Transport in Animals

Key Concepts:
Different types of Circulatory Systems, The
Human Circulatory System, The Heart,
Functioning of the Heart, Blood Vessels, The
Lymphatic System, Cardiovascular Diseases
and Blood groups
Page 1.28 - 1.42

Created by Ms. C.R. Els

 Topic 1:
Different Types of Circulatory Systems
Key Concepts:
Circulatory Systems, Open Circulatory
System, Closed Circulatory System, Open
vs Closed Circulatory System
Page 1.28 - 1.29

Circulatory Systems
Animals need oxygen and nutrients to survive.
Waste products and carbon dioxide must be removed to prevent poisoning of body cells.
More complex animals such as mammals and humans have a blood circulatory system to perform these
functions.
There are two types of blood circulatory systems:
An open circulatory system
A closed circulatory system

Open Circulatory System

An open circulatory system occurs in molluscs, crustaceans and arthropods including insects.
Blood is pumped from the heart into blood vessels and into a body cavity known as the haemocoel.
The blood thus leaves the blood vessels and bathes the internal organs, allowing the exchange of nutrients,
waste and gases.
Blood returns to the heart via openings known as ostia.
Movement of the body muscles makes the blood move.
Blood flows very slowly in a large blood-filled haemocoel.
Blood pressure is very low so these types of circulatory systems are limited to smaller animals.

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 1

Closed Circulatory System
A closed circulatory system occurs in earthworms and vertebrate animals.
Blood is pumped from the heart into blood vessels which reach all body tissues.
These blood vessels are arteries.
Larger blood vessels branch into capillaries which occur between the cells for the exchange of nutrients,
waste and gases.
Blood flows back to the heart in blood vessels with valves to ensure that the blood flows in only one direction
towards the heart.
These blood vessels are veins.
After the blood has circulated through the body, it is pumped to the lungs under high pressure to absorb
oxygen.
The high rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the body makes it possible for birds and mammals to maintain
a high level of activity.
The high blood pressure in a closed blood circulatory system makes it much more effective than an open
circulatory system.

Open Circulatory System vs Closed Circulatory System

Heart
Ostia Valve Heart
Valve
Vein
Artery

Artery
Open Circulatory System Closed Circulatory System

Some animals such as the jellyfish, flatworm, sea anemone and coral don't
have hearts. They rely on processes like diffusion to obtain nutrients and
oxygen and release carbon dioxide and waste products.

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 2

 Topic 2:
The Human Circulatory System
Key Concepts:
Human Circulatory System, Pulmonary
Circulatory System, Systemic Circulatory
System
Page 1.29 - 1.30

Human Circulatory System

The circulatory system in humans consists of 3 main components:
The heart which is the pumping organ.
Blood vessels which are tubes that blood flows through.
Blood which is the fluid that acts as a transport medium in blood vessels.
Humans have a closed circulatory system where blood is limited to blood vessels.
The high rate of oxygen-rich blood flow through the body makes it possible to maintain a high level of
activity.
Humans have a double circulatory system. There are 2 main circulatory systems under different
pressures which can be distinguished:
Pulmonary circulatory system
Systemic circulatory system

Capillary bed of lungs where

exchange of gases occurs

Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Pulmonary circuit

Aorta and branches

Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Left atrium
Left ventricle
Right atrium
Right ventricle Systemic arteries
Systemic veins
Systemic circuit
Deoxygenated blood Oxygenated blood
High carbon dioxide Low carbon dioxide
Low oxygen High oxygen

Capillary bed of all body tissues

where exchange of gases occurs

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 3

Pulmonary Circulatory System
Blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back.
Deoxygenated blood leaves the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery and flows to the lungs.
The blood absorbs oxygen from the lungs via diffusion and releases carbon dioxide.
The now oxygenated blood flows back to the left atrium via pulmonary veins.

Systemic Circulatory System

Blood flows from the heart to the rest of the body and back.
Oxygenated blood leaves the left ventricle through the aorta (the largest artery in the body).
The aorta branches into smaller arteries.
Arteries branch into arterioles.
Arterioles branch into small capillaries which branch between all tissue cells.
Substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products occurs between the blood in the
capillaries and the tissue cells.
The now deoxygenated blood flows back to the right atrium via superior and inferior vena cavae.
Deoxygenated blood has a:
High concentration of carbon dioxide.
Low concentration of oxygen.
Oxygenated blood has a:
Low concentration of carbon dioxide. Head and arms
High concentration of oxygen.

Carotid vein and Carotid artery and

subclavian vein subclavian artery

Pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary
vein
Aorta
Superior
vena cava
Inferior
vena cava

Hepatic vein Liver

Hepatic artery

a
Digestive
Hepatic portal vein tract
Mesenteric artery

Renal vein Renal artery

Kidneys
Iliac vein Iliac artery Practice Exercise
Unit 3
Question 4
Deoxygenated blood Oxygenated blood
High carbon dioxide Low carbon dioxide Page 1.95
Abdomen and legs
Low oxygen High oxygen

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 4

 Topic 3:
The Structure of the Heart
Key Concepts:
External Structure, Internal Structure, Diagram
of the Human Heart
Page 1.30 - 1.33

External Structure
The human heart is a hollow, pear-shaped muscular organ and is approximately the size of a closed fist.
The walls of the heart consist of cardiac muscle tissue which contracts and relaxes automatically.
This makes the cardiac muscle tissue of the heart an involuntary muscle as we do not consciously
control it when it contracts and relaxes.
The heart is situated in the thoracic cavity, above the diaphragm and between the lungs.
It is therefore protected by the ribs and the sternum.
The upper end of the heart is slightly wider than the lower end.
The lower end points downwards and to the left.
The heart is kept in position by the large blood vessels that enter the heart and leave the heart.

Aorta
Pulmonary artery
Superior
vena cava
Pulmonary vein
Right
atrium
Left atrium
Right
coronary Left coronary
vein muscles artery

Rightsupplies 99 Left coronary

vein
coronary
artery Left
Right ventricle
ventricle Apex of
the heart
Inferior
iii
vena cava
bi iiiii Diaphragm
absorbtion
Pericardium

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 5

 The heart is enclosed by a double-walled membrane known as the pericardium.
There is a watery fluid between the membranes which prevents friction between the heart and the surrounding
organs when the heart contracts and relaxes.
The coronary blood vessels are visible on the outer surface of the heart.
These blood vessels transport blood to and from the cardiac muscle.
The cardiac muscle is living tissue.
It therefore requires oxygen and nutrients.
These are transported by the coronary arteries.
Waste products and carbon dioxide are removed by the coronary veins.

Internal Structure
The heart is divided into a right half and a left half by a strong muscular wall known as the septum.
The left side of the heart contains oxygenated blood while the right side of the heart contains deoxygenated
blood.
Remember that oxygenated blood:
Low concentration of carbon dioxide
High concentration of oxygen
Also known as oxygen rich blood
Remember that deoxygenated blood:
High concentration of carbon dioxide
Low concentration of oxygen
Also known as oxygen poor blood
The blood in the left side of the heart never mixes with the blood in the right side, therefore the heart can be
seen as a double pump.
Each half is further divided into 2 chambers so that the heart consists of four chambers.
The two upper chambers:
These chambers are known as the atria.
They are receiving chambers.
They are smaller.
They have thinner muscular walls.
The two lower chambers:
These chambers are known as ventricles.
They are pumping chambers.
They are larger.
Their muscular walls are thicker.
The inside of the heart is lined with a thin membrane of squamous epithelium known as the endocardium.

Right atrium (RA)

The right atrium is one of the upper chambers of the heart and it receives deoxygenated blood from the
whole body.
This deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium through the inferior and superior vena cava.
The inferior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the lower limbs and abdomen to the heart.
The superior vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from the head and arms.
The walls of the right atrium are thin because blood only needs to be pumped from the right atrium into the
right ventricle.

Right ventricle (RV)

The right ventricle is situated directly below the right atrium and it has thicker muscular walls than the right
atrium.
However, their walls are not as thick as the left ventricle because it only has to pump blood over a short
distance to the lungs.
The blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the atrio-ventricular opening which has a
valve.
This is commonly known as the tricuspid atrioventricular (AV) valve.
Deoxygenated blood is then pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary arteries.
In the lungs:
Deoxygenated blood releases carbon dioxide into the lungs via diffusion.
The blood then absorbs oxygen from the lungs via diffusion.
The blood is now oxygen rich and is referred to as oxygenated blood.

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 6

Diagram of the Human Heart (Internal)
thatcan
and
expand
anything
contract

Aorta

Superior vena cava Pulmonary artery

from upper body to left lung
Pulmonary vein
Pulmonary artery from left lung
to right lung
Left atrium
Pulmonary vein
from right lung Bicuspid valve
Pulmonary Aortic
semilunar valve semilunar valve
blood is
thickertissue
Right atrium Pericardium
Tricuspid valve Septum
Chordae tendinae Left ventricle

Papillary muscle
Right ventricle

Endocardium

I
Inferior vena cava
from lower body Muscle wall

going can
from
Left atrium (LA) to 1m Blood
The left atrium is situated at the top left of the heart and it receives oxygenated blood.
There are four pulmonary veins that open into the left atrium.
left
Ert
There are 2 pulmonary veins carrying oxygenated blood from the right lung.
There are 2 pulmonary veins carrying oxygenated blood from the left lung.
The structure of the left atrium is the same as the structure of the right atrium.

Left ventricle (LV)

The left ventricle is situated directly below the left atrium.
eblood 9
rightway
It is the largest chamber in the heart and it has the thickest muscular walls. the
This is because it has to pump blood over a long distance to the whole body.
The blood flows from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the atrio-ventricular opening which has a
valve.
This is commonly known as the bicuspid atrioventricular (AV) valve.
Oxygenated blood is then pumped to the rest of the body via the largest artery in the body - the aorta.
In the rest of the body: a
Oxygenated blood releases oxygen into the tissues via diffusion.
The blood then absorbs carbon dioxide from the tissues via diffusion.
The blood is now oxygen poor and is referred to as deoxygenated blood.

Created by Ms. C.R. Els 1 Ii Page 7

TAKE NOTE Right &
left lung
Blood vessels that transport blood away from the heart are known as arteries.
Think A for AWAY.
Blood vessels that transport blood to the heart are known as veins.
Pulmonary
All arteries carry oxygenated blood. veins
There is one exception to this rule.
The pulmonary arteries are the only arteries in the body that transport deoxygenated
blood. Left
All veins carry deoxygenated blood. atrium
There is also one exception to this rule.
The pulmonary veins are the only veins in the body that transport oxygenated blood.
Bicuspid
Cardiac Valves valve
Valves prevent the backflow of blood in the heart and ensure that blood only flows through
the heart in one direction.
Left
This ensures that the maximum amount of blood can reach all of the body organs to deliver ventricle
oxygen and nutrients and remove carbon dioxide and waste products.
There are four cardiac valves:
Tricuspid valve between the RA and RV Aortic
semilunar
Bicuspid (mitral) valve between the LA and LV valve
Aortic semilunar valve between the LV and aorta
Pulmonary semilunar valve between the RV and pulmonary artery
Aorta
Tricuspid Valve
The tricuspid valve is situated between the right atrium and the right ventricle - it is an
atrioventricular valve.
This valve consists of 3 flaps - tri. Body tissue
arteries
The flaps are attached to the inner walls on the right ventricle by inelastic tendons known as
the chordae tendinae.
The chordae tendinae are attached to small protrusions known as papillary muscles on the Body tissue
inside wall of the right ventricle. capillaries
When the right atrium contracts:
The flaps of the valves are pushed open and the blood flows through the atrioventricular
opening to the right ventricle. Body tissue
veins
When the right ventricle contracts:
The blood pushes the flaps of the valve up and closes the atrioventricular opening.
The papillary muscles contract and this pulls the chordae tendinae tight and prevents the Superior &
inferior vena
flaps from being pushed too far back into the right atrium. cava
The valve is now closed and blood cannot flow back from the right ventricle to the right atrium.

Bicuspid (mitral) valve Right

The bicuspid valve is situated between the left atrium and the left ventricle - it is an atrium
atrioventricular valve.
This valve consists of 2 flaps - bi.
The flaps are attached to the inner walls on the left ventricle by inelastic chordae tendinae Tricuspid
which are attached to papillary muscles on the inside wall of the left ventricle. valve

When the left atrium contracts:

The flaps of the valves are pushed open and the blood flows through the atrioventricular
Right
opening to the left ventricle. ventricle
When the left ventricle contracts:
The blood pushes the flaps of the valve up and closes the atrioventricular opening.
Pulmonary
The papillary muscles contract and this pulls the chordae tendinae tight and prevents the semilunar
flaps from being pushed too far back into the left atrium. valve
The valve is now closed and blood cannot flow back from the left ventricle to the left atrium.

Pulmonary
artery

Right & left

lung

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 8

Aortic Semilunar Valve
The aortic semilunar valve occurs at the base of aorta, separating the left ventricle from the rest of the aorta.
This valve is found on the inside of the blood vessel (aorta).
It resembles a half-moon-shaped membranous pocket.
The free ends face downwards towards the left ventricle.
When the left ventricle contracts:
The flaps of the aortic semilunar valve are pushed open and the blood flows into the aorta.
When the left ventricle relaxes:
The blood flows back down the aorta towards left ventricle.
Blood fills the membranous pockets which push against one another so the valve closes.
Blood cannot flow back down into the left ventricle.

Pulmonary Semilunar Valve

The pulmonary semilunar valve occurs at the base of the pulmonary artery, separating the right ventricle
from the rest of the pulmonary artery.
This valve is found on the inside of the blood vessel (pulmonary artery).
It resembles a half-moon-shaped membranous pocket.
The free ends face downwards towards the right ventricle.
When the right ventricle contracts:
The flaps of the pulmonary semilunar valve are pushed open and the blood flows into the pulmonary artery.
When the right ventricle relaxes:
The blood flows back down the pulmonary towards right ventricle.
Blood fills the membranous pockets which push against one another so the valve closes.
Blood cannot flow back down into the right ventricle.

ANTERIOR VIEW

Pulmonary semilunar valve

right

Aortic semilunar valve

left

Bicuspid (mitral)
atrioventricular
valve Tricuspid
left atrioventricular valve
right

POSTERIOR VIEW

Superior view of heart valves illustrating position, size, and shape of each valve.

Practice Exercise
Unit 3
Question 1 & 2.4
Page 1.93 - 1.94

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 9

 Topic 4:
Events of the Cardiac Cycle
Key Concepts:
Events of the Cardiac Cycle, Atrial Systole, Ventricular
Systole, General Diastole, Mechanisms Controlling
Heartbeat, How the Heart Beats, EKG/EGC, Control of
the Heartbeat, The Effect of Exercise on Heartbeat
Page 1.33 - 1.35

Events of the Cardiac Cycle

The human heart beats an average of 72 beats per minute.
Each heartbeat lasts 0.8 seconds.
All the changes that occur in the heart during one heartbeat are known as the cardiac cycle.
The contraction of any part of the cardiac muscle is called systole.
contract
The relaxation of any part of the cardiac muscle is called diastole.
relax
The cardiac cycle can be divided into three phases:
Atrial systole contraction of the atria pushing blood into ventricles
Ventricular systole
General diastole

Atrial Systole (0.1s)

Both atria are filled with blood and contract simultaneously (at the same time).
The openings of the vena cava and the pulmonary veins are squeezed closed due to the contraction of the
atria.
The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are forced open and the blood is pumped through the atrioventricular
openings into the ventricles.

Pulmonary semilunar valve

Left atrium
Aortic semilunar valve closed
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve Bicuspid (mitral) valve open
Left ventricle

Contraction
Right ventricle
Relaxation

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 10

Atrial systole
muscle contracting ventrelax
Blood goingfrom atria
tertides
gives
values AVBlaire's open

[Link]
atopen
look closed
vires
Ventricular
systole bottom
happens
from
Ventricle systole
muscle citric atria relax
Blood pushed p throughaorta pulmonaryartery throughsemilunarValue

Values AV values are closed so blood doesn't go backup

SL are open

Dyastole

muscle relax
Blood enters startingfillingthe atria
Values SLclosed
AV values opened
Ventricular Systole (0.3s)
Both ventricles contract simultaneously (at the same time).
The contraction closes the tricuspid and bicuspid valves so that no blood can flow back into the atria.
Deoxygenated blood is pumped out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery and oxygenated blood is
pumped from the left ventricle into the aorta.
The semilunar valves in the pulmonary artery and aorta are open.
Aorta

Pulmonary semilunar valve

open
Left atrium
Aortic semilunar valve open
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve closed Bicuspid (mitral) valve closed
Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Contraction

General Diastole (0.4s)

The ventricles and the atria relax.
The semilunar valves close to prevent blood flowing back into the ventricles from the pulmonary artery and
aorta.
During this resting phase, deoxygenated blood flows from the two vena cavae into the right atrium and
oxygenated blood flows from the four pulmonary veins into the left atrium.
Both atria fill with blood.
The tricuspid and bicuspid valves are open and the blood in the atria flows through to the ventricles.

From upper
body

Pulmonary semilunar valve From left

closed lung

Left atrium
Aortic semilunar valve closed
Right atrium
Bicuspid (mitral) valve open
Tricuspid valve
open
Left ventricle

From lower
body

Right ventricle

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 11

Mechanisms Controlling the Heartbeat
The cardiac muscle functions automatically and can therefore contract and relax without any external
stimuli.
The contractions begin within the muscle cells.
Each cardiac cycle (contraction and relaxation of the heart) results in a sound known as the heartbeat.
The heartbeat can be heard using an instrument known as a stethoscope.
The sound of one heartbeat can be heard as a lub-dub sound.
The lub sound is caused by the closing of the biscuspid and tricuspid valve and is louder.
The dub sound is caused by the closing of the semilunar valves in the aorta and pulmonary artery.

How the Heart Beats FittrEneatrate

Anatomy:
There is specialised conducting tissue which occurs in the wall of the heart.
There is a group of specialised muscle cells known as the sino-atrial (SA) node which is found in the wall of
the right atrium.
The sino-atrial node initiates the impulses for contraction.
It is therefore known as the pacemaker of the heart.
At the lower end of the septum between the right atrium and left atrium there is another group of
specialised muscle cells known as the atrioventricular node.
This node transfers impulses to a special muscle tissue known as the bundle of His.
The bundle of His extends throughout the septum between the left ventricle and right ventricle.
The bundle of His conducts impulses from the atria to the ventricles.
At the apex of the heart the bundle of His branches into a network of fibres known as the Purkinjee fibres.
These fibres branch throughout the walls of the ventricles to conduct impulses faster and more
effectively.

pioneer Read
Respiratory vid
Transport watch

Sino-atrial (SA) node

Left atrium
pacemaker

Internodal pathway
Atrioventricular (AV) node
Purkinjee fibres
Atrioventricular bundle
bundle of His Left ventricle
Bundle branches Septum
Right ventricle
Purkinjee fibres

apex
Functioning in the cardiac cycle:
During the cardiac cycle the contraction begins at the SA node and spreads across the two atria to the AV
node via the internodal pathways.
The two atria contract simultaneously.
From the AV node the impulse passes along the bundle of His, between the ventricles, to the Purkinjee
fibres.
This causes the ventricles to contract simultaneously from their lower ends.
Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 12
What is an EKG/ECG?
Eia
The electrocardiogram, referred to as an EKG or ECG, is a measurement of the electrical activity of the
heart. causescontractiation
This can give the physician information about the health of the heart, especially the myocardium.
heart
muscl
It provides a wave record of the electrical signal as it moves through the conduction system of the heart.
This signal stimulates the chambers of the heart to contract and relax in the proper sequence.

ventystole
SA node
pacemaker systemic
pulmon

atriystole genghstole

P wave QRS complex T wave

corresponds to correlates to contraction represents preparation for
contraction of the atria of the ventricles next series of complexes

contraction
aug

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 13

 high
geination starts

µ
cardiac
cycle
starts low

pot
pressure
and plow

Control of the Heartbeat

The heartbeat is controlled by the nervous system as well as by hormones.
A healthy adult's resting heart rate is approximately 72 beats per minute but can increase to about 200
beats per minute after strenuous exercise.
Control by the nervous system:
The autonomic nervous system controls the heartbeat by conducting impulses via two types of nerve fibres
from the brain to the SA node.
The sympathetic nerves - nerve impulse accelerate the heartbeat/ heart rate.
The parasympathetic nerves - nerve impulses slow down the heartbeat/ heart rate back to normal.
Definition: The autonomic nervous system is part of the nervous system of vertebrates that controls the
involuntary actions of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands.
Control by hormones:
Hormones adrenalin and thyroxin are transported in the blood and also accelerate the heartbeat/ heart rate.
Adrenalin is a hormone released during times of stress and causes a faster heartbeat/ heart rate.
Responding in these times of stress is known as the 'fight or flight' response.
A faster heartbeat/heart rate causes blood to be pumped faster to the brain and muscles which need the
most oxygen in 'fight or flight' situations.

Effect of Exercise on the Heartbeat

During exercise more respiration occurs in the muscles to release more energy for
muscle contraction.
Therefore more carbon dioxide is released into the blood.
There are receptors in the carotid arteries (neck arteries) which detect the increase
in carbon dioxide concentration in the blood.
The respond by sending nerve impulses to the brain.
Sympathetic nerve fibres transmit nerve impulses to the SA node (pacemaker) which Practice Exercise
accelerates heartbeat/ heart rate. Unit 3
Blood is pumped faster so that more deoxygenated blood can be pumped to the Question 2.1 - 2.3, 3
lungs to release the excess carbon dioxide. &4
Oxygenated blood also reaches the muscles faster. Page 1.94 - 1.95

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 14

 Topic 5:
Blood Vessels
Key Concepts:
Introduction to Blood Vessels, Arteries,
Capillaries, Veins
Page 1.35 - 1.36

Introduction to Blood Vessels

In a closed circulatory system, blood is transported in a continuous system of tubes known as the blood
vessels.
Blood circulates in these blood vessels from the heart to all the body tissues and back to the heart again.
The human body contains about 5 - 6L of blood which circulates in these blood vessels.
There are three types of blood vessels:
Arteries
Capillaries
Veins

Capillaries Blood to the heart

Artery
Blood from the heart TO CELLS
Oxygen FROM CELLS
Nutrients Carbon dioxide Vein
Arteriole
Wastes

Venule
Valve

Blood from heart Artery Arteriole Capillary Venule Vein Blood to heart

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 15

 Arteries
Arteries transport blood away from the heart.
The walls of the artery consists of three layers:
An outer fibrous layer of connective tissue that contains elastin and collagen.
A middle layer of smooth muscle tissue and elastic fibres.
An inner endothelial layer of squamous epithelium.
The middle layer allows the artery to stretch when blood is pumped from the heart into the artery under high
pressure.
The thick muscular layer and elastic fibres help the artery wall to resist the high pressure and to avoid
distortion and damage.
The lumen of the artery is smaller and more regularly shaped than a vein.
A lumen is the inner space of a tube-like structure such as a blood vessel.
Arteries branch and become smaller and smaller to form arterioles.
The outer two layers become thinner.
There are no valves present in arteries because of the high pressure. There are two exceptions:
The aorta which has the aortic semilunar valve.
The pulmonary artery which has the pulmonary semilunar valve.

Capillaries
Arterioles branch and later become microscopically small tubes known as the capillaries.
They form a branched network between cells making up the tissues.
The walls of the capillaries consist of only one thin layer of endothelium.
The exchange of substances occurs between the blood in the capillaries and the tissue cells.
Substances such as gases, nutrients and waste products.
The lumen of the capillary is so small that red blood cells (corpuscles) can only move through them in a single
file.
This slows the blood flow so that the exchange of gases into and out of cells can take place more effectively.

External elastic membrane

Smooth muscle
Valve Lumen
Internal elastic membrane
Endothelium
Endothelium
Lumen

Artery Vein Capillary

Cross section Cross section Cross section

Veins
Capillary vessels reunite and form larger blood vessels known as the venules.
The venules combine to form the veins.
Veins transport blood back to the heart.
The walls of the veins consist of the same three layers as artery walls with the following exceptions:
The outer two layers are thinner in veins compared to arteries.
There is no inner elastic wall in veins.
Because of the thinner walls, the lumen of a vein is larger than the lumen of an artery and it appears more
irregularly shaped in cross section.
Blood in veins flows under low pressure.
The contraction of skeletal muscles close to the veins helps the blood to move in the direction of the heart.
There are semilunar valves in the veins which only allow blood to flow in one direction (to the heart) and
prevent backflow.
Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 16
 Topic 6:
The Lymphatic System
Key Concepts:
Blood as a Tissue, Lymph as a Tissue, The Structure of
the Lymphatic System, Relationship Between the
Lymphatic System and Blood System, Function of the
Lymphatic System
Page 1.36 - 1.39

Blood as a Tissue
The human body consists of about 5L of blood.
Blood is the only liquid connective tissue.
It is a dark red, sticky fluid with a salty taste.
Approximately 55% of blood consists of fluid.
This is known as blood plasma.
The rest consists of three types of blood cells:
Red blood cells - erythrocytes
White blood cells - leucocytes
Cell fragments known as blood platelets -
thrombocytes.

Blood Plasma
This is a yellowish fluid consisting of 90% water and
10% dissolved substances.
Blood plasma has two main functions:
Acts as a transport medium.
Heat distribution throughout the body.
Some of the substances that blood plasma transports is:
Blood cells and plasma proteins
Salts and organic nutrients (glucose, amino acids, cholesterol and vitamins)
Nitrogenous waste products (urea) and gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
Enzymes and hormones

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells are known as erythrocytes.
They are small cells which do not have any nuclei.
This allows erythrocytes to carry more oxygen and carbon dioxide.
They contain an iron-containing protein known as haemoglobin.
This binds with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
They are flattened.
This allows them to move slower through a capillary.
This allows more time for oxygen to be absorbed.
Erythrocytes are biconcave.
This allows a greater surface area for more oxygen to be absorbed.
These cells are elastic.
This allows them to bend and squeeze through tiny capillaries.
Functions of erythrocytes:
Transports oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin from the lungs to the cells.
Transports carbon dioxide as carbaminohaemoglobin from the cells to the lungs.
Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 17
White Blood Cells
White blood cells are known as leucocytes.
They are larger cells which have large nuclei.
They are irregularly shaped and can move through the walls of the capillaries and between the cells.
There are five types of white blood cells:
Neutrophils - Kill bacteria and fungi.
Eosinophils - Kill parasites, cancer cells and are involved in an allergic response.
Basophils - Involved in an allergic response.
Lymphocytes - Help fight viruses and make antibodies.
Monocytes - Clean up damaged cells.

Basophil Neutrophil Eosinophil Lymphocyte

Monocyte
Functions of leucocytes:
Protect the body against infections by engulfing microorganisms.
Produce antibodies that attack and destroy bacteria and viruses.
Accumulate in large numbers in areas of injury to prevent the spread of bacteria and viruses from this entry
point.

Blood Platelets
Blood platelets are known as thrombocytes.
They are cell fragments which do not have nuclei.
Functions of thrombocytes:
Play a role in blood clotting.

Lymph as a Tissue
Remember that capillaries branch between tissues to:
Deliver oxygen and nutrients to the cells.
Remove carbon dioxide and waste products from the cells.
The blood on the arterial side of the capillary network is under higher pressure than the venous side.
Because of this high pressure, most of the liquid part of blood (blood plasma) is forced through the walls
of the capillaries and lands between the cells of the tissue.
This fluid bathes the cells and is known as tissue fluid.
The cells absorb oxygen and nutrients from the tissue fluid and releases the waste products and carbon
dioxide back into the tissue fluid.
Only a small amount of the tissue fluid goes directly back into the capillaries.
There is a separate system of vessels which form part of the lymphatic system.
These vessels drain the tissue fluid between the cells and transports it back to the blood stream.
Once the tissue fluid is in the lymphatic vessels, the fluid is known as lymph.

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The are three fluids with approximately the same chemical composition. Their names differ according to
where they occur.
Blood plasma - occurs as part of the blood in the blood vessels.
Tissue fluid - occurs between the cells of the tissue.
Lymph - occurs in the lymphatic system.

Capillaries

Tissue fluid moving

back into the capillaries
Tissue fluid to form blood plasma

Tissue cell Tissue fluid

moving into the
lymph capillaries
to form lymph
Arteriole Venule
carrying carrying
blood blood
plasma plasma

Arteriole side Venule side

High pressure Low pressure

Blood plasma
moving through the
capillaries into the
space surrounding
the tissue cells Lymph capillary
to form tissue fluid carrying lymph

Structure of the Lymphatic System

A system of small, blind-ending lymphatic vessels known as lymph capillaries originate and branch
between the cells of the tissues.
Blind-ending means that the lymphatic vessels are only open on one side.
These lymph capillaries unite and form larger lymphatic vessels which eventually open into two main
lymphatic vessels:
The thoracic duct
The right lymphatic duct
All the lymphatic vessels in the lower limbs, intestines, left side of the chest, left arm, left side of the head and
neck open into the thoracic duct.
The thoracic duct joins the blood system by opening into the left subclavian vein.
The lymphatic vessels of the right side of the chest, right arm, right side of the neck and head open into the
right lymphatic duct.
The right lymphatic duct joins the right subclavian vein.
makes upsomeplasma
Therefore the lymphatic system eventually joins up with the blood system and the lymph is returned to form
part of the blood. cue its liquid
The pressure in the lymphatic vessels is very low because there is no pumping organ like the heart in the
lymphatic system to move the lymph through the lymphatic vessels.
Lymph is moved through the lymphatic vessels in the direction of the heart by:
The movement of internal organs
The contraction of voluntary skeletal muscles
There are semilunar valves in the lymphatic vessels which prevent the backflow of lymph in the vessels.

Created by Ms. C.R. Els Page 19

 Diagrammatic representation of the main lymphatic vessels

Lymph nodes:
There are small bean-shaped structures known as lymph nodes which are distributed throughout body.
They are especially close to the lymphatic vessels.
There is a larger concentration of lymph nodes in the armpit, groin and neck.
They are also referred to as lymph glands - the tonsils are an example of a lymph gland.
They act as filters and trap foreign particles.
plays a role inimmunity
Lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) are also produced in the lymph nodes.
Their role is to engulf and destroy bacteria.
Lymph nodes also produce antibodies which protect the body by providing immunity against disease-causing
viruses and bacteria.
When there is an infection in the body, the lymph nodes swell due to the increase in lymphocytes and
trapped substances.

Functions of the Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system prevents the accumulation of tissue fluid between the cells by transporting it back to
the blood circulatory system.
Plasma proteins, which accumulate in the tissue fluid, are transported back to the bloodstream as high
concentrations of these plasma proteins can be life-threatening.
When tissue fluid is not drained efficiently, swelling develops which is known as oedema.
This increases the risk of infection in the swollen area, can cause less blood flow, reduces the ability of
the of arteries, veins, joints and muscles to stretch.

Relationship between the Lymphatic System and Blood System

HIGH

LOW

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 Practice Exercise
Unit 3
Question 5 & 6
Page 1.95

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 Topic 7:
Cardiovascular Diseases
Key Concepts:
What are Cardiovascular Diseases, Blood Pressure,
Stroke, Heart Attack, Treatment of Cardiovascular
Diseases, Resting Pulse Rate in Relation to Fitness
Page 1.39 - 1.41

What are Cardiovascular Diseases?

Cardiovascular diseases are diseases of the heart and blood vessels.
inherited
If these diseases are hereditary, they are known as congenital diseases.
Most cardiovascular diseases are caused by poor lifestyle choices such as:
A diet high in fat
Smoking
Excessive alcohol intake morepressure lesspressure
Stress
Not enough exercise arteries go withgravity veins against
only
Blood Pressure meased
Force
Blood pressure is the force that is exerted
of blood movingthrough vessels
by the circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels.
A maximum pressure is reached in the arteries with each heartbeat when the ventricles contract.
This is known as the systolic pressure.
A minimum pressure is reached when the cardiac muscle is relaxed and the elastic walls of the arteries
return to normal.
This is known as diastolic pressure.
Measuring blood pressure:
Blood pressure is measured with an apparatus known as a sphygmomanometer which measures the
pressure in the arteries.
A cuff containing a hollow rubber air bladder is wrapped around a limb and the cuff is inflated.
The pressure in the bladder is equal to the pressure on the artery under the cuff
Blood pressure values are measured in mmHg (millimetre mercury) even in electronic blood pressure meters
that do not use mercury.
The normal blood pressure of a resting, healthy adult is approximately:
120 mmHg systolic pressure exerted when ventriclescontract
80 mmHg diastolic cardiac muscle relax
It is written as 120/80
Human blood pressure is influenced by a variety of factors such as stress, medication and disease.
High blood pressure:
This is known as hypertension.
It refers to an abnormally high pressure in the arteries for a considerable amount of time - higher than
120/80.
High blood pressure is often referred to as the 'silent killer' because clear symptoms of the condition are not
always evident. has to
heartattack.
It can lead to damaged blood vessels, a stroke or heart Pilest if
build forexample
Low blood pressure:
This is known as hypotension.
It refers to an abnormally low pressure in the arteries for a considerable amount of time - lower than 120/80.
Symptoms of low blood pressure include weakness and dizziness.
Created by Ms. C.R. Els flowof blood is less not enough oz nutrients Page 22
Stroke
A stroke is a loss of brain function due to a disturbance in the blood supply to the brain.
A shortage of oxygen supply to the brain can be caused by a blood clot that blocks a blood vessel or bursts
a blood vessel.
This leads to bleeding in the brain tissue.
As a result, the brain cannot function correctly which can lead to:
Paralysis of one or more limbs - usually on one side of the body.
Inability to understand or to form speech.
Inability to see the one side of the field of vision.
A stroke can lead to permanent neurological damage, complications and death.
Risk factors include:
Advanced age
High blood pressure
Diabetes
High cholesterol
Smoking

Heart Attack
A heart attack occurs when the supply of blood to the cardiac muscle is interrupted.
This leads to the death of a part of the cardiac muscle tissue.
The coronary arteries transport oxygen to the cardiac muscle.
Fat deposits (usually cholesterol) on the inside of the blood vessels narrow the arteries.
This is known as atherosclerosis.
Blood cells accumulate in these narrowing's and form blood clots (thrombus) which blocks the coronary
arteries.
Formation of a blood clot in a coronary artery is known as coronary thrombosis.
A coronary embolism refers to a blood clot (thrombus) which forms in one part of the body breaks off and
is transported to a coronary artery where it causes a blockage.
In all of these cases oxygen supply to the cardiac muscle is interrupted and the cardiac muscle tissue dies.
Sometimes the coronary artery is only partially blocked.
The person usually experiences chest pain and shortness of breath during exercise and times of stress.
This is known as angina and is a precursor of a heart attack.

Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases

Medication
Dissolves the blood clot.
This thins the blood and prevents the formation of new clots
This controls high blood pressure.
Angioplasty
A procedure that is carried out to stretch a narrowed artery and remove the blockage.
Bypass operation
A surgical procedure where arteries or veins are cut from other parts of the body and used to restore
the blood flow to the cardiac muscle by providing an alternative route for blood around the blocked part of
the artery.

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 A heart transplant is a surgical procedure to remove a damaged/diseased heart and replace it with a
healthy heart from a deceased or brain dead donor.
Most heart transplants are performed on people in the final stages of heart failure.
Heart failure is a state where the heart is so weak and damaged that it cannot pump sufficient blood
throughout the body.
In the final stage of heart failure the patient's condition has deteriorated to the point where a heart
transplant is the only option to save the patient's life.

Resting Pulse Rate in Relation to Fitness

Pulse is the regular contraction and relaxation of an artery which is caused by the heart pumping blood
through the body
It can be felt where an artery lies close to the surface such as the wrist and carotid (neck) arteries.
Pulse rate is the number of beats per minute.

How is your pulse rate measured?

Turn the palm of the hand upwards.
Place your index and middle finger of the other hand on your wrist.
Press your fingers lightly against the bone - you should feel a beat - this is your pulse.
Count the number of beats for 10 seconds and multiple this by the number 6.
This gives you the number of heartbeats per minute which is your pulse rate.

What is the significance of resting pulse rate in relation to fitness?

A normal resting pulse rate is approximately 60 - 100 beats per minute.
The fitter a person is, the lower their pulse rate is when resting.
It can be as low as 40 - 60 beats per minute.
When a person exercises regularly the cardiac muscle becomes stronger and more blood can be
pumped with each heartbeat.
Therefore a fit person's heart beats fewer times per minute to pump the required of blood throughout the
body.
An unfit person's pulse rate is higher when resting.
Their heart needs to work harder (more beats per minute) to pump the same amount of blood throughout
the body.
The heart rate speeds up during exercise to supply the necessary oxygen and nutrients to the active
muscle cells.
It gradually slows down after exercise to the resting pulse rate.
The faster the pulse rate returns to normal, the higher the fitness level.

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 Topic 8:
Blood Groups
Key Concepts:
Types of Blood Groups, Blood Transfusions
Page 1.41 - 1.42

Types of Blood Groups

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) carry specific proteins known as antigens on their surface.
An antigen is a substance that is recognised by the body as foreign and stimulates the immune system
to produce antibodies.
The antigens on the surface of red blood cells maintain the integrity of the membrane surrounding the red
blood cells and help transport molecules through the membrane.
There are 2 types of antigens:
Antigen A
Antigen B
Human blood is classified according to a system known as the ABO system.
This system is based on the presence or the absence of antigen A and antigen B on the surface of red
blood cells.
There are four blood groups:
Blood group A - has A antigens on the surface of red blood cells
Blood group B - has B antigens on the surface of red blood cells
Blood group AB - has A antigens AND B antigens on the surface of red blood cells
Blood group O - has no antigens on the surface of red blood cells
There are antibodies found in the blood plasma which fight against antigen A and antigen B. They are:
Anti-A antibodies - fight against antigen A
Anti-B antibodies - fight against antigen B
If a person has a specific antigen on the surface of red blood cells, they will not have the antibody that
attacks that specific antigen in the blood plasma. For example:
A person with blood group A has A antigens on the surface of red blood cells.
They would then have the other type of antibody (anti-B antibodies) in their blood plasma.
They cannot have anti-A antibodies in their blood plasma because these antibodies will attack the a A
antigen on the surface of the red blood cells.
Blood groups can also be positive or negative.
This is due to a protein known as the rhesus (Rh) factor.
Like antigens, this protein is also found on the surface of red blood cells.
If the red blood cells have the Rh protein on the surface the blood group is positive.
If the red blood cells do not have the Rh protein on the surface the blood group is negative.

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Blood Transfusions
A blood transfusion from a donor with the same blood group as the recipient is completely safe.
The donor is the person who gives (donates) blood.
The recipient is the person who receives the blood via a blood transfusion.
If clotting occurs when two different blood groups are mixed, the blood groups are considered to be
incompatible.
Another name for blood clotting is agglutination.
The antibodies in the blood plasma of one blood group react to the corresponding antigens on the red
blood cells of the other blood group.
This means that the antigen and the antibodies must not be the same.
If blood with A antigens on the surface of red blood cells is added to blood with anti-A antibodies in the
blood plasma, the antibodies will attack the red blood cells and the blood will start to clot.

From the diagram above you can see that:

Donor blood group O is compatible with all other blood groups - no risk agglutination.
Blood groups A, B and O can be safely donated to an AB recipient without the risk of agglutination.
Donor blood group O:
Blood group O does not have any antigens.
When this blood group is donated and mixed with blood group A, B or AB, there is no reaction with the anti-A
and anti-B antibodies in the blood plasma of the recipient.
This means that blood group O can be given to any person, regardless of their blood group without the risk
of agglutination.
Therefore, blood group O is known as the universal donor.
Recipient blood group AB:
Blood of blood group AB contains no antibodies in the plasma that could react with antigen A or antigen B.
This means that if any other blood group is donated to blood group AB, there will be no antibodies in the
blood plasma of the recipient to attack the antigens in the donor blood and therefore there will be no risk
of agglutination.
Blood group AB is therefore known as the universal recipient.
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