DAY THIRTY FIVE

Organisms and
Ecosystem
Learning & Revision for the Day

u Organisms and their Environment u Population u Functions of Ecosystem

u Adaptations u Ecosystem u Ecosystem Services

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The term ‘ecology’ was introduced by Reiter in 1868 and E Haeckel (1869) defined it as the
study of natural environment including the relations of organisms to one another and to
their surroundings.
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R Mishra is known as Father of Indian Ecology. He defined ecology as the interaction of
form, functions and factors.
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The branch of ecology which is concerned with the study of an individual organism (an
individual species) is called Autecology.
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The branch of ecology which deals with the study of a group (or groups) of organisms that
are associated together as a unit is called Synecology.

Organisms and their Environment

Ecology is basically concerned with four levels of organisation
(i) Organisms Living component at individual level is called organism. They form the basic
unit of study of ecology.
(ii) Population It refers to the sum total of all organisms having similar features and
potential to interbreed among themselves and produce fertile offsprings.
(iii) Communities Assemblage of all the populations of different species in a specific
geographical area. The organisms and their environment in a particular area, constitute
an ecosystem.
(iv) Biome It is a large unit, which consists of a major vegetation type, associated fauna in a
particular climatic zone.
 Major biomes of the world
Biome type Annual temperature Annual rainfall Important features
Tropical forest 23-27°C, average 25°C 200-450 cm/yr Multistoreyed vegetation (5 distinct layers of vegetation), shows
maximum diversity and productivity. In India, tropical rainforest
occurs in Western Ghat, Asom and Andamans.
Savannah Average temperature 90-150 cm/yr The vegetation of this biome supports large grazing herbivores
30°C (like buffalo, zebra, etc). Common trees and shrubs of Indian
Savannahs are Acacia, Butea, Prosopis, Zizyphus and Capparis.
Desert Hot (Thar and Less than 25 cm/yr It occupies 1/5 of land, Sahara of North America, Thar of West Asia,
Sahara) and cold Gobi of Asia are the most important deserts. Rajasthan lies in the Thar
(Gobi)
desert.
Temperate Average winter 25-75 cm/yr Life is fairly rich in this biome. Mostly leguminous herbs, scattered
forest/grassland temperature is 8°C bushes, occasional trees, extensive root system. The growing season is
and average summer
about 150 days.
temperature is 23°C.
Temperate 6-20°C 100-250 cm It has warm summer and moderately cold winter. Plant and animal life is
deciduous rich in this biome. It is found in both Northern hemisphere and Southern
forest
hemisphere. They occur in Himalayan region at an altitude of
1500-2400 m.
Coniferous 6-15°C 50-170 cm Himalayan coniferous forests occur in the Himalayan region, at the
forest altitude of 1700-3000 m. They are evergreen because the
needle-shaped leaves persist 2-7 years. Lichen, mosses, fern, herbs are
also abundant.
Tundra Long cold winter, Less than 25 cm/yr It encircles top of the world. Scattered patches of grasses, sedges,
short summers lichens, low diversity, low productivity, amphibians and reptiles are
absent, common animals are lemming, snow owl, Arctic fox, polar bear,
reindeer, etc.

Habitat
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It is a place where an organism lives. It represents a
particular set of environmental conditions suitable for its Ecological Factors
successful growth. These are constituents of the environment which directly or
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A habitat can contain many ecological niches and support a indirectly influence the form and functioning of organisms in
variety of species. an specific way. Ecological factors may be either living or
(i) A transition zone between two biomes where two biotic (e.g. plants, animals, microbes, etc.) or non-living or
biological communities meet and integrate is called abiotic (environmental).
ecotone, which have rich species diversity as
compared to adjoining communities and the
Abiotic Factors (Environmental Factors)
phenomenon is called edge effect. These are non-living factors, substances and conditions of the
environment, which may influence the physiology, survival,
(ii) Keystone species are non-dominant species which
function, behaviour and reproduction of organisms.
maintain the characteristics and structure of a
community and act as a component of biological The major abiotic factors are described below
control. (i) Temperature governs the functions and geographical
distribution of organisms. Some organisms are
eurythermal, while others are stenothermal.
Niche
(ii) Water is an important factor for life. Organism may be
The ecological niche of an organism represents the range of
euryhaline (tolerates wide range of salinity) or
conditions that it can tolerate, the resources it utilises, and its
stenohaline (can tolerate only a narrow range of
functional role in the ecological system. Each species
salinity).
occupies a distinct niche, and no two species are believed to
occupy the same niche. (iii) Light influences life on earth as plants prepare food and
release oxygen during photosynthesis.
 (iv) Soil sustains life on earth. The physical and chemical Adaptations
properties of soil, such as grain size, porosity, pH and l
Deep root system, bushy appearance, leaves reduced to
mineral composition determine the type of plant that spines.
can grow in a particular habitat. l
Stomata generally closed in day time, CAM cycle of
Responses to Abiotic Factors photosynthesis is common in plants.
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All organisms in order to sustain maximum functionality
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Thick cuticle, deep sunken stomata, palisade layer and
maintain a constant internal environment (homeostasis). conducting system is well developed, e.g. Acacia,
Prosobis, Zizyphus, etc.
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An organism may adopt one of the following strategies for
homeostasis
(i) Regulate, e.g. mammals regulate temperature by
Ecological Adaptations in Animals
shivering in cold and sweating in heat. Important ecological adaptations in animals are
(ii) Conform, e.g. animals and plants except mammals (i) Camouflage It is the ability of animals to blend with
change their body temperature in accordance with the surroundings or background, e.g. praying mantis,
outside environment grasshopper, stick insect, etc.
(iii) Migrate, e.g. Keoladeo National Park birds migrate from (ii) Mimicry It is the resemblance of one species with
Siberia to Rajasthan. another in order to obtain advantage specially against
predation, e.g. monarch butterfly and queen butterfly.
(iv) Suspend, e.g. hibernation (winter sleep) and aestivation
(summer sleep). (iii) Warning Colouration Some organisms are highly
poisonous and brightly coloured to be easily noticed.
Predators usually avoid them, e.g. dart frog.
Adaptations
(iv) Behavioural Adaptation Some organisms show
Adaptation is an attribute of the organism (morphological,
physiological and behavioural) that enables the organism to behavioural adaptations to cope with variations in their
survive and reproduce in its habitat. environment, e.g.
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Desert lizard in burrow during daytime to escape from
the sun’s heat.
Echological Adaptations in Plants l
Kangaroo rat seldom drinks water, 90% of its water
On the basis of water availability, the plants are grouped into
requirement is met from metabolic water (water
three types
produced by respiratory breakdown of fat) while rest
(i) Hydrophytes Such plants are adapted to survive in 10% is taken up from food.
water either completely or partially submerged or l
Ice fish or Antarctic fish remains even in extremely
floating conditions.
cold sea due to extra solutes in the body fluids. The
Adaptations extra solutes which prevent freezing are glycerol and
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Roots are reduced in size with the absence of root hair antifreeze proteins.
and root cap. l
Mammals living in colder climates generally have
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Absorption of water and minerals occurs by general shorter ears and limbs to minimise heat loss. This is
body surface. called Allen’s rule.
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Stem without mechanical tissue.
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Stomata either absent or non-functional, e.g. Hydrilla, Population
Vallisneria, Pistia, Salvinia, etc. Population is the total number of interbreeding individuals of
(ii) Mesophytes Plants adapted to grow in moderate a species found in a geographical area, who share and compete
amount of water. for similar resources.
Adaptations
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Rigid stem, large leaves, well developed root system
Characteristics of Population
with well developed root hairs. Some common characteristics of population are
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Well developed mechanical and vascular tissues, l
Natality It may be defined as the number of organisms born
well developed cuticle, leaves with no waxycoating, per unit of population per unit time. It is also called birth
e.g. garden plants, cultivated or farm crop plants. rate.
(iii) Xerophytes They are adapted to survive in dry or a l
Mortality It may be defined as the number of organisms
xeric (scarcity of water) conditions. Drought escaping died per unit population per unit time. It is also called death
xerophytes are called ephemerals. rate.
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Population density Number of individuals per unit space n Equilibrium phase It is also called stationary phase
in a given time is called population density. Number of in which rate of natality is equal to rate of mortality. It
individuals in a population is called population size. It is is denoted by ‘K’ or carring capacity. Verhulst-pearl
measured is terms of (Lm2) for terrestrial animals and (m3 ) logistic growth curve shows the following equation:
for aquatic animals. dN K − N  N
= rN   = rN 1 − 
dt  K   K
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Migration Movement of individual in or out of the
population is called migration. It may be in order to get dN
food, space, shelter, job, etc. It is of following two types: — = rN
dt

Population density (N)

a
n Emigration Refers to the moving out of individuals.
K C
It results in decrease in population size.
n Immigration Refers to the moving in of individuals. dN K-N
b — = rN —
It results in increase in population size. dt K
If N is the population density at time t , then its density at

B
time t + 1 will be N t + 1 = N t + [(B + I ) − (D + E )] .
A Time (t)
Age Pyramid
A –
Lag phase, B –Log phase, C – Stationary phase
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Graphical representation of different age groups found in
Population growth curve showing
population with pre-reproductive group at base,
reproductive ones in middle and post reproductive at top Where, N = Population density at time ‘t’
is called age pyramid. dN
= Rate of change of population density
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Expanding population If the number of pre-reproductive dt
individuals are more than reproductive and
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
post-reproductive individuals are in the least amount.
The shape of pyramid is triangular in shape. K = Carrying capacity
When responses are not limiting the growth, plot is
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Stable population If the number of individuals in
exponential. When responses are limiting the growth,
pre-reproductive and reproductive group are almost same,
then the future population size will remain unchanged, plot is logistic.
i.e. in zero population the shape of pyramid is bell-shaped. (ii) J-shaped/Exponential/Growth curve This type of growth
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Declining population If the individuals of has lag and log phases. There is no stationary or
pre-reproductive groups are lesser than reproductive and equilibrium point in this population growth curve.
post-reproductive group, then in future the population Suddenly, the environmental resistance becomes
size will deplete. The pyramid is urn-shaped in this case. operative and population density shows rapid
declination. Equation of exponential growth is
Post-reproductive dN
= rN
Reproductive
dt
Where, N = Population density
Pre-reproductive
dN
Expanding Stable Declining = Rate of change of population density
Representation of age pyramids for human population dt
r = Intrinsic rate a natural increase
Population Growth Integral form of exponential growth equation will be
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Due to above described attributes of population, its size for
any given species is not static rather keeps on changing dN = rN
with time and other factors. There are two types of model dt
Population density (N)

explaining population growth. K

(i) S-shaped/Sigmoid/Logistic/Growth curve This type of
growth curve has following phases
n Lag phase It is the initial phase of curve where
organisms or population increase slowly. They tend
to adapt and adjust to new environment.
Time (t)
n Log phase It is also called exponential phase in Population growth curve showing exponential growth
which organism multiply in geometric fashion,
i.e. 2, 4, 8, 16.....
Where,
Ecosystem
N t = Population density after time t l
An ecosystem is a basic functional unit that includes the
N 0 = Population density at time zero whole community in a given area (biotic component
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase interacting with the abiotic factors). ‘Ecosystem is
e = The base of natural logarithms (2.71828) normally an open system because there is a continuous
entry and loss of energy and materials from this system.
Biotic Potential l
The term ‘ecosystem’ was first used by AG Tensley in 1935
It is the maximum reproductive capacity shown by an unrestricted to describe the whole complex of living organisms living
population under optimal environmental conditions. The force together as sociological units and their habitats.
acting against the achievement of maximum capacity of l
On the basis of origin, the ecosystem can be classified in
population growth is called environmental resistance. It includes following ways
factors like shortage of food, disease, predation, etc.
1. Natural Ecosystem
Population Interactions These ecosystems are capable of operating and
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Living organisms cannot live in isolation and they interact maintaining themselves without the interference of
in various ways to form biological communities. man. These are further classified as
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Interspecific interactions arise from the interaction of (i) Terrestrial ecosystem These ecosystems are found
populations of two different species. They could be in terrestrial habitat, e.g. forest, desert, etc.
beneficial, detrimental or neutral. (ii) Aquatic ecosystem These ecosystems are found in
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The organisms in a population interact in the following aquatic habitats. These are of two types
ways (a) Freshwater ecosystem, e.g. lake, ponds, river, etc.
(i) Mutualism is the interspecific interaction in which (b) Marine water ecosystem, e.g. oceans, estuaries,
both the interacting species are benefitted. etc.
(ii) Predation is an interspecific interaction, where one
2. Artificial Ecosystem
animal (predator) kills and consumes the other
weaker animal (called prey). These systems are maintained, manipulated and formed
by man, e.g. cropland, aquarium, artificial lake,
(iii) Parasitism is the interspecific interaction, where
reservoirs and township, etc.
one of the species depends on the other species for
food and shelter. In this process, the host is
damaged. Components of Ecosystem
(iv) Commensalism is the interspecific interaction, where EP Odum explained the components of ecosystem as follows
one species is benefitted, while the other species is (i) Abiotic Components These constitute non-living
neither benefitted nor harmed. components of ecosystem, which are divided on the
(v) Competition is a type of interaction either among basis of physical and chemical nature such as
individuals of the same species (intraspecific) or (a) Inorganic substances, e.g. carbon, nitrogen, sulphur,
between individuals/ population of different species potassium, carban dioxide and H2O.
(interspecific competition). (b) Organic substances, e.g. protein, carbohydrate,
(vi) Amensalism is the interaction between two different lipids, etc.
species, in which one species is harmed and the other (c) Climatic regime, e.g. temperature, humidity, wind,
is neither benefitted nor harmed. soil, light, etc.
Nature of Population Interaction (ii) Biotic Components These constitute living components
of ecosystem, which are divided on the basis of trophic
Name of interaction Species A Species B
level such as:
Mutualism + +
(a) Producers These form autotrophic components,
Competition − − e.g. plants, etc.
Predation + − (b) Macroconsumers These form the heterotrophic
Parasitism + − components of ecosystem, e.g. animals and
Commensalism + 0 non-green plants.
Amensalism − 0 (c) Microconsumers These are decomposers or
transformers, e.g. bacteria and fungi.
A comparative account of several ecosystems are given in the following table
Comparative summary of freshwater, marine, grassland, forest and desert ecosystems
Freshwater pond Marine ecosystem Grassland
Components Forest ecosystem Desert ecosystem
ecosystem (oceans) ecosystem
Abiotic Water, light, Temperature zones, Nitrate, phosphate Density depends upon Rainfall less than
components pressure, pH, etc. minerals rich, salts, and sulphates, rainfall 25 cm, extreme of
etc. roughly 19% of the temperature and cold
earth's crust.
Biotic components
(i) Producers Diatoms, Microscopic algae, Digitaria, Quercus in temperate Cycads, cacti, palm,
blue-green algae members of Dactyloctenium, forest Pinus, Abies, etc.
(Oscillatoria), green Phaeophyta and Setaria, also few Cedrus, Juniperus,
algae (Volvox, Rhodophyta shrubs. Rhododendron
Chlamydomonas)
rooted plants and
floating plants.

(ii) Consumers
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Primary Zooplankton, Crustaceans, molluscs Deer, sheep, cow, Leafhoppers, flies, beetle, Animals, insects, some
Dysticus, Lymnaea and fishes buffaloes, rabbit, bugs, spider deer, mouse reptiles and camel.
mouse. Also some and moles.
insects, termites,
millipedes.
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Secondary Small fish, frogs, Carnivorous fishes Fox, jackal, snakes, Lizard, fox, snake and Reptiles
etc. frogs, lizards and birds.
birds
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Tertiary Large fish Harring, shad and Hawk and vulture Lion, tiger, wild cats, etc. Vultures
mackerel carnivore
fishes like cod,
haddock, halibut, etc.

(iii) Decomposers Aspergillus and Mainly bacteria and Mucor, Aspergillus, Mostly fungi, like Fungi and bacteria,
Saprolegnia fungi Penicilium, Fusarium Aspergillus, Polyporus, which are thermophilic
Cladosporium and Fusarium and bacteria
Rhizopus. like Bacillus, Clostridium,
Streptomyces

Functions of Ecosystem 2. Productivity

Following five are the important functional aspects of the l
It refers to the rate of biomass production, i.e. the rate at
ecosystem which the sunlight is captured by the producers for the
synthesis of energy rich organic compounds.
1. Decomposition l
Productivity is the amount of organic matter accumulated
It is the process by which organic substances are broken per unit area per unit time’. Production ecology is the
down into simpler forms of matter. It takes place completely branch of ecology that deals with the rate of production of
outside the body of decomposers. They digest the organic organic matter in ecosystem.
substances outside their body and then absorb it. Hence, they l
It is of following types
are also known as osmotrophs (absorptive). (i) Primary productivity The rate at which radiant energy is
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This process occurs in following steps; Fragmentation, stored by the photosynthetic and chemosynthetic
leaching, humification and mineralisation. activities of producers. It is of following types
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Major factors affecting decomposition are l
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) Rate of
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Chemical nature of detritus. production of organic matter during photosynthesis. A
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Soil pH, temperature, moisture and aeration. part of it is utilised by plants in respiration.
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Net Primary Productivity (NPP) The amount of stored On the basis of habits of organisms involved, the food chain
energy (left after respiration) can be categorised as
or GPP – Respiratory losses (R) = NPP (i) Grazing Food Chain (GFC) The consumers who
(ii) Secondary productivity It is the rate of energy storage at consume the living plant parts as their type of food or
consumer level, i.e. herbivore, carnivore and source constitute the grazing food chain. It is the most
decomposers. common type of food chain.
(iii) Net productivity It is the rate of storage of organic It is also called as predator food chain. The sequence
matter not used by the heterotrophs or consumers. It is of food chain in an aquatic ecosystem is as follows:
stored and transformed to next trophic level. Producers Primary consumers Secondary consumers
(autotrophs) (herbivores) (primary carnivores)
3. Energy Flow Phytoplanktons like Zooplanktons like
weeds, diatoms dinoflagellates.
Aquatic insects,
crustaceans and
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The movement of energy in the ecosystem is termed as and other green other aquatic
energy flow. It is unidirectional energy transformation. algae.
The flow of energy in ecosystem is controlled by two laws
of thermodynamics, stated as follows:
Top carnivores Tertiary consumers
n First law Energy can neither be created, nor be (large fishs) (secondary carnivores
destroyed, but can be transferred or transformed. like small fishs)
n Second law In every activity involving energy
transformation, dissipation of some energy takes (ii) Detritus Food Chain (DFC) Animals and lower plants
place. (bacteria and fungi) which get their energy from organic
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The incident radiation of plant is about 1 × 10 6 kJ/m 2 /yr part, constitute this type of food chain. It starts from the
and of this, less than 50% is Photosynthetic Active dead organic matter and ends in inorganic compounds.
Radiation (PAR). Plants and photosynthetic bacteria A common detritus food chain with earthworm is as
(autotrophs) use this radiant energy to make food from follows:
simple inorganic molecules. Detritus Earthworm Sparrow Falcon
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Only 2-10% of PAR is captured by plants and organisms at
each trophic level depends on this small amount of energy Frog Snake Peacock
to fulfil their energy requirements.
(iii) Parasitic Food Chain (PFC) It is also called auxillary
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Each trophic level contains certain mass of living matter
food chain. This chain begin with the host and usually
at a particular time called standing crop. The standing
ends with parasites, due to which the pyramid of
crop is measured as the mass of living organism
number gets inverted. Its food sequence is as follows:
(biomass).
Plant → Herbivores → Parasites → Hyperparasites
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The number of trophic levels in the food chain is
restricted due to 10% low given by Raymond Lindeman.
According to this law, ‘only 10% of energy of lower Food Web
trophic level can be transferred to the organisms of next l
Food web is the network of food chains which become
higher trophic level’. interconnected at various trophic levels. In any complex
food web, one can recognise several different trophic
Food Chain levels.
The series of organisms eating one and being eaten by the
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In a food web, a given species may occupy more than one
other is called the food chain. It is a process through which trophic levels. The complexity of food web vary greatly and
food energy moves. A simple food chain consists of three this can be expressed by a measure called connectance of
steps as follows: the food web.
Connectance of the food web
Plant → Herbivore → Carnivore
Actual number of interspecific interaction
Each food chain contains many steps (levels) like producers, =
herbivores, primary carnivores and so on. Each step of the Potential number of interspecific interaction
food chain is called trophic level.
Ecological Pyramids
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These are the graphical representations of the trophic structure and functions at successive trophic levels of an ecosystem,
which may be shown in terms of their number, biomass or energy content.
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The concept of pyramid was proposed by Charles Elton (1927). So, they are also known as Eltonian pyramids.
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There are three types of pyramid shown below in figure

Types of Pyramid

Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of biomass Pyramid of energy

Upright Inverted Upright Inverted Always upright

In most ecosystems, Only in tree Terrestrial Marine Pond ecosystem

e.g. grassland ecosystem ecosystems and aquatic ecosystem
ecosystems

One
vulture Numerous parasites Large fishes
Few snakes Several birds Crustaceans and
Several frogs small fishes
Single One One
Many grasshoppers tree
Phytopla- tiger bird
Crop plants
nktons Several Several
Numerous
parasites rabbits fishes

Several birds Numerous Numerous

grasses and phytoplanktons
Single long tree plants

4. Nutrient Cycling (ii) Sedimentary Cycle It exists on the earth’s crust,

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The nutrients are never lost from an ecosystem but are e.g. phosphorus cycle and sulphur cycle.
recycled again indefinitely, this is called nutrient cycling. Phosphorus Cycle
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The amount of nutrients, i.e. carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, l
The natural reservoir of phosphorus is rock in the
calcium, etc., present in soil at any given time is called as form of phosphates. Phosphates enter the plants
standing state. through their roots and than the food chain.
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Environmental factors like temperature, soil nature and l
The organic wastes and dead organisms are
moisture can regulate the rate of release of nutrients. decomposed by the phosphate-solubilising bacteria,
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Nutrient cycles are of two types which release phosphorus back in the soil.

(i) Gaseous Cycle It exists in the atmosphere, e.g. carbon

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The atmospheric input of phosphorus through rainfall
cycle and nitrogen cycle. or gaseous exchange of phosphorus between
organisms and environment is negligible
Carbon Cycle
It occurs through atmosphere, oceans and living and
5. Ecological Succession
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dead organisms.
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About 71% of global carbon is found as dissolved form
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It is a sequence of seres (developmental stage of a
community) from a barren land to the climax. The climax
in the ocean. About 4 × 1013 kg of carbon is fixed in
community represents a stable end product successional
the biosphere through photosynthesis annually.
sequence.
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Carbon dioxide is also returned to the atmosphere l
The initial community of the area which is replaced in time
through burning of fossil fuels, fuel wood, organic
by a sequence of succeeding communities until the climax
debris, forest fires and volcanic acitivity.
 community is reached is called pioneer stage or pioneer n Ecesis Adjustment of establishing species with
community. environment prevailing there.
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The intermediate stages between pioneer and climax n Aggregation Multiplication of species in numbers.
stages, i.e. final stage are called as seral stages. l
Competition and co-action After aggregation the
individuals of a species compete with other organisms for
Causes of Succession space, nutrition and other resources. It can be interspecific
The causes of ecological succession are as follows or intraspecific.
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Initial or initiating causes These causes are both climatic n Reaction The modification of the environment through
and biotic. These include the factors such as erosion, wind, the influence of living organisms on it, is called
fire, etc. These causes heavily affect the population of that reaction.
particular locality. n Stabilisation The stage at which final or climax
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Ecesis causes These are also called as continuing causes community become more or less stabilised for a longer
which modify the population to adapt several conditions of period of time in that particular environment.
environment.
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Stabilising causes The climatic causes determine the
Examples of Biological Succession
nature of climatic climax, i.e. the end point of succession. Hydrosere and xerosere are the two main biological
succession. They are discussed below
Types of Succession l
Hydrosere/Hydrarch succession In this succession, a pond
On the basis of place, causes and results of succession, it is of and its community are converted into a land community.
following types l
Xerosere/Xerarch succession (Lithosere) Xerosere occurs
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Allogenic succession When the succession is caused by the on bare rock surface where the original substratum is
factors external to the community. deficient of water and lacks organic matter.
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Autogenic succession The succession which is brought
about by organisms themselves. Ecosystem Services
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Primary succession Clarke (1954), defined it as the Healthy ecosystems are the base for a wide range of
succession which begins on a bare area where no life has economic, environmental and aesthetic goods and services.
existed, e.g. newly exposed rock, etc. The products of ecosystem processes are named as ecological
or ecosystem services.
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Secondary succession It refers to the community
development on the sites, previously occupied by well Ecosystem service refers to a wide range of conditions and
developed communities, e.g. abandoned from lands cut processes through which natural ecosystems, and the
forests, etc. species that are a part of them, help sustain and fulfil
human life. Ecosystem services can be grouped into four
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Heterotrophic succession The succession which begins
broad categories
predominantly on organic environment and dominance of
heterotrophic organism mainly occur. 1. Provisioning Such as production of food and water.
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Autotrophic succession Succession that begins 2. Regulating Such as waste decomposition purification of
predominantly on inorganic environment and is air, control of climate and disease.
characterised by the dominance of autotrophic organisms. 3. Supporting Such as nutrient cycles and crop
pollination.
Process of Succession 4. Cultural Such as spiritual and recreational benefits.
The succession is a slow and complex phenomenon, which is Ecosystem provides following services
categorised into following stages and substages
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Moderate weather extremes and their impacts.
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Nudation This means the development of bare areas
without any form of life. It may be caused by
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Disperse seeds.
topographic, e.g. soil erosion by various factors. l
Mitigate drought and floods.
Abiotic, e.g. glaciers, dry period, hailstorm, fire, etc. l
Protect people from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays
Biotic, e.g. human. cycle nutrients.
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Invasion It is the successful establishment of a species in l
Detoxify and decompose wastes.
a barren area. It is completed in following substages: l
Protect stream and river channels and coastal shores
n Migration The seed, spores and propagules reach to from erosion.
barren area.
DAY THIRTY FIVE ORGANISMS AND ECOSYSTEM 437

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 1

FOUNDATION QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 The term ‘Ecology’ was first coined in 1869 by 10 Two opposite forces operate in the growth and
(a) Odum (b) Malthus development of a population. One of them is related to
(c) Haeckal (d) Hilaire the ability to reproduce at a given rate. The force
2 Autecology is the opposite to it is called
(a) relation of population to its environment (a) environmental resistance (b) fecundity
(b) relation of an individual to its environment (c) mortality (d) biotic control
(c) relation of a community to its enviornment 11 The percentage ratio of natality over mortality is
(d) relation of a biome to its environment
(a) population dynamics (b) vital index
3 Niche is j NEET 2018 (c) populatin of density (d) total count
(a) the range of temperature that the organism needs to 12 Geometric representation of age structure is a
live characteristic of
(b) the physical space where an organism lives
(a) biotic community (b) population
(c) all the biological factors in the organism’s environment
(c) landscape (d) ecosystem
(d) the functional role played by an organism where it lives
4 Niche overlap indicates 13 In a growing population of a country, j NEET 2018
(a) reproductive and pre-reproductive individuals are
(a) active cooperation between two species
equal in number
(b) two different parasites on the same host
(b) reproductive individuals are less than the
(c) sharing of one or more resources between the two post-reproductive individuals
species (c) pre-reproductive individuals are more than the
(d) mutualism between two species reproductive individuals
5 Which one of the following correctly represents an (d) pre-reproductive individuals are less than the
organism and its ecological niche? reproductive individuals

(a) Vallisneria and pond 14 Age pyramid A, B and C indicate

(b) Desert locust (Scistocerca) and desert Post-reproductive
(c) Plant lice (aphids) and leaf Reproductive
(d) Vultures and dense forest
Pre-reproductive
6 The term used for genetically similar but vegetatively A B C
different population is Triangular age Bell-shaped Urn-shaped
pyramid age pyramid age pyramid
(a) ecads (b) ecotype
(c) species (d) community (a) A–Expanding population, B–Stable population,
C–Declining population
7 According to Allen’s rule, the mammals from colder
(b) A–Expanding population, B–Declining population,
climate have C–Stable population
(a) shorter ears and longer limbs (c) A–Stable population, B–Declining population,
(b) longer ears and shorter limbs C–Expanding population
(c) longer ears and longer limbs (d) A–Declining population, B–Stable population,
(d) shorter ears and shorter limbs C–Expanding population
8 A population is a group of 15 Permanent outward movement of individuals is known as
(a) individuals in a species (a) natality (b) mortality (c) emigration (d) migration
(b) individuals in a family
16 Critical minimum and maximum values of an
(c) species in a community
(d) communities in an ecosyslem environmental factor is called as
(a) limiting factor (b) law of minimum
9 Natality refers to j
NEET 2018
(c) limits of tolerance (d) carrying capacity
(a) number of individuals leaving that habitat
(b) birth rate 17 Population size in an area tends to increase on account of
(c) death rate (a) emigration (b) mortality
(d) number of individuals entering habitat (c) migration (d) natality
18 Choose the correct sequence of stages of growth curve 29 Lichens are well-known combination of an alga and a
for bacteria. fungus, where fungus has
(a) Lag, Log, Stationary, Decline phase (a) a parasitic relationship with the alga
(b) Lag, Log, Stationary phase (b) a symbiotic relationship with the alga
(c) Stationary, Lag, Log, Decline phase (c) an epiphytic relationship with the alga
(d) Decline, Lag, Log, phase (d) a saprophytic relationship with the alga
19 The carrying capacity of a population is determined 30 If ‘+’ sign is assigned to beneficial interaction, ‘−’ sign to
by its detrimental and ‘0’ sign to neutral interaction, then the
(a) population growth rate (b) limiting resources population interaction represented by ‘+’ ‘−’ refers to
(c) mortality (d) natality
j NEET-II 2016
(a) mutualism (b) amensalism
20 An association of individuals of different species living in
(c) commensalism (d) parasitism
the same habitat and having functional interactions is
j CBSE-AIPMT 2015
31 Praying mantis looks like foliage. This type of adaptation
(a) ecological niche (b) biotic community is known as
(c) ecosystem (d) population (a) camouflage (b) mimicry
(c) colouration (d) warning colouration
21 Exponential growth occurs when there is
(a) a great environmental resistance 32 Planktons move towards surface of water during night
(b) a fixed carrying capacity and descend to depth during day. This is known as
(c) no biotic potential (a) diurnal migration (b) periodic migration
(d) no environmental resistance (c) annual migration (d) None of these
22 The formula for exponential population growth is 33 Gause’s principle of competitive exclusion states that
dt dN j
NEET-I 2016
(a) = rN (b) = dt
dN rN (a) Competition for the same resources excludes species
rN dN
(c) = dt (d) = rN having different food preferences
dN dt
(b) No two species can occupy the same niche indefinitely
23 Which of the following is a conduit for energy transfer for the same limiting resources
across trohic levels? (c) Larger organisms exclude smaller ones through
(a) Mutualism (b) Parasitism competition
(c) Photocooperation (d) Predation (d) More abundant species will exclude the less abundant
24 During competition, species through competition

(a) both species are benefitted 34 The term ecosystem was coined by j
NEET-I 2016
(b) both species are harmed (a) AG Tansley (b) E Haeckel
(c) one species is benefitted and other is harmed (c) E Warming (d) EP Odum
(d) neither of the species is harmed or benefitted
35 Ecosystem has two components
25 A high density of elephant population in an area can
result in (a) plants and animals (b) biotic and abiotic
(c) weeds and trees (d) None of these
(a) mutualism
(b) intraspecific competition 36 Which ecosystem has the maximum biomass? j NEET 2017
(c) interspecific competition (a) Forest ecosystem (b) Grassland ecosystem
(d) predation on one another (c) Pond ecosystem (d) Lake ecosystem
26 In commensalism, 37 Which one of the following processes during
(a) both partners are harmed decomposition is correctly described? j
NEET 2018
(b) weaker partner is benefitted
(c) both partners are benefitted (a) Fragmentation–Carried out by organisms such as
(d) None of the partners is benefitted earthworm
(b) Humification–Leads to the accumulation of a dark
27 Mycorrhizae are the example of j
NEET 2017
coloured substance humus, which undergoes microbial
(a) fungistasis (b) amensalism action at a very fast rate
(c) antibiosis (d) mutualism (c) Catabolism–Last step in the decomposition under fully
28 Animal-plant mutualism is seen in anaerobic condition
(a) orchid and bee (b) fig and wasp (d) Leaching–Water soluble inorganic nutrients rise to the
(c) fig and bird (d) Both (a) and (b) top layers of soil
38 The biomass available for consumption by the herbivores 48 The primary producers of the deep-sea hydrothermal
and the decomposers is called vent ecosystem are j NEET-II 2016
(a) net primary productivity (a) green algae (b) chemosynthetic bacteria
(b) secondary productivity (c) blue-green algae (d) coral reefs
(c) standing crops
49 The trophic structure and function of an ecosystem can
(d) gross primary productivity
be represented as ecological pyramids. The concept of
39 The correct path of energy flow in an ecosystem is ecological pyramids was proposed by
(a) Decomposers–Producers–Herbivores–Carnivores (a) Reiter (b) Haeckel
(b) Producers–Herbivores–Carnivores–Decomposers (c) Charles Elton (d) AG Tansley
(c) Herbivores–Carnivores–Producers–Decomposers 50 The pyramid of number of individuals per unit area in a
(d) Decomposers–Carnivores–Producers–Herbivores grassland ecosystem will be
40 Which of the following ecosystem types has the highest (a) linear (b) inverted
annual net primary productivity? (c) upright (d) irregular
(a) Tropical rainforest 51 Which one of the following is not used for construction of
(b) Tropical deciduous forest ecological pyramids?
(c) Temperate evergreen forest
(a) Dry weight
(d) Temperate deciduous forest
(b) Number of individuals
41 Vertical distribution of different species occupying (c) Rate of energy flow
different levels is called (d) Fresh weight
(a) fragmentation (b) stratification 52 The pyramid of biomass in a pond ecosystem is
(c) decomposition (d) humification (a) inverted
42 Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new (b) always upright
organic matter by j
NEET 2013 (c) sometimes upright
(d) upright and sometimes inverted
(a) producer (b) parasite
(c) consumer (d) decomposer 53 The pyramid of energy is always
43 Energy storage at consumer level is called (a) inverted
(b) upright
(a) gross primary productivity (b) secondary productivity
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(c) net primary productivity (d) net productivity
(d) inverted in forest ecosystem
44 Which of the following ecosystems has highest gross 54 Which of the following is not an upright pyramid?
primary productivity?
(a) Pyramid of energy in all ecosystems
(a) Coral reefs (b) Grasslands (b) Pyramid of biomass in grassland
(c) Rainforests (d) Mangroves
(c) Pyramid of number in grassland
45 Most animals that in deep oceanic water are (d) Pyramid of number in tree ecosystem
j
CBSE-AIPMT 2015
(a) primary consumers (b) secondary consumers 55 What type of ecological pyramid would be obtained with
(c) tertiary consumers (d) detritivores the following data?
Secondary consumer : 120 g
46 Food chain is a series of population, which starts with
Primary consumer : 60 g
producers. It is concerning with
Primary producer : 10 g j
NEET 2018
(a) biotic components only
(b) energy flow and transfer of nutrients (a) Upright pyramid of numbers
(c) Both (a) and (b) (b) Pyramid of energy
(d) biotic and decomposers (c) Inverted pyramid of biomass
47 Lindeman for the first time gave energy transfer law, (d) Upright pyramid of biomass
which states that 56 Natural reservoir of phosphorus is j
NEET 2013
(a) only 20% of the energy is transferred to each trophic (a) rock (b) fossils
level (c) sea water (d) animal bones
(b) only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic
level 57 Which one of the following is not a gaseous
(c) only 30% of the energy is transferred to each trophic biogeochemical cycle in ecosystem?
level (a) Sulphur cycle (b) Phosphorus cycle
(d) only 50% of the energy is transferred to each trophic (c) Nitrogen cycle (d) Carbon cycle
level
58 In which of the following both pairs have correct 64 Which of the following statements is not correct?
combination? j CBSE-AIPMT 2015 (a) The pyramid of biomass in sea is inverted
(a) Gaseous nutrient cycle, – Carbon and nitrogen, (b) The pyramid of energy is always inverted
Sedimentary nutrient cycle Sulphur and phosphorus (c) Hydrarch succession takes place in wetter areas and
the succession serves progress from hydric to mesic
(b) Gaseous nutrient cycle, – Carbon and sulphur,
conditions
Sedimentary nutrient cycle Nitrogen and phosphorus
(d) Xerarch seccession takes place in dry areas
(c) Gaseous nutrient cycle, – Nitrogen and sulphur,
Sedimentary nutrient cycle Carbon and phosphorus 65 Which of the following is a correct trend of succession in
(d) Gaseous nutrient cycle, – Sulphur and phosphorus, hydroseric succession?
Sedimentary nutrient cycle Carbon and nitrogen (a) Rooted submerged → Phytoplankton → Reed swamp →
Sedge meadow
59 During ecological succession, j CBSE-AIPMT 2015
(b) Phytoplankton → Reed swamp → Rooted submerged →
(a) the gradual and predictable change in species Sedge meadow
composition occurs in a given area (c) Phytoplankton → Sedge meadow → Reed swamp →
(b) the establishment of a new biotic community is very fast Rooted submerged
in its primary phase (d) Phytoplankton → Rooted submerged → Reed swamp →
(c) the numbers and types of animals remain constant Sedge meadow
(d) the changes lead to a community that is in near equilibrium
66 Match the following columns.
with the environment and is called pioneer community
60 An abandoned agricultural field changing into mature Column I Column II
forest over long span of time is an example of A. Earthworm 1. Pioneer species
(a) allogenic succession (b) autogenic succession
B. Succession 2. Detritivore
(c) autotrophic succession (d) heterotrophic succession
C. Ecosystem service 3. Natality
61 A community become stabilised in an area is known as
(a) pioneer community (b) climax community D. Population growth 4. Pollination
(c) seres community (d) None of these j
CBSE-AIPMT 2014
62 The second stage of hydrosere is occupied by plants like
Codes
(a) Azolla (b) Typha
(c) Salix (d) Vallisneria A B C D
(a) 1 2 3 4
63 The species that invade a bare area are called (b) 4 1 3 2
(a) hydrophytic species (b) xerophytic species (c) 3 2 4 1
(c) mesophytic species (d) pioneer species (d) 2 1 4 3

DAY PRACTICE SESSION 2

PROGRESSIVE QUESTIONS EXERCISE

1 A parasite which receives a part of nourishment from 4 Asymptote in a logistic growth curve is obtained, when
host is (a) the value of ‘r ’ approaches zero
(a) ectoparasite (b) endoparasite (b) K = N
(c) holoparasite (d) hemiparasite (c) K > N
(d) K < N
2 Desert can be converted into grassland by
(a) psammophytes (b) oxylophytes
5 Which one of the following population interactions is
(c) halophytes (d) tropical forest widely used in medical science for the production of
antibiotics?
3 In a lake, phytoplanktons grow in abundance in the
(a) Parasitism
(a) littoral zone
(b) Mutualism
(b) limnetic zone
(c) Commensalism
(c) profundal zone
(d) benthic zone (d) Amensalism
 6 If 20 J of energy is trapped at producer level, then how 11 An ecosystem, which can be easily damaged but can
much energy will be available to peacock as food in the recover after some time if damaging effect stops, will be
following chain? having
Plant → Mice → Snake → Peacock (a) low stability and high resilience
(a) 0.02 J (b) 0.002 J (b) high stability and low resilience
(c) 0.2 J (d) 0.000 2J (c) low stability and low resilience
(d) high stability and high resilience
7 Identify A, B and C.
12 A biologist studied the population of rats in a barn. He
found that the average natality was 250, average
A mortality 240, immigration 20 and emigration 30. The net
increase in population is
B (a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 05 (d) zero
13 A population has more young individuals compared to
the older individuals. What would be the status of the
C
population after some years?
(a) It will decline
(b) It will stabilise
(a) A–Aphotic zone, B–Euphotic zone, C–Disphotic zone (c) It will increase
(b) A–Euphotic zone, B–Disphotic zone, C–Aphotic zone (d) It will first declined and then stabilise
(c) A–Euphotic zone, B–Aphotic zone, C–Disphotic zone 14 In which one of the following pairs is the specific
(d) A–Aphotic zone, B–Disphotic zone, C–Euphotic zone characteristic of soil not correctly matched?
8 If a populatin of 50 paramecia present in a pool (a) Laterite–Contains aluminium compound
increases to 150 after an hour, what would be the growth (b) Terra rossa–Most suitable for roses
(c) Chemozems–Richest soil in the world
rate of population?
(d) Black soil–Rich in calcium carbonate
(a) 50 per hour (b) 200 per hour
15 Which one of the following is categorised as a parasite in
(c) 5 per hour (d) 100 per hour
true sense?
9 Which of the following is correct for r-selected species? (a) The female Anopheles bites and sucks blood from
(a) Large number of progeny with small size humans
(b) Large number of progeny with large size (b) Human foetus developing inside the uterus draws
(c) Small number of progeny with small size nourishment from the mother
(d) Small number of progeny with large size (c) Head louse living on the human scalp as well as laying
eggs on human hair
10 In the given figure, identify coniferous forest, Arctic (d) The cuckoo (koel) lays its eggs in crow’s nest
alpine tundra and tropical forest, respectively. 16 The population of an insect species shows and explosive
30 increase in number during rainy season followed by its
Mean annual temperature (°C)

25 I disappearance at the end of the season. What does this

II
20 show?
III (a) S-shaped or sigmoid growth of this insect
15
IV (b) The food plants mature and die at the end of the rainy
10
season
5 (c) Its population growth curve is of J-type
0 V (d) The population of its predators increases enormously
–5 17 When does the growth rate of a population following the
–10 VI logistic model equal to zero? The logistic model is given
–15 dN  N
as = rN 1 − 
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
dt  K
Mean annual precipitation (cm)
(a) when N nears the carrying capacity of the habitat
N
(a) I, VI and III (b) when equals to zero
K
(b) V, VI and III (c) when death rate is greater than birth rate
(c) IV, III and I N
(d) when is exactly one
(d) I, II and III K
18 Indentify the likely organisms A, B, C and D in the food 21 Given below is one of the types of ecological pyramids.
web shown below This type represents
Hawks (a) pyramid of numbers in a grassland
Lion (b) pyramid of biomass in a fallow land
Snake (c) pyramid of biomass in a lake
(d) energy pyramid in a spring
Foxes 22 From the given graph of population growth select the
Garden
Owls lizard C correct option having correct value of ‘r’ from bar
D Sparrow
graph.

A Mice B Grasshopper
200

Vegetation/Seeds 160
r=?
A B C D
120
(a) Deer Rabbit Frog Rat
(b) Dog Squirrel Bat Deer 80
(c) Rat Dog Tortoise Crow
(d) Squirrel Cat Rat Pigeon 40
19 Given below is an imaginary pyramid of numbers. What
could be one of the possibilities about certain organisms 0
8 16 24 32 40 48
at some of the different levels?

TC 10 (a) r = − ve (b) r = − ve
SC
50
PC 500
(c) r = − ve (d) r = 0
PP 1

(a) Level PC is insects and level SC is small insectivorous 23 A country with a high rate of population growth took
birds measures to reduce it. The figure below shows age sex
(b) Level PP is phytoplanktons in sea and whale on top pyramids of populations A and B twenty years apart.
level TC Select the correct interpretation about them.
(c) Level one PP is peepal trees and the level SC is sheep
(d) Level PC is bats and level SC is cats 70 +
Males Females 60-69
20 Given below is a simplified model of phosphorus cycling
50-59 Age (in years)
in a terrestrial ecosystem with four blanks (A-D). Identify ‘A’ 40-49
the blanks.
30-39

Consumers C 20-29
10-19
D 0-9
A
15 12 9 6 3 0 3 6 9 12 15
Uptake
Soil solution
70 +
Males Females 60-69
Run-off
Age (in years)

B 50-59
‘B’ 40-49
A B C D
(a) Rock Detritus Litter fall Producers 30-39
minerals 20-29
(b) Litter fall Producers Rock Litter fall 10-19
minerals
0-9
(c) Detritus Rock Producer Litter fall
minerals 15 12 9 6 3 0 3 6 9 12 15
(d) Producers Litter fall Rock Detritus Interpretations
minerals
 (a) ‘A’ is more recent and shows slight reduction in the Which two of the above statements for such animals are
growth rate true?
(b) ‘B’ is earlier pyramid and shows stabilised growth rate
(a) III and I (b) I and II
(c) ‘B’ is more recent showing that population is very young
(c) III and II (d) II and IV
(d) ‘A’ is the earlier pyramid and no change has occurred
in the growth rate 27 Which of the following statements (I–IV) regarding energy
24 Consider the following four conditions (I-IV) and select a flow are false?
correct pair of them as adaptation to environment in I. The detritus food chain begins with dead organic matter.
desert lizards. Conditions are II. In aquatic ecosystem, detritus food chain is the major
conduit for energy flow.
I. Burrowing in soil to escape high temperature. III. In terrestrial ecosystem, there is a larger fraction of
II. Losing heat rapidly from the body during high energy flows through grazing food chain.
temperature. IV. Producers belong to the first trophic level of the food chain.
III. Bask in sun when temperature is low. Codes
IV. Insulating body due to thick fatty dermis. (a) II and III (b) III and I
(a) III and IV (b) I and III (c) I and IV (d) I and II
(c) II and IV (d) I and II Directions (Q. Nos. 28-30) In each of the following
questions a statement of Assertion is given followed by a
25 Identify the incorrect statement from the following.
corresponding statement of Reason just below it. Of the
(a) Pyramid of energy is mostly upright, but sometimes it statements, mark the answer as
may be inverted (a) If both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason is the
(b) Pyramid of number and biomass may be either upright correct explanation of Assertion
or inverted (b) If both Assertion and Reason are true, but Reason is not
(c) Pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted as the the correct explanation of Assertion
biomass of fish far exceeds that of phytoplanktons (c) If Assertion is true, but Reason is false
(d) Food chains are generally short and few trophic levels (d) If both Assertion and Reason are false
as only 10% of the energy is transferred to each trophic
28 Assertion Nutrient cycle means cycling of glucose or
level from the lower trophic level
reserved food material within the plant body.
26 Consider the following four statements (I-IV) about Reason Transfer of biogenetic nutrients between living
certain desert animals such as kangaroo rat. and non-living components is called biogeochemical
I. They have dark colour and high rate of reproduction cycle.
and excrete solid urine.
II. They do not drink water, breathe at a slow rate to 29 Assertion The rate of decomposition of detritus is
conserve water and have their body covered with reduced in the regions of high altitude.
thick hairs. Reason It happens due to the immobilisation of nutrients.
III. They feed on dry seeds and do not require drinking
30 Assertion Animals adopt different strategies to survive in
water.
hostile environment.
IV. They excrete very concentrated urine and do not use
water to regulate body temperature. Reason Praying mantis is green in colour, which merges
with plant foliage.

ANSWERS
SESSION 1 1 (c) 2 (b) 3 (d) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (a) 7 (d) 8 (c) 9 (b) 10 (c)
11 (b) 12 (b) 13 (c) 14 (a) 15 (c) 16 (c) 17 (d) 18 (a) 19 (b) 20 (b)
21 (d) 22 (d) 23 (d) 24 (b) 25 (b) 26 (c) 27 (d) 28 (d) 29 (b) 30 (d)
31 (a) 32 (a) 33 (b) 34 (a) 35 (b) 36 (a) 37 (a) 38 (a) 39 (d) 40 (a)
41 (b) 42 (c) 43 (b) 44 (b) 45 (d) 46 (c) 47 (b) 48 (b) 49 (c) 50 (c)
51 (d) 52 (a) 53 (b) 54 (d) 55 (c) 56 (a) 57 (b) 58 (a) 59 (a) 60 (b)
61 (b) 62 (d) 63 (d) 64 (b) 65 (d) 66 (d)

SESSION 2 1 (d) 2 (a) 3 (b) 4 (b) 5 (d) 6 (c) 7 (b) 8 (d) 9 (a) 10 (a)
11 (a) 12 (d) 13 (c) 14 (d) 15 (c) 16 (c) 17 (d) 18 (a) 19 (a) 20 (c)
21 (c) 22 (d) 23 (a) 24 (b) 25 (a) 26 (c) 27 (a) 28 (d) 29 (a) 30 (b)