
of current. This hydrogen gas is oxidized back to water by the Manganese vi
oxide. The battery will stop working when all the MnO2 has been depleted or used
up. Leclanche cell is the most common batteries that are used nowadays.
2. Secondary cells: These are also known as accumulators. They are rechargeable
after use. They are charged by electrolytic process. This is done by passing direct
current through it while the stored charges are used up by electro chemical
process. Example of these include lead-acid accumulator, the alkaline batteries
like nikel– cadmium, lithium solid state batteries etc.
A typical lead acid car batteries has lead(iv) oxide (PbO2) as cathode and anode
as metallic lead(Pb) when fully charged. These electrodes are immersed in 4.5
molar of H2SO4 (dilute acid) as an electrolyte. Lead-acid accumulator generate
electrical energy as voltaic cell by discharging .

Discharging process at anode

The lead anode releases two electron by oxidation process to become lead(ii)ions
(Pb2+). Lead II ions later combine with tetraoxosulphate(vi) ions in the electrolyte
and become deposited as lead(ii)tetraoxosulphate (vi) PbSO4

Pb → Pb2+ + 2e oxidation
Pb2+ + SO42– → PbSO4

Discharging at the cathode

The electron that are released are picked up by the cathode (PbO2) and reduced to
Pb2+ ions which later combine with SO42- to form PbSO4
PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e → Pb2+ + 2H2O
Pb2+ + SO4 2– →PbSO4

At a point, the battery will not discharge any current due to production of tar of
PbSO4. Also, water that is produced at the cathode dilute the acid thereby having
its density to about 1.1 gcm-3 or less. To take the battery to work again, the
accumulator has to be recharged.

During recharging, the electrochemical cell is charged to electrolytic process by

connecting the anode and cathode to an external source of direct current and
inter-changing the wire on the anode and cathode. The initial anode has now
become the cathode. The PbSO4 accumulated at the cathode are decomposed to
Pb2+ and SO42–. The Pb2+ take up electron to become solid lead (Pb).
PbSO4 → Pb2+ + SO42-
Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb(s) cathode
Recharging Process at the anode
The initial cathode is now the anode. PbSO4 accumulated at the anode,
decomposes to its PbO(s) back.
After recharging process, the density of the acid returns to 1.25gcm3 and the e.m.f
scales back to its maximum value which is 2.2v for each cell.

Corrosion as an electrochemical process

Corrosion of ion is also called rusting. It occurs in iron when it is exposed to air
and water. The process of rusting is an electrochemical process just as we have
it in batteries. Iron forms rust when it is in contact with air and water or moisture.
Rusting is a surface phenomenon. This means it takes place on the surface of the
iron in contact with moisture and air.
The anodic reaction is conversion of Fe to Fe2+ according to the equation
Fe(s) →Fe2+ + 2e Anodic region
The two electron released is taken up by oxygen. This is the cathodic half cell
reaction.
O + 2e- + 2H+ → H2O
O2 + 4e- + 4H+ → 2H2 O Cathode region.
Thus, the overall equation for the electrochemical
process is 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+ → 2Fe2+ +2H2O(s)
The rust is formed when the Fe2+ formed from the anodic region dispersed
through the surrounding water and reacts with oxygen at some distance away.
2Fe2+ + 1/2O2(g) + (2+n) H2O(l) →Fe2O3.nH2O + 4H+ where n is the coefficient of
water.
The rust is soft and breaks off easily so that the metal beneath the rust can
continue to under the rusting reactions. Rusting resembles electrochemical process
that take place in electrochemical cells in the following ways;
(a) Anodic and cathodic regions are separated by space.
(b) The anodic and cathodic regions are connected by external circuit (iron bar in
rusting).
(iii) The moisture or water surrounding the iron is acting like salt bridge and it is
keeping the solution neutral.
Prevention of corrosion
one major way of preventing corrosion is to prevent the surface contact of the iron
from agents of corrosion. This is done by simply coating the iron with another
metal that does not corrode. Tin (Sn) and zinc (Zn) are metal used as coating.
When iron is coated with zinc the iron is referred to as galvanized iron. However,
a tin-plated iron bar corrodes much faster than a galvanized iron bar. This is
because in tin-plated iron bar, the iron is above tin in the electrochemical series.

Video link [Link]

Evaluation
1. Explain the working principle of Daniel cell.
2. With the help of chemical equations only, explain corrosion as an
electrochemical process
Week 4
Period 1
Topic Rate of chemical reaction
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• define reaction rate.
• describe collision theory.
• calculate simple rate of reaction.
Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 149-158, Cambridge
IGCSE 4th edition page 100-108

Key words: effective collision, activation energy, order of reaction, rate law .
Method of teaching: The students demonstrate rate of reaction using stop watch,
to measure the rate at which precipitate appears using substances of different
concentration.

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION

There are various types of reactions each with different value at which they
proceed to completion reaction like neutralization reaction, precipitation reaction
and redox reaction occur extremely fast in microseconds! Other reaction
like rusting, decomposition can take probably a length of time varying from hours
to months. The last group of reactions like carbonization of coal and aging process
are extremely slow, which can take hundred to millions of years to complete.

The Rate of Reaction

The rate of chemical reaction can be measured in terms of disappearance of

reactant of appearance of products. For example, when iron reacts with
hydrochloric acid as seen in the equation below:
Fe(s) + HCl(aq) →FeCl2+ H2
As the reaction proceeds, iron and hydrochloric acid are depleted (used up) while
iron(ii)chloride and hydrogen gas are formed. Therefore, the rate of reaction can
be said to be the rate at which reactants are used up or at which products are
formed. Rate of reaction is calculated as follows:
Rate of reaction = amount of Fe used up in mole/dm3 or volume of H2 gas formed
Time taken in seconds Time taken in seconds

Thus, the rate of chemical reaction can therefore be defined as changes in the
concentration ofreactants or products per unit time.

Rate = change in [Reactants] or [Products] = ∆[R or P]

time taken t
The concentration is measured in g/dm3 or mol/dm3 while time is measured in
seconds. To determine how fast a reaction proceeds to completion, the following
can be measured:
(i) The rate at which mass or concentration of reactants decrease.
(ii) The rate at which mass or concentration of products formed.
(iii) The volume of the gaseous product produced.
(iv) The changes in pH.
(v) The changes in intensity of colour of solution.
(vi) The time taken to arrive at an easily seen stage.

Importance of Rate of Reaction

For example, if a drug taken by patient does not dissolve quick in his/her system
so that it can be transported through the body can lead to death. Also, how long it
will take cement/mortar to become hard can make a whole lot of difference
between loss and gain for a builder.

Example 1
What is the rate of reaction when 2.0g of sodium reacts with trioxocarbonate (V)
acid solution to liberate CO2 gas at the end of 1/3 of a minute?
Solution
Mass = 2.0g of sodium
Time = 1/3 x 60 = 20seconds
Rate = mass of reactant = 2.0g/20sec = 0.1g/sec.
Example 2
If the time taken to liberate 30cm3 of chlorine gas during preparation of chlorine
is 2mins, what is the rate of reaction?
Solution
Volume = 30cm3, Time = 2mins = 120 secs
Rate = Volume /Time
Rate= 30cm3/120sec
= 1/4 = 0.25cm3/sec.
Rate curve
For most irreversible reaction, the rate of reaction decreases with time. This is
because the reactants are present in the highest concentration at the beginning
of the reaction and continues to decrease as the reaction progresses. The graph
that depicts this trend is known as rate curve. Since the rate of a reaction
increases as the concentration of the reactant increases and vice versa, it can
therefore be said that the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the
concentration of the reactant or product. Thus:
R α [R or P]
R =k[R or P]
Where k is called rate constant.
 Collision Theory
Consider the reaction A-B + C-D → A-D + C-B, For A-D and C-B to be
formed, there must be bond breakage between A-B and C-D. For A-B and C-D to
break, they must collide with each other with a particular minimum of energy
known as activation energy. If this energy is not enough, the molecules will just
be colliding without breakage of the bonds that hold the reactant molecule
together hence, reaction will not take place.
However, if the activation energy of the colliding molecules is equal or greater
than the energy barrier (bond holding the molecules together), then AB and CD
will break to form AD and CB. This kind of collision that leads to a chemical
reaction is known as effective collision. This implies that when the energy barrier
is lower, the reaction will take place faster than when the energy barrier is higher.
To overcome this energy barrier (breaking of bonds), an initial energy is supplied
in form of heat, electric spark in the reaction system. For endothermic reaction for
example, energy must be continuously supplied to break the barrier and to drive
the reaction to completion.

Evaluation : Effective chemistry page 156 questions 1-10

Assignment: Cambridge IGCSE pag4 114 question 1-3
Period 2
Topic Rate of chemical reaction
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

• explain factors affecting rate of reaction.

• calculate rate and order of reaction from
experimental data.

Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

Two important conditions are necessary conditions needed for a reaction to occur.
Firstly, there must be an effective collision among the reactant molecules.
Secondly, energy barrier must be overcome with minimum amount of energy
possessed by the reactant molecules known as activation energy. However, how
fast a reaction will take place will have to depend on factors that can influence the
above. These factors are:

(i) Nature of reactant

(ii) Concentration/pressure (if gaseous)
(iii) Surface area offered by the reactant.
(iv) Temperature of the reaction mixture
(v) Presence of light (for photochemical reaction)
(vi) Presence of a catalyst

Nature of Reactant

Metallic elements like sodium, aluminum, zinc and gold possess different energy
content and reactivity, sodium for example reacts fast and explosively with diluted
hydrochloric acid. Aluminum reacts slowly with hydrochloric acid while gold
does not show any sign of reaction whatsoever with hydrochloric acid.

Na + HCl → NaCl + H2 Fastest

2Al + 6HCl → 2AlCl3 + 3H2 Slower
Au + HCl → no reaction
The rate of liberation of hydrogen gas used to measure the rate of the reaction.
The rate of liberation of hydrogen gas is faster in equation (I) than (ii) because
sodium is more electropositive than aluminum and gold.

Effect of Concentration

Let us consider the reaction between sodium metal and water molecules to form
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas H2(g)
Na + H2O →NaOH(aq) + H(g).
Assuming we only two have one atom of sodium and two molecule of water
reacting in a closed container, the chances of frequent collision is very slim.
If the concentrations of the reactants are increased let’s say 200 atoms of sodium
and 200 molecules of water, there is increase in the frequency of collision
because the number (concentration) of the colliding in particles has increased,
hence the increase in the effective collision of the reactant which is followed by
increase in the rate of reaction.
For gaseous molecules, we talk of pressure. The rate of reaction is increased by
increasing the pressure of the reactant molecules. Consider the graph below:
It can be seen that
For 20g of sodium used, it takes 1 min to liberate xg of H2
For 15g of sodium used, it takes 2 mins to liberate xg of H2
For 10g of sodium used, it takes 3 mins to liberate xg of H2
For 5g of sodium used, it takes 4 mins to liberate xg of H2

With this, it can be concluded that the rate of reaction is directly proportional to
the concentration and inversely proportional to time. The reason for this is that as
the reaction proceeds, the reactants are used up which reduces the concentration
of the reactants thereby reducing the effective collision consequently the reaction
is fast at the beginning and sluggish towards the end, hence the increase in time

The frequency of collision depends on the physical state and the surface area
offered by the reactant. The more finely divided a solid reactant
is, the greater the surface area offered per unit volume and the faster the rate of
the reaction. Consider the reaction of limestone [calcium trioxocarbonate(iv)] with
hydrochloric acid to liberate carbon(iv)oxide.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) →CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
The rate of liberation of Co is slow when the 2 solid limestone is in chips form,
faster when it is granulated and fastest when the limestone is
pounded into powder. This is because maximum surface area of the limestone is
available to make maximum contact with HCl when it is in powdered form while
only outer surface first reacts with HCl when in pellet form, it will take time for
HCl to get into the inside of the limestone. In liquid reactant, the viscosity
(thickness) of the liquid has to be taken into consideration. The denser the liquid,
the slower the rate of reaction and vice-versa.
Effect of Temperature
Recall that the higher the temperature of a gas the higher the volume This is
because increase in the temperature of gas molecules increases the average kinetic
energy of the gas molecules which makes the molecules which makes the
molecules to be more energetic. The energy gained can make the energy of the
reactant particles to be equal or greater than the activation energy which will
make reaction to be faster Also, increase in temperature causes the average speed
of the reactant molecules to increase, thereby increases the chances of more
frequency of effective collision and hence faster rate of reaction. Far more
important than what have been discussed so far, rise in temperature increases the
fraction of collision with enough energy to exceed the activation energy. The
explanation above is shown in the diagram below:
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of chemical reaction without it taking
part in the chemical reaction. A catalyst that speeds up the rate of reaction is
called positive catalyst while the one that slows down the rate of reaction is called
negative catalyst. In hydrogenation of ethene, to form ethane, finely divided
Nickel catalyst is used to increase the rate of reaction (since organic reactions are
generally slow). How does a catalyst work? A catalyst works by lowering the
activation energy or the energy barrier of a chemical reaction, thereby
making the reaction to go to completion as soon as possible. Examples of such
reaction are photosynthesis in plants, decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
formation of chlorinated compounds from
halogenation of methane Conversion of silver halide to grey metallic silver
(employed in photography). In all of the reaction mentioned above, the reactant
particles are exceeded by absorbing certain amount of light energy which will
make it to rapidly collide with other reactants leading to a series of chain reaction
However, in the dark, the reaction cannot take place.
Rate Law
The rate law or rate equation is the basis for kinetic studies. Rate law expresses
the rate of reaction as a function of the product concentration of the reactant.
For a general aA +bB →cC + dD.
The rate law is written in the form
………………………
Rate = k[A]m . [B]n (i)
Where k is the rate constant which is specific for a particular reaction, [A] and
[B] are the concentrations of reactants, m and n are the orders of reaction.
Order of reaction
This is the sum of the power of concentration of the reactant in the rate equation
of a particular chemical reaction. Now if m = 1 and n = 2 in the rate equation
(equation 1), then order of reaction = m + n = 1 + 1 = 2. For this, we say the
reaction is second order reaction. We can have third order reaction if addition of
m and n = 3, it should be noted that the rate constant and order of reaction cannot
be determined by the molecularity or stoichiometry of the reaction, rather it is
determined experimentally. To find orders of reactions, we run series of
experiment each of which starts with a different set of reactants to obtain an initial
rate.
Example 1: Find reaction, the s of reactant given that initial rate for a series of
experiments in the reaction between oxygen and nitrogen (ii) oxide is given
below:

Experiment Initial conc. Of O2 Initial [Link] NO2 Initial rate

1 1.10 x 10-2 1.3 x 10-2 3.21 x 103
2 2.20 x 10-2 1.3 x 10-2 6.4 x 103
3 1.10 x 10-2 1.3 x 10-2 12.8 x 10-3
4 3.30 x 10-2 1.3 x 10-2 9.6 x103
5 1.10 x 10-2 3.0 x 10-3 28.8 x 10-3

To find the order of reaction with respect to oxygen, we pick two equations with
varying concentration for oxygen and keep the concentrate of NO constant.
This implies experiment 1 and 2
R1 = K[O]m . [NO]n

6.4 x 103 = K [2.20 x 10-2]m . [1.3 x 10-2]n ………….1

R2 = K[O]m . [NO]n

3.21 x 103 = K [1.10 x 10-2]m . [1.3 x 10-2]n ………….2

Equation 1 divided by equation 2

6.4 x 103 = K [2.20 x 10-2]m . [1,3 x 10-2]n

3.21 x 103 = K [1.10 x 10-2]m . [1.3 x 10-2]n

2 = 2m . 1
2 = 2m
m =1
Therefore, the reaction order in oxygen is first order. To find the order with
respect to No, we pick two equations with varying concentrations for NO and
keep O2 concentration constant. i.e we choose equation 1 and 3.
R2 = K[O]m . [NO]n

3.21 x 103 = K [1.10 x 10-2]m . [1.3 x 10-2]n ………….1

R3 = K[O]m . [NO]n

12.38 x 103 = K [1.10 x 10-2]m . [1.3 x 10-2]n ………….3

Equation 3 divided by equation 1

12.3 8 x 103 = K [1.10 x 10-2]m . [2.6 x 10-2]n

3.21 x 103 = K [1.10 x 10-2]m . [1.3 x 10-2]n
4 = 2m . 1
22 = 2m
m=2
Therefore, the reaction order in NO is second order. Therefore, law is written as
R= k[O]1 . [NO]2
The overall order of reaction is 1 + 2 = 3.
Therefore, the reaction is a third order reaction.

Video link: [Link]

Evaluation : Effective chemistry page 157 questions 1-4

Assignment: Cambridge IGCSE pag4 114 question 4-6
Week 5
Period 1
Topic Energetics I
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• define energy of reaction.
• explain exothermic and endothermic
reactions.

Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 159-167, Cambridge

IGCSE 4th edition page 92-97

Key Words: endothermic, exothermic, calorimeter, enthalpy.

Method of Teaching: The students look at the labels on empty cans to see
different calories obtainable from different drinks while the teacher explains the
implications

ENERGY OF REACTION
During chemical reaction, energy changes occur. This is because reactants and
products formed are not of the same energy. However, this chemical energy
cannot be measured in isolation, it is measured when substances are made to
undergo chemical reaction with one another so that energy accompanying the
reactions can be measured. This energy can be in form of heat, sound, vibration
etc. The energy liberated or absorbed during a chemical reaction is referred to as
change in heat content (∆H). However, the change in heat content of a reaction
is constant for a given reaction carried out under a set of conditions. If carried out
under standard conditions, then it is referred to as standard heat of reaction. The
standard heat of reaction is the amount of heat liberated or absorbed when one
mole of chemical substance reacts together as represented by their chemical
equation under standard conditions. For example, the reaction between
magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid, the heat of reaction is 420kj/mol. i.e
Mg + HCl → MgCl2 + HCl ∆ = 420kj/mol .
Heat change or enthalpy change can also be obtained from any reaction taking
place in aqueous solution. Such reaction are neutralization, dissolution and
combustion reactions.

Heat content of reaction (∆H)

(Heat content of a substance is represented by delta H (∆H). It is the heat change

during a chemical reaction. Heat change (∆H) is calculated thus:
∆H = heat content of product – Heat content of reaction.
If the value of ∆H is +ve, the reaction is endothermic i.e it absorbs a lot of heat
from the surrounding.
If ∆H value is -ve, the reaction is exothermic i.e it releases heat to the
surrounding. For example, C(s) + O2 → CO2 ∆H = –408 kj/mol.
means that when one mole of carbon reacts with one mole of oxygen to form one
mole of carbon iv oxide, heat liberated is 408kj/mol. (The -ve indicates that heat is
liberated). Another example is the formation of Nitrogen(ii)
oxide from one mole of Nitrogen gas and one mole of oxygen gas.
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) ∆ H = + 180kj/mol
180kg/mol was absorbed (the + ve indicates that the heat was absorbed.
Exothermic and Endothermic reactions Multiple
An exothermic reaction is the type of reaction in which heat is liberated to the
surrounding. For this type of reaction, the change in heat content is negative. (∆H
= – ve). This is because the heat content of the product is less than that of reactant
(Hp–Hr). The container where exothermic reaction is occurring is felt (by holding
it), it is usually hotter than the surrounding examples of exothermic reaction
include all combustion reaction, dissolution of sodium hydroxide and all
neutralization reaction.
An endothermic reaction on the other hand in the type of reaction in which heat is
absorbed from the surrounding. Change in heat content is
positive (DH = + ve). This is because heat content of product is more than that of
the reactant (Hp>Hr ). The container in which endothermic reaction takes place is
always colder than the surrounding. Examples of endothermic reactions are
dissolution of ammonium chloride, thermal dissociation of calcium
trioxocarbonate(iv). The diagrams below shows the diagrammatic representation
of an endothermic reaction.

Evaluation : Effective chemistry page 157 questions 1-4

Assignment: Cambridge IGCSE pag4 114 question 4-6
Period 2
Topic
Energetics I
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• describe the source of energy.
• explain bond breaking and forming.

Source of Heat Energy

Where is the heat coming from? To answer this question, we need to
understand how compounds are formed. For instance, in the reaction
AB + CD → AD + CB for AD and CB to be formed, the bonds
that are holding AB and CD must brake to form new compounds AD and CB.
This implies that there are bonds that are broken and there are bonds that are
formed.
To answer the question above, the heat comes from the differences between the
bond strengths of the reactants and products.
Bond breaking is an endothermic process (since energy is absorbed by) while
bond forming is an exothermic process because energy is always liberated.
If the energy obtained from bond breaking is less than that of bond forming, then
the overall heat change will be negative ∆H = – ve.
ENDOTHERMIC = Bond breaking energy > bond forming energy(∆H = + ve )
EXOTHERMIC = Bond breaking energy < bond forming energy (∆H = – ve)
Video link : [Link]
Week 6
Period 1
Topic Heat of Reaction
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• define heat of reaction and standard heat of
reaction.
• describe various heat of reactions.
• perform simple calculation on heat of
reaction.
• calculate electrode potential and write cell
notation.
Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 161-163.

Key Words: heat of reaction, standard heat of reaction, calorimeter.

Method of Teaching: The students watch a short video on heat of reaction while
the teacher moderates

Determination of Heat of Reaction

To measure accordingly the value of ∆H, we construct a surrounding that retains
the heat and measure the temperature change by immersing a thermometer right in
the surrounding. This surrounding described above is called calorimeter. Later, we
calculate the amount of heat released or absorbed using the temperature change
and the specific heat capacity of the substance.
There are several types of calorimeter:
(1) Bomb calorimeter is used to measure the heat of combustion of food particles
in nutritional studies.
(2) Glass calorimeter is used for detecting heat of chemical reaction

As the reaction proceeds, heat generated is absorbed by the water which raises the
temperature of the water. This heat change is easily detected by the
thermometer. Since we know the initial temperature of the system, the mass of the
reactant and the specific heat capacity of the water, then we can calculate the ∆H
for the reaction.
The quality of heat liberated or absorbed is directly proportional to the
temperature change. i.e
q α ∆T
q = constant x ∆T
constant = q/∆T
The constant is known as heat capacity and it is peculiar to all substances. But if
we are referring to a particular substance, then we say specific heat capacity.
Therefore, heat capacity = q/∆T. Specific capacity(c) is the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 kelvin

Specific heat capacity c = q/m∆T

q = mc∆T
q = mcѳ.

Standard Heat of Reaction

Heat of reaction is affected by various factors such as temperature, pressure nature
of substance involved, the state of substance involved etc. Therefore, it is
important to define the standard conditions for enthalpy measurements. The
condition for determining standard enthalpies are listed below:
• The temperature must be at room temperature which is 25oC or 298k

• The pressure must be l atm or 101325Nm–2 or 760mmHg if gaseous

substances are involved.
• The concentration must be one molar (1 [Link]-3) if aqueous solutions are
involved
Standard heat of reaction is represented as (∆Ho) and they are of four types:

Enthalpy of formation (∆Hof)

Enthalpy of combustion (∆Hoc)
Enthalpy of solution (∆Hos)
Enthalpy of rentralization (∆Hon)

Enthalpy of Formation ∆Hof

This is the quantity of heat liberated or absorbed when substance is formed or
absorbed when substances are formed from their constituents. However, standard
heat of formation (∆Hof) is the amount of evolved or absorbed when one mole of
the substances is formed from its constituent element under standard conditions.
For example, considering the equation
H2 + I2 → 2HI. ∆Hof = + 51.8kj
Since two moles of hydrogen iodide are formed, the standard heat of formation is
+25.8kj/mol = (50.18kj divided by 2).
The table below shows the standard heat of formation of few compounds.

Compound/element ∆Hof in kj/mol

Ca 0
CaCO3 -1206.9
CO -110.5
CH3OH +121.0
Cl 121.0
Cl2 0
NH3 -45.9

The values in the table above are obtained based on the following:
iThe heat of formation for all elements in their standard or free state state is
assigned a ∆Hof of zero. From the table, we notice that ∆Hof for Calcium, Cgraphite,
Chlorine, Nitrogen is zero. This is because they are in their free state .
ii The heat of a compound is the heat of its formation (∆Hof)

Example 1Calculate the heat of reaction for the equations below:

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g ) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
given that ∆Hof NH3= –45.9kj/mol, ∆Hof NO = +90.3kj/mol, ∆Hof 241.8kj/mol
Solution
∆Hof = summation of heat of product – summation of heat of reactant
∆Hof = [ (4 x 90.3) + 6 x (–241.8)]–[ (4 x (–45.9) +5 x 0)]
= [361.2 + ( –1450.8] – [ –183.6 + 0]
= –1089.6 + 1866
= – 903kj/mol
Example
If the enthalpy change of the reaction Al2Cl6 + 6Na → 2Al + 6NaCl
is -1073.4 kj and the ∆Hof of NaCl is 411.1 kj/mol, calculate ∆Hof of Al2Cl6
Solution
∆Hof = summation of heat of product – summation of heat of reactant
– 1073.4 = [(2x(0)) + 6 x ( –411.1)]–[AlCl3 + 6(0)]
– 1073.4 = (0 + ( –2466.6] – [Al2Cl6 ]
– 1073.4 = – 2466.6 - Al2Cl6
Al2Cl6 = – 2466.60 + 1073.40
Al2Cl6 = – 1393.2kj/mol
Evaluation
Calculate the standard enthalpies of formation (heat of formation) of the reaction
CO + H2O CO + H2 , given that standard enthalpies of
formation of CO2 , H2O and CO are –394, –242, and –110 respectively,.
Heat of Combustion ∆Hoc
Heat of combustion is always endothermic. i.e heat is liberated to the surrounding
when any substance is burnt in the presence of oxygen. The amount of heat of
liberated is known as heat of combustion. If however the combustion is carried
out under standard condition, then it is referred to as standard heat of combustion.
Standard heat of combustion (∆Hoc) of a substance is the amount of heat
liberated or evolved when one mole of the substance is burnt completely in
oxygen under standard condition
Heat of combustion is carried out in bomb calorimeter using Q = mcѳ
Bomb Calorimeter
Example
In an experiment to determine the heat of combustion of ethanol, the following
data were obtained.
Solution
Mass of water = 100g
Initial temperature = 25.8 = 298.8k
Final temperature = 75.7 = 348.7k
Mass of ethanol = 0.7g
Specific heat capacity water = 4.2jg–1 k–1
Calculate the heat of combustion of ethanol(C=12, H=1, O=16 )
Solution
Q = mcѳ
Mass of water = 100g
Initial temperature = 25.8 = 298.8k
Final temperature = 75.7 = 348.7k
Mass of ethanol = 0.7g
Specific heat capacity water = 4.2jg–1 k–1
= 100g x 4.2jg–1 k–1 x (348.7 – 298.8k)
100 x 4 .2 x 49.9
20,958J
This implies that 0.7g of ethanol liberate 20,950J.
But mole = mass
Molar mass
= 0.7g
46g/mol
=0.0152mol
0.0152 mole liberates 20,958 J
1.0 mole will liberate x
X = 1.0 mole x 20958
0.0152
=1377.240J/mol
But combustion is an exothermic process. Therefore, the ∆Hoc of ethanol
= -13772.40 J/mol
= =13.77240 kj/mol

Heat of neutralization ∆Hon

Neutralization reaction is an exothermic reaction. This is because hydrogen ion
(H+) and hydroxide ions (OH-) are combining to form water. In other words, heat
of neutralization can be said to be heat of formation of one molecule of water
which is –57.4kj/mol. However, the value may be slightly more or lower than the
value depending on the strength of the acid and base that are reacting.
standard heat of neutralization (∆Hon) can therefore be defined as the
amount of heat liberated when 1 mole of hydrogen ion (H+) combines with 1
mole of hydroxide ion (OH-) from alkalis to form one mole of water under
standard condition.
H+ + OH– → H2O ∆H = –57.4kj/mol
Heat of solution
Solution are formed when ionic solutes are dissolved in suitable solvent. For one
substance to dissolved in another two important event best take place:
Firstly, the solute particles must separate from one another and secondly, the
separated solute must mix with solvent toform solution. In the case of sodium
chloride solution, sodium chloride must separate into its
Ions (Na+ and Cl-). This process requires energy called lattice energy which is
usually endothermic because heat is absorbed during the separation of the
compounds into their ions.
NaCl → Na+ + Cl- lattice energy ∆H = (+ve).
Secondly, the Na+ and Cl- ions are hydrated by water to form solution. This
process is called hydration and the energy required is called hydration energy.
Hydration energy is always exothermic heat is released to the surrounding.
Na+ + Cl- + H2O → Na+(aq)+ Cl–(aq) hydration energy ∆H = (-ve).
The total enthalpy changes which is the addition of the heat changes in the two
steps above is called the heat of solution which could be positive or negative
∆Hs = ∆Hlattice + ∆Hhydration
The heat of solution can be either exothermic or endothermic depending on the
lattice and hydration energies. If the lattice energy (+ve) is greater than the
hydration energy(-ve), then overall heat of solution is endothermic. If on the other
hand, the lattice energy (+ve) is lesser than the hydration energy (-ve) then the
overall heat of solution is exothermic
Standard heat of solution is the amount of heat absorbed or evolved when
one molar of a substance is dissolved in solvent resulting in infinite dilution.
The standard heat of solution of few compounds is given in the table below:

solute type of heat ∆Hon in kj/mol degree of hotness

change or coldness
NaCl endothermic +3.84 cold
NH4Cl endothermic +15.12 Very cold
NaOH exothermic -42.62 Very hot
 Na2CO3 exothermic -25.0 hot

Example
Use the data below to determine the heat of solution of sodium hydroxide using
glass calorimeter.
Volume of water in beaker = 100cm3
Initial temperature of water = 24.5oC(2475k)
Final temperature after adding pellet = 34.5oC(307.5k)
Mass of NaOH dissolved = 4g
Specific heat capacity of water = 4.2Jg-1k-1
Solution
Q = mcѳ

= 100g x 4.2Jg-1k-1 x (307.5 - 397.5)k

= 100g x 4.2Jg-1k-1 x 10k
= 4200J
But mass of NaOH = 4g
mole = mass/molar mass = 4 4/40=
23+16+1
0.1 mole

0.1 mole → 4200J

1 mole → x
1 x 4200 = 0.1 x
x= 4200/0.1
= 42000J/mole
= 42 kJ/mole
But ∆Hs for NaOH pellet is always exothermic, therefore ∆Hos = –42kJ/mol

Video link: [Link]

Evaluation:
From the data given below, calculate the heat of neutralization of hydrochloric
acid and sodium hydroxide volume of 6.0mol/dm of HCl = 50cm3 volume of 2
mol/dm of NaOH =50cm3
Week 8
Period 1
Topic Thermodynamics
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• define thermodynamic.
• state first law of thermodynamics.
• perform simple calculation.

Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 166-167.

Key Words: electrochemical cells, electrolytic cells, standard electrode

potential, standard hydrogen electrode reactivity series.
Method of Teaching: The students list various applications of thermodynamics
while the teacher explains further.

Thermodynamics
Fundamentally, thermodynamics is the study of the relationship between heat
energy (q) and mechanical work (w) that can be obtained from a system. In order
word, it describes how the energy in a system changes and whether the system can
perform useful work on its surroundings. The relationship between heat energy (q)
and the work obtained (w) is articulated in the law of thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, it

can only be connected from one form to another. It can also be stated that the total
amount of energy in an isolated system remains constant. By isolated system, we
mean a compartment where chemical reaction is taking place or where transfer of
energy is not possible. An example of such is a well lagged reaction vessel while
the surrounding is all the area outside the system. These include, the table, the
space, the laboratory and so on.
In practice transfer of energy (inform of heat) take place between the system and
surrounding (work). The internal energy of (U) of a chemical system is the sum of
all the energies aborted by the system (q) and work done by the system (w)
Therefore, ∆U = q + w
The value of q and w can either be positive or negative depending on the type of
change the system undergoes. When energy enters a system, q is positive and
negative when energy is out of the system (evolution). Also, when system absorbs
energy by having work done on it by the surrounding, w is positive and when the
system evolves energy by doing work on the surrounding w is negative.
Therefore, the following equations are possible:
and w.
∆U = (+q) + (+w) ∆U = positives
∆U = ( –q) + (–q) ∆U = negative
∆U = (+q) + (–w) depending on the size of q and w.
∆U = ( –q) + (+w) depending on the size of q and w.

Example
When petrol burns in a car engine, the heat released caused the production of CO2
and H2O to expand, when pushes the piston outward, excess heat is removed by
the car’s cooling system. If the expanding gas does 451J of work on the piston and
the system loses 325 J to the surrounding as heat, calculate the ∆U in KJ.

Solution.
- The piston is the surrounding
- The combustion chamber is the system
- Heat is released by the system so q = –ve = –325J
- Work done by the system to push the piston so, w is also negative = –451J
∆U = q + w
∆U = –325 + –415
∆U = –740J
∆U = –740J
∆U = -0.74KJ
Activity 5.8:
In a reaction between gaseous reactants to form liquid product. The heat absorbed
by the surrounding is 260J and the work done on the system is 375J.
Period 2
Topic Second Law of Thermodynamics
Learning objectives At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• state second law of thermodynamic.
• entropy free energy change.
• explain how entropy, enthalpy and free Gibbs
energy determine the spontaneity of a
reaction.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Since the total amount of energy in an isolated system is constant, any change
which occurs can only be re-distribution of energy. The second law of
thermodynamics is concerned with redistribution of energy. To explain this
second
law, it is important to introduce another concept known as entropy. Entropy is
the degree of randomness or disorderliness of molecules of a substance. A
pure crystalline substance at absolute zero has an entropy of zero because at
absolute zero temperature, molecules remain at rest. At higher temperature above
zero, the
molecules vibrate and cause disorder in their relative position. Therefore, as the
temperatures increases entropy increase as well. Besides altering the
temperature, entropy of a substance can also be altered by altering the volume.
For example, entropy becomes larger when volume increases, when solids melts
or
dissolved in water and when liquids vapourized
In chemical reaction, increase in entropy as associated with increase in number of
moles of substances or when molecules are farther apart from one another.
Entropy increases when a solid reactant changes to liquid product or when liquid
reactant
changes to gaseous products. The second law of thermodynamics states that
any
process which occurs in nature is accompanied by increase in entropy. It can
also be restated that a spontaneous process occurs only if there is increase
in entropy of the system and the surrounding. For a reversible reaction, the
change in entropy is equal to heat absorbed divided by absolute temperature in
kelvin.
S = ∆H
T
Prediction of spontaneous reaction
For an equilibrium reaction, entropy increases when heat is absorbed
(endothermic) and vice-vasal. Therefore, entropy can be used to predict the
spontaneity of a reaction.
Free Gibbs energy: This is another important factor that determines the
occurrence of a reaction or not. Free energy G is the measure of spontaneity of a
reaction or process and of the useful energy available from it. We shall briefly
look at how the formula for G was derived.
Recall that:
∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding……………….i

But recall that ∆Ssorrounding = –∆H system………….*

T
Substitute equation (*) to equation (i)
∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem + (-∆H)system
T
∆Stotal = ∆Ssystem - ∆H
T

Multiply through by
–T∆S = -T∆S + ∆H
–T∆S = ∆H –T∆S …………..ii
The term –T∆S is the Gibb’s free energy (∆G). Therefore, equation (ii) is written
as ∆G = ∆H –T∆S

x
For a reaction to be spontaneous
∆S must be positive
∆G must be negative
The second law of thermodynamics stipulates that
∆Stotal > 0 for a spontaneous reaction
∆Stotal < 0 for a non-spontaneous reaction
∆Stotal = 0 for an equilibrium reaction
∆G < 0 for a spontaneous reaction
∆G > 0 for a non-spontaneous reaction
∆G = 0 for an equilibrium reaction reaction
Considering a reaction that is exothermic (∆H -ve) with high degree of
disorderliness (∆S = +ve), the ∆G will be negative meaning that the reaction will
take place (spontaneous).
∆G = ∆H –T∆S
-ve +ve
∆G = -ve overall (spontaneous)
However, for an endothermic reaction with decrease in entropy ( ∆S = -ve), ∆G is
positive meaning that the reaction will not take place (non-spontaneous).
∆G = ∆H –T∆S
+ve -ve
∆G = +ve overall (non-spontaneous)

If ∆G is zero, then the chemical system is in the state of equilibrium. This occurs
when both ∆H and ∆S are negative or positive, ie
∆G = ∆H –T∆S
0 = ∆H –T∆S
T∆S = ∆H
∆S = ∆H
T
Application of equation ∆G = ∆H –T∆S
Video link: [Link]
Week 9
Period 1
Topic Chemical Equilibrium
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• define chemical equilibrium.
• explain dynamic equilibrium in a chemical
reaction.
• write equilibrium constant.
• explain factors that affect equilibrium.
• state Le Chartelier’s principle.
Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 170-179.

Key words: chemical equilibrium, dynamic equilibrium, equilibrium

constant.
Method of Teaching: The students watch a video on chemical equilibrium while
the teacher moderates.
Chemical Equilibrium

The state if equilibrium of the system that is already balanced will be altered if
another body is added to one of the masses. If this happens, then we say the
equilibrium has been disrupted. Chemical substances can also be in the state of
equilibrium when substances appear to be orderly. The state of equilibrium in
chemical substances focuses on how much of product will be formed under a
given set of conditions. Whereas, chemical kinetics tells us how fast a
reaction can be, chemical equilibrium tells us what is the concentration required
for a reaction to proceed either forward or backward. In general, equilibrium is a
state of a system where there are no observable changes in the properties of a
system with respect to time.
 For example, when copper(ii) tetraoxsulphate (CuSO4 ) dissolved in water, the
crystals gradually dissolve from the bottom of the beaker with its blue colouration
spreading throughout the entire liquid until it gets to a point where, we have an
evenly distributed colouration of the whole liquid. At this point, we say the
solution is at equilibrium.

Dynamic Equilibrium
A system is in the state of equilibrium is the rate of forward reaction is the same
as backward reaction such that there is no observable change. This implies that the
ratio of their concentration is constant.

Characteristics of Chemical Equilibrium

Characteristics of a System of Equilibrium
i. Chemical equilibrium can only be achieved in a closed system. a closed system
implies a system where none of the reactant or product can escape. For example in
the decomposition of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) (CaCO3) if the system occurs
in a closed system, CO2 produced will be able to react with CaO in opposite
direction to form CaCO3. But in a situation where the CO2 escapes in an open
system, the backward reaction is not possible
CaCO3(s) ↔ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
ii. Any of the reaction or product can be a point of reference since the concentration
of the reactant and product are constant in the equilibrium mixture

iii. The concentration of both the reactant and product are constant provided the
conditions of the reaction remain the same.
vi. The rate of forward reaction is the same as the rate of backward reaction.

v. Catalysts don’t affect equilibrium reaction but help the reaction to attain
equilibrium as far as possible. Once the equilibrium is reached, the catalyst backs
off.
Equilibrium in Reversible Chemical Reaction
A reversible reaction is a reaction that goes forward and backwards at the same
time. It implies that was the reactants are reacting to form the product, the product
formed are reacting to form the reactant in an opposite direction. Instead of having
singular arrow as we have in other types of reactions, two arrows are
drawn in between the products and the reactant pointing to opposite direction(↔ )
For example in the formation reaction P + Q ↔ R+ S, P and Q are reacting and
as soon as R and S are formed, the R and S are reacting again to for P and Q. The
reaction may not be very fast at the beginning since the rate at which the reactants
are used up is not the same as the rate as products are formed at the beginning.
But as the reaction is going back and forth, it will get to a time when the rate of
disappearance of P and Q is the same as the rate of formation of R and S, provided
it is a closed system and all other conditions remain constant. when such happens,
we say dynamic equilibrium has been reached. At this point, the rate of bond
breaking and bond forming is the same and it appears that nothing is going on
within the reaction system. The concentration of P, Q, R and S are the same at this
dynamic equilibrium point.

Equilibrium Constant
We shall interpret the active mass as the concentration of the reactant in square
bracket is raised to the power of numeric coefficient of the substances in the
equation. Consider a reaction in which one mole of A reacts with B to give the
products.
mA + nB r Products
let m be the number of moles of A
let n be the number of moles of B
let r be the rate of reaction
Rate is directly proportional to concentration
R α [A]m
R α [B]n
Therefore we say R= [A]m x [B]n
R= k [A]m x [B]n
R= k[A]m . [B]n
Where k is a constant called rate or velocity constant. Now when we have an
equilibrium reaction going on forward and backward as we have in the reaction.
mA + nB ↔ pC + qD
Rate to the right is
R1= k1 [A]m .[B]n ………i
R2= k2 [C]p . [D]q ………ii
But for an equilibrium reaction
R1 = R2
Therefore k1 [A]m.[B]n = k2 [C]p.[D]q
Where k1 and k2 are rates or velocity constants for reactions (i) and (ii)

k1 = [C]p.[D]q
k2 [A]m.[B]n
Ⱪ = [C]p.[D]q
[A]m.[B]n

Where Ⱪ is called equilibrium constant of the reaction at that temperature. The

above expression is referred to as equilibrium constant. It has wide application in
chemistry. For gaseous reaction, partial pressure can conveniently be used instead
of molar concentrations. The equilibrium constant for molar concentration is Ⱪc
while that of partial pressure Ⱪp . For example in the case of ammonia production
from hydrogen and nitrogen gas.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g)

Ⱪc = [NH3 ]2 Ⱪp = P2NH3
[N2].[H2]3 PN2 . P3H2
It should be noted that the value of k or k for any p c equilibrium reaction is
constant. Change the temperature or concentration of any of the product
reactant will not affect the value of k. This is because the equilibrium will readjust
itself to attain equilibrium again to give the same value of Kc or Ⱪp. This is done
by shifting the position of equilibrium either to the lift or to the right depending
on the side that is affected.

Evaluation
Write equilibrium constant for the following reactions
1. 2SO2(g) + O2(g) →2SO3(g)
2. N2(g) + O2(g) →2NO(g)
Period 2
Topic Le Chartelier’s Principle

Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• state Le Chartelier’s principle.
• explain factors that affect equilibrium.

Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 170-179.

Key Words: chemical equilibrium, dynamic equilibrium, equilibrium

constant.

Le Chartelier’s Principle
Le Chartelier’s principle states that if an external constraint or stress such as
change in pressure, temperature or concentration is imposed on a chemical system
in equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift so as to cancel or annul the effect of the
constraint.

1. Effect of Temperature
To discuss the effect of temperature on an equilibrium reaction, it is imported to
state whether the reaction is an endothermic or exothermic reaction. An
endothermic reaction is the reaction in which heat energy is absorbed from the
surrounding while exothermic reaction is that reaction that releases heat to the
surrounding.
A temperature change occurs when there is increase or decrease in the heat of the
reacting system. This results in the shifting of the position of the equilibrium
either to the left (towards the reactant) or to the right (towards the products)
depending on whether it is an exothermic or an endothermic reaction.
where the forward reaction is endothermic, increasing the temperature will move
the position of equilibrium to the sides that favours heat absorption
(right or forward) since forward reaction is endothermic. If we want the
equilibrium position to go backward or to the left, for an endothermic
reaction, the temperature is reduced. On the other hand, if the forward reaction for
an equilibrium reaction is exothermic increase the temperature of such reaction
will move the position of equilibrium to the slide that favours heat releases (left or
backward) since the forward reaction is exothermic. If we want the reaction to
move forward or to the right, for an exothermic reaction, then we reduce the
temperature. For example, in the formation of NO according to the equation
below:
N2 + O2 ↔ 2NO ∆H = +90.4kJmol-1 2 2
Since it is an endothermic reaction, increase the temperature shifts the equilibrium
position forward right which will make more products to be formed
thereby increasing the value of equilibrium constant. For the reaction above, the
desire is to make more of N2 and O2 to be produced, the temperature is simply
reduced while k reduces. On the other hand, in the reaction
2SO2 + O2 ↔ SO ∆H = -395.7kJmol
Since forward reaction is an exothermic reaction increase in the temperature will
make the equilibrium position to shift the left (backwards) so more reactants
will be formed thereby decreasing the value for equilibrium constant. If however,
more of products is desired, we reduce the temperature to favour the forward
reaction while the equilibrium constant increases.

Effect of Change in Pressure

For an equilibrium reaction to be affected by pressure, they must fulfill the
following:
i. It must be homogenously gaseous.
 ii. The total number of moles of molecule. On either side of the reaction
must not be the same.

Recall that Boyle’s law says that the pressure of a gas increases with decrease in
volume and vice-vasal. The number of moles will be regarded of volume in
this case. For example, in the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen gases to
form ammonia as seen below:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) ↔ 2NH3(g)
1 volume of nitrogen is reacting with 3 of ammonia. When the pressure of the
reaction above is increased, the position will shift to the side with lower volume
which is right hand side (forward). This is because forward movement of the
equilibrium position will nullify the high pressure imposed on the system thereby
making the equilibrium constant to remain the same. On the other hand, lowering
the pressure of the reaction above makes the position of the equilibrium to shift to
the left where we have higher volume to produce more reactants

Effect of Change in Concentration

When a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in concentration of one of
the components, the system reacts in the direction that reduces the change.
For example, if the concentration increases the system react to consume excess to
maintain the equilibrium constant. For example, in the reaction below:
PCl3 + Cl2 ↔ PCl5
There is equilibrium balance between the concentration of the reactant and
product in above reaction. If more reactants are introduced, for instance
introduction of chlorine atoms into the equilibrium system will put a constraint on
the equilibrium of the reaction. To relieve this constraint, the position of
equilibrium will shift forward to produce more of PCl5 . So that the k equilibrium
constant will remain 5
the same. Also, we can cause position of equilibrium
to shift forward by removing one of the products that are formed (decreasing the
concentration of the product). For example, decomposition of calcium
trioxocarbonate(iv) CaCO3 produces CO2 and CaO.
CaCO3 ↔ CaO + CO2
We can be continually getting CO2 gas by removing the gas as soon as it is
formed from the equilibrium mixture. On the other hand, in both equilibrium
reaction written above; we can make the position of equilibrium to shift
backwards (to the right) by increasing the concentration of any of the product
formed.

Effect of Catalyst
catalyst was defined as a substance that alters the rate of chemical reaction ie they
either increase or decrease the rate of reaction. They do this by either raising or
lowering the activation energy of erection. However, in an equilibrium reactions
catalyst does not have effect on them. Catalyst only help a reaction attaining
equilibrium point and once the equilibrium position is reached, it backs off.
(III) Effect of Change of Concentration

This principle lies a wide range of application in chemical industries, it helps to:
Set optimum conditions for a chemical process to form or produce a particular
substance. Predict the effect or result when parameters such temperature, pressure
and concentration are altered in a chemical reaction.

Video link: [Link]

Evaluation
1. List four (4) factors and explain two factors that affects equilibrium
reaction.

2. State Le Chartilier’s Principle

Week 10
Period 1
Topic Practical Chemistry I
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:
• identify gases like.
• state the confirmatory test for gases.
• perform simple laboratory test for gases.
Reference Book: Effective chemistry, pages 206-211

Key Words: confirmatory test, soluble gases insoluble gases,

Method of Teaching: The students perform simple laboratory test to identify few
gases while the teacher guides them.

IDENTIFICATION OF GASES

Gases are given off when chemical substances are reacted with dilute acid or
when substances are heated. The gases may be classified as acidic, basic or neutral
gases. Each gas given off can be identified by its colour, odour, action on litmus
paper and various other confirmatory tests. The table below summarizes the
properties
Gas Odour Colour Action on The gas is
litmus
CHLORINE (Cl2) Irritating Greenish yellow Blue to red and Acidic
bleaches it.

Acidic
CARBON Odourless Colourless Blue to red
(IV)OXIDE (CO2)

Alkaline
AMMONIA (NH3) Chocking Colourless Red to blue
(alkaline gas)

Acidic
Irritating Colourless Blue to red
 SULPHUR
(IV)OXIDE (SO2)

Acidic
HYDROGEN Rotten egg smell Colourless Blue to red
SULPHIDE (H2S)

Neutral
NITROGEN (IV) Irritating smell Reddish brown Blue to red
OXIDE

Neutral
WATER VAPOUR Odourless Colourless No action
(H2O(g)) neutral

Neutral
OXYGEN (O2) Odourless Colourless No action
neutral

Neutral
HYDROGEN (H2) Odourless Colourless No action
neutral

Confirmatory Tests for Gases

Colour, odour, action on litmus paper are not enough to identify gases since they
overlap in their physical properties. To be certain of the presence of a particular
gas, confirmatory tests for that gas must the carried out. Below is the
summary of confirmatory test for the gases above

1. Chlorine turns starch Iodide paper to black and bleaches it

2. CARBON (IV)OXIDE (CO2) turns lime water milky.
3. AMMONIA (NH3) Forms dark white fumes with HCl gas
NH3(g)+HCl(g) → NH4Cl. Dark white fumes
 4. SULPHUR (IV)OXIDE (SO2) decolourizes purple colour of yellow
K2Cr2O7 to green with yellow deposit of sulphur. It also turns lead
ethanoate paper to black.

Pb(CH3COO)2 + H2S →PbS + CH3COOH

black

5. NITROGEN (IV) OXIDE turns moist starch Iodide paper to black

6. WATER turns white CuSO4 solution to blue or blue COCl2 to pink.

5H2O + CuSO4 → CuSO4.5HO

COCl2 + H2O → COCl2.6H2O

7. OXYGEN rekindles glowing splint

8. HYDROGEN It burns with a “pop”

Video link: [Link]

Evaluation
Carry out the following test on Sample F and G record your observation
and identify any gas(es) evolved.

a. Put little of F in test tube add hydrochloric acid.

b. Put little of G in water and add water to dissolve it and followed by
BaSO4
Period 2
Topic Practical Chemistry II
Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
• test for anion and cation.
• use confirmatory test to identify anions.
• test for gases and what the anions could be.
Key Words: cation, anion, precipitation, reagents
Method of Teaching: The students carry out test on sample salts.
Qualitative analysis is the identification of anions and cation present in a salt
sample or in its solution. This identification is done by adding
appropriate reagent, heating, which results in formation of coloured precipitate,
liberation of gases which are used in identifying the components of the sample
substance.

Identification of Anions

Examples of anions S2- ,NO3- Cl- ,O2- ,SO3 2- SO42- , HCO3- ,and CO3 2-

To identify an anion the following test can be carried out:

1. Dry Test: This involves heating of the dry salt

This result is colour change, liberation of gases with characteristics odour. It is

important to note all these observations in writing your report. For example
heating of a white solid result in liberation of a reddish-brown gas with reddish
yellow residue indicates that the solid is Pb(NO3)2.
 Pb(NO3)2 PbO(s) +
2NO2(g) + O2(g)

White Solid reddish-yellow residue Brown gas

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Sample X + Heat Colourless, odourless gas which CO2 gas from CO3 2-
turns lime water milky. or
Sample X + Heat Colourless, odourless gas which H2O vapour from
is neutral to litmus and hydrate substance
condenses at the month of the HCO - is present
e.g. CuSO 4.5H2O
….ditto…. test tube,
Brown gasturn blueturns
which Cobalt
wet(II)
blue NO2 gas from NO3 -
3
Chloride
litmus to pink
paper or colourless of
to red.
….ditto…. Yellow
solutiongas which turns
of CuSO brown NO from NO- of
4 to blue.
in air. Heavy metal.
moderately reactive
….ditto…. Colourless gas with irritating SO2 from SO3 2- or
smell, turn wet litmus paper to metal.
S O
2 3
blue and decolourizes KMnO4
solution.
….ditto…. Colourless gas with chocking NH3 from NH4 +
smell, turns red litmus paper to
4
2. Test on Acidblue.
Radicals in Solution

This involves the use of precipitating and oxidizing agents to identify the anions
after forming their solution with distilled water. The anions give various

1
 characteristic coloured precipitates with these reagents with or without
liberation of gases.

Examples of these reagents are given below:

i. AgNO3 solution will precipitate CO32-,SO42-,Cl-, Br and I-

ii. BaCl or Ba(NO3)2 will precipitate CO3 2-,S -, SO 2-, SO 2-

iii. KMnO4 will oxidize SO32-or S -

iv. Pb(CH COO)2 or Pb(NO3 )2 solution will precipitate CO2-,SO42-,S2- ,

SO32-, Cl-, Br- and I- in solution.

v. MgSO4 solution will precipitate CO32- was in solution.

1. Test on Chlorides ions

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

White precipitate forms. Cl- is present.
Solution of
sample X + dil.
White precipitates dissolves to
AgNO3 + Cl- is confirmed.
form a colourless solution.
HNO3(aq) + present
NH3(aq) in
2
excess.
2. Chemical Test for Bromide ions

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Yellowish-white precipitate. Br- is present.
Solution of
sample X +
Yellowish-white precipitate
AgNO3 + Br- is confirmed.
slightly soluble.
HNO3(aq) +

3.NH4OH on Iodide ion (I-)

Test(aq)

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

Yellowish precipitate. I- is present.
Solution of X +
dil. HNO3(aq) +
Yellowish precipitate insoluble. -
AgNO3(aq) I is confirmed.
4. Test on Trioxonitrate(V) ions3 (NO -)
+ NH4OH(aq) in

excess.
TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE
3
Solution of Brown ring colouration appears NO - ion confirmed.
3
substance X + at the junction of the acid and
freshly prepared aqueous
FeSO4(aq) +
layer.
cold
concentrated
H2SO4(aq)
This test is known as Brown Ring test. It is very important to freshly prepare
gently poured
FeSO4 to
down the side of
the test tube.
prevent oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+

5. Test on CO
3 2-3, SO4 2-

, SO 2-

Solutions of substance containing

3 CO3
2-, SO
4
2-, SO 2- ion also give the white
2 4
precipitate with BaCl solution. Such precipitate will dissolve on adding dilute

HCl, except for SO 2-. But the precipitate will not form HCl solution is added
before BaCl2(aq).

4
 TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE
White precipitate is formed. CO 2- or SO 2- or
Solution of SO 2- is
substance X +
3
BaCl2(aq)
3
Precipitate dissolves.
+ HCl(aq) in 4
To identify Trioxocarbonate(IV) ion CO32-we go this way
excess.
suspected.

CO 2- or SO 2- is
TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE
present.
White precipitate CO3 2- or SO3 2- or
Solution of formed. 3 3
SO4 2- may be
substance X = present.
+BaCl2(aq)
White precipitate dissolve
colourless, odourless, gas turn
2- lime water milky is evolved. CO2 gas from CO3 2-
To+identify
HCl(aq)SO
in , we perform the following test:
3

excess. present.

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

White precipitate formed. CO 2- or SO 2- or SO
Solution of 2- or S -
substance X +
3 3
BaCl2(aq) +
4 2 5
dilute HCl in
excess. is suspected.
Precipitate dissolves with
evolution of colourless
irritating smell gas that
The gas in SO from
decolourized KMnO4.
SO 2-
To identify SO 43-, the precipitate will remain insoluble on adding dilute HCl

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

White precipitate formed. CO3 2- or SO3 2- or SO4 2-
3-
To identify SO , the is suspected.
precipitate will
remain insoluble on
2-
adding dilute HCl SO4 present.

Precipitate insoluble.

To identify S2-. We perform the test below:

TEST OBSERVATION INFERENCE

White precipitate formed. CO3 2- SO3 2- or SO4
Solution of 2- or S -
sample X +
Precipitate dissolves with is suspected.
BaCl2(aq) +
evolution of a colourless gas
dilute HCl in
with rotten egg smell.
excess.
Decolourize KMnO4 with The gas is H2S from S
Video link: [Link]
deposit of Sulphur. -

6
Evaluation

1. You are given salts A, B, C. Perform the following test below to identify
the gas liberated by each of the salts.

a. Salt A + HCl(aq) followed by wet

litmus paper.

b. Salt B + water + heat + litmus paper.

c. Salt C + heat.

7
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