Course No.

PHY- 3101(A), Renewable Energy, Physics Discipline, KU

Chapter – 3
Solar Collectors and Flat-Plate
Collectors

Md. Shohel Parvez

Assistant Professor
Physics Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna
What do you mean by solar collector? Mention two general types
of solar collectors.
Solar collector
A solar collector is a device, designed to absorb incident solar
radiation and to transfer the energy to a fluid passing in contact with it.
Utilization of solar energy requires solar collectors.
There are two general types of solar collectors.
i. Non-concentrating or flat-plate collector
ii. Concentrating or focusing collector
Non-concentrating or flat-plate collector
A non-concentrating or “flat plate” collector is one in which the
absorbing surface or solar radiation is essentially flat with no means for
 concentrating the incoming solar radiation.
Concentrating or focusing collector
A concentrating or focusing collector or “focusing” collector is one
which usually contains reflectors for employs other optical means to
concentrate the energy falling on the aperture on to a heat exchanger of
surface area smaller than the aperture.
Explain with schematic diagram, the working principle of flat plate
collector.
The solar energy striking the earth’s surface(solar constant) averages
about 1000 watts per square meter under clear skies depending upon
weather condition, location and orientation.
 Cover
Direct solar radiation

Anti reflecting
Absorbing coating
Plate … … ….. ………. ………….. Collector box
…… …… …….. ………. …………… or
fluid tube

Insulation
Figure: LS Flat plate collector
Working principle
Flat plate collector operates on the principle that when a black sheet
absorbs sunlight which appears as heat. The plate will gradually heat up
until its temperature is high enough above ambient that is the
temperature at which the rate of heat loss from the plate to the ambient
air, just balances the rate of heat gain from the absorption of solar rays.
The plate temperature can be increased substantially when the plate
is thermally insulated from the ambient by covering the black plate with
a transparent cover separated by an air gap. This allows most of the
incident light to reach the plate but severely cut down the rate of heat
loss to the ambient. A solar collector involves movement of a fluid either
as air blown over the plate or water flowing through tube attached to the
 plate carry off the heat that is collected.
Construction of a liquid flat-plate collector
It consists of a flat surface with high absorptivity for solar radiation
called absorbing surface. The absorber plate is usually made from a
metal sheet of 1 or 2 mm in thickness . While the tubes which are also
metal range in a diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brushed
or clapped to the bottom of the absorber plate with pitch ranging from 5
to 15 cm. (fig. before)
The metal most commonly used are copper, aluminium, steel and
galvanized iron. The header pipes which lead the water in and out of
collector and distributes heat to the tubes are made of some metal as the
tubes are slightly larger diameters.
 Glass is the most favorites material for transparent covers. Thickness
of 3 or 4 mm are commonly used. The usual practice is to have 1 or 2
covers with spacing ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm.
The insulation on the bottom and sides is usually mineral wool or
glass and has a thickness ranging from 5 to 8 cm. The whole assembly is
contained within a sheet metal container, which is tilt at a suitable angle.
Describe the general description of liquid flat-plate collector
When a flat-plate solar collector uses liquid for heat transfer then
called liquid flat-plate collector. The majority of the flat-plate collector
have five main component as follows:
(i) The absorber system
(ii) Insulation
 iii. Cover system
iv. The working fluid
v. The structure
Absorber
The absorber plate normally metallic or with a black surface,
although a wide variety of other materials can be used, particularly with
air heaters. It absorbs the incident solar radiation and transfer the heat to
the working fluid.
Insulation
Insulation, which should be provided at the back and sides to
minimise the heat losses.
Glass cover
A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or
radiation transmitting plastic film or sheets. It reduces the heat loss from
the absorber while permitting the solar radiation to be transmitted.
The working fluid system
Tubes, fins, passages or channels are integral with the collector
absorber plate or connected to it, which carry the water, air or other fluid.
Structure
A structure is needed to hold the various components in proper
position and support the weight of the collector.
Thermal losses of a flat-plate collector
The performance of a solar collector is described by an energy
balance that indicates the distribution of incident solar energy into useful
energy gain and various losses. The thermal losses can be separated into
three components:
i) Conductive losses
Conductive losses occur through the back and the sides of a collector.
It is usually negligible if the back and sides of the collectors are well
insulated. In order to reduce loss, we use better insulation.
ii) Convective losses
Convective losses occur through air gap. That is convective losses
occur from the absorber plate to the environment through
T

Figure: LS
 intermediate convection exchanges between the air enclosed in each
insulating zone and the boundaries of each zone the collector covers.
To reduce losses
(a) We can reduce the air gap in between the cover and absorber.
(b) We can make the space vacuum.
iii) Radiative losses
Radiative losses from the absorber can be reduced by the use of
spectrally selective absorber coatings. Such coatings have a high
absorptance of about 0.9 in the solar spectrum and a low emitance,
usually of the order of 0.1, in the infra-red spectrum.
Explain the heat transfer process in liquid flat-plate collector and
derive the heat balance equation.
Under steady state conditions, the useful heat delivered by a solar
collector is equal to the energy absorbed in the metal surface minus the
heat losses from the surface directly and indirectly to the surroundings.
In steady state, the performance of a solar collector is described by an
energy balance, that indicates the distribution of incident solar energy
into useful energy gain, thermal losses and optical losses.
Fig LS shows a typical solar collector and also shows the various
losses during the heat transformation.
Let,
𝑡𝑎 ambient temperature
𝑡𝑝 plate temperature and
𝑠 difference between incident solar radiation and optical losses
which is the amount of energy absorbed by the absorber.
Now, the thermal energy loss from collector surrounding by
conduction, convection and radiation can be represented by heat transfer
co-efficient 𝑈𝐿 times the temperature difference between the mean/plate
temperature 𝑡𝑝 and the ambient temperature 𝑡𝑎 .
Thermal energy loss = 𝑈𝐿 (𝑡𝑝 − 𝑡𝑎 )
Now in steady state, the useful energy output of a collector is the
difference between the absorbed solar radiation and the thermal losses. If
𝑄𝑢 is the useful energy output, then,
 𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑐 [𝑆 − 𝑈𝐿 𝑡𝑝 − 𝑡𝑎 ………………….. 1
Where, 𝑄𝑢 is the useful energy delivered by collector, Watts
𝑊 (𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙/ℎ𝑟) and 𝐴𝑐 is the collector area, 𝑚2 .
This is the basic energy balance equation.
If 𝐼𝑇 is the total solar flux incident on the top of the collector, then,
𝐼𝑇 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑟 … … … … … . . (2)
Where, 𝐼𝑏 = Intensity of the beam radiation.
𝐼𝑑 =Intensity of the diffuse radiation.
𝑅𝑏 , 𝑅𝑑 , 𝑅𝑟 be the tilted factor related to beam radiation, diffuse radiation
and reflection radiation.
In order to determine the flux S absorbed in the absorber plate, each term
of equation (2) will be multiplied by the term called transmitivity (𝜏),
absorptivity (𝛼) product (𝜏𝛼).Thus we have,
𝑆 = 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑏 (𝜏𝛼)𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑟 𝜏𝛼 𝑑 … … … … . (3)
So, the total heat balance equation can be obtained by substituting
equation (3) into (1) we get,
𝑄𝑢 = 𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝑏 𝜏𝛼 𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑑 + 𝐼𝑏 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑅𝑟 𝜏𝛼 𝑑 − 𝑈𝐿 𝑡𝑝 − 𝑡𝑎 . . (4)
This is the required expression for heat balance equation.
Selective Surface
For efficient collection of solar energy is desirable that an absorber
should absorb maximum amount of incident solar radiation which
exhibits the characteristics of high absorptivity for incoming solar
radiation (short wave-length radiation <2.5 μm) and low value of
emissivity for outgoing radiation (long wave radiation >2.5 μm) are
 called selective surfaces.
Examples: Black Ni, Black Zn, Black Cu etc.
Optical and physical characteristics of selective surface. OR criteria
to be considered in selecting an absorber coating.
1) It must have high absorptance for solar spectrum (λ=0.3-2.5 μm).
2) Emissivity ε must be less for wave length greater than 2.5 μm.
3) Spectral transition between the region of high absorptance are
low emitance should be as sharp as possible.
4) Coating should be easily applicable to the collecting of desired
shape and size.
Describe different type of selective surfaces.
Considering only the solar and long wave region, there are four
principle types of selective surfaces.
First type
Surface absorbs and emits maximum possible radiation i.e.
absorptivity 𝛼 ≈ 1 and emissivity 𝜀 ≈ 1
Example: A thick coating of black point, low reflection at all
wavelength.
Second type
Surface absorbs maximum solar radiation and emits as little as
possible i.e. 𝛼 ≈ 1 and 𝜀 ≈ 0.
Example: A thin film of Black Ni on polished metal surface.
Third type:
Low solar absorptance and high emitance i.e. 𝛼 ≈ 0 and 𝜀 ≈ 1.
Example: A white point.
Fourth type:
Low solar absorptance and low emitance i.e. 𝛼 ≈ 0 and 𝜀 ≈ 0.
Example: Aluminium foil.
Processes of achieving selective black surfaces
Practically selective black surfaces are generally achieved by one of
the two following processes:
1. Thin optically black surfaces (transparent for wave length about
2.3 μm) are formed on shiny metal substrate.
2. A thin layer of finely divided metal such as gold is formed on a
dark substrate.
What are the preparation method of selective coating?
The preparation method of selective coating are − −
1. Vacuum evaporation method.
2. Ion exchange method.
3. Vacuum sputtering method.
4. Chemical vapour deposition method.
5. Chemical oxidation method.
6. Dipping in appropriate chemical bath.
7. Electroplating.
8. Sprang method.
9. Painting method.
Anti-reflection coating
All transparent materials reflect some light from their surfaces. For
this reason, there will be radiation loss. By using an anti-reflecting
coating the reflectance of the interfaces can be reduced.
By using a thin film having a refractive index between that of air and
the transparent medium the reflectance of the interfaces can be changed.
For normal incidence, the fraction of the light reflected is

2
𝑛2 − 𝑛1
𝜌= ………… 1 [𝑛1 = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑛2 + 𝑛1

𝑛2 = 1.526 (𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠)]
The coating of the surface with the non absorbing film will the
reflectance is now given by
 2
𝑛𝑐2 − 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝜌𝑚 = … … … . . (2)
𝑛𝑐2 + 𝑛1 𝑛2
Where 𝑛𝑐 is the reflective index of the coating.
The reflectance is zero if 𝑛𝑐 = 𝑛1 𝑛2
The ideal coating for glass should have an index of refraction of 1.23
while the ordinary glass has refractive index 1.52.
The thickness of the film must be

λ𝑚
𝑡=
4𝑛𝑐
λ𝑚 = Wave-length of minimum reflectivity.
 By micro-etching, anti−reflection coating can be created on the
surface. In this process by dissolving a greater portion of the glass near
the surface than a same distance below the surface a desirable gradient
refractive index is reduced near the surface and climbs as the radiation
proceed into the glass.
In effect a thin non-homogeneous film is created over the surface of
the glass. When the film and the variation of it’s index of refraction are
correct, a very effective anti-reflection coating results.
The solar reflectance at normal incidence of a single surface of
untreated glass is 0.0434 while after micro-etching is reduces to about
0.02.
Solar selectivity can be obtained by various approaches which can be
grouped into the following categories:
a) Intrinsic solar selectivity materials {Si, Ge etc.}.
b) Absorbing semi-conductor and reflecting metal tandem films.
c) Optical trapping by surface cavity or physical wave-length
discrimination.
d) Quantum size effect.
e) Particulate coating’s composite film.
Write down the basic assumption for the temperature distribution in
flat plate collector.
The basic assumption for the temperature distribution in flat-plate
collector are as follows:
1. The performance is in steady state.
2. Construction is of sheet and parallel tube types.
3. The headers cover a small area of the collector can be neglected.
4. The headers provide uniform flow to tubes.
5. The temperature gradients in the glass cover plates are negligible.
6. There is one dimensional heat flow through covers.
7. There is one dimensional heat flow through the back insulation.
8. The sky can be considered as a black body for long wave length
radiation at an equivalent sky temperature.
9. Temperature gradients around tubes can be neglected.
10. The temperature gradient in the direction of flow and between the
tubes can be treated independently.
11. Thermal and radiation properties of the collector materials are
independent of temperature.
12. Edge heat losses are negligible compared with heat losses through
the collector plate.
13. Losses through the front and back are to the same ambient
temperature.
14. Dust and dirt on the collector are negligible.
15. Shading of the collector absorbing plate is negligible.
16. Headers contain a disproportionally large volume of water.
Describe the temperature distribution of a absorber plate of a flat-
plate collector
The temperature distribution characteristics
Between two tubes of an absorber plate of a flat plate collector is
shown in the above figures.
Fig.(a) shows the region between two tubes. Some of the solar energy
absorbed by the plate must be conducted along the plate to the region of
the tubes. Thus in the vicinity of the tubes the temperature will be lower
than the temperature in the midway between the tubes.
The temperature above the tubes will be nearly uniform because of
the presence of the tube and weld metal. The fluid which is heated,
causing a temperature gradient to exist in the direction of flow.
A situation as shown in Fig.(b) at any location y, is expected in any
region of the collector because the general temperature level is governed
 by the local temperature level of the fluid. The general temperature
distribution in the direction x is as shown in Fig.(c) and at any location x,
the temperature distribution in the y direction will look like as shown in
Fig.(d).
Overall heat loss co-efficient of a flat-plate collector
Thermal network for a two cover system and its equivalent network
are shown in fig.
 In steady state for two cover system the heat transfer by convection
and radiation between,
a) Absorber plate and first cover,
b) The first cover and second cover,
c) The second cover and the ambient must be equal.
Let 𝑞𝑡 be the energy loss through the top and 𝐴𝑝 be the area of the
plate.
Hence, we get,

𝑞𝑡 𝜎(𝑇𝑝4 − 𝑇𝑐41 )
= ℎ𝑝−𝑐1 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑐1 + … … … … . . (1)
𝐴𝑝 1 1
+ −1
𝜖𝑝 𝜖𝑐1
Similarly,

𝑞𝑡 𝜎 𝑇𝑐41 − 𝑇𝑐42
= ℎ𝑐1 −𝑐2 𝑇𝑐1 − 𝑇𝑐2 + … … … . . (2)
𝐴𝑝 1 1
+ −1
∈𝑐1 ∈𝑐2

4
𝑞𝑡 𝜎 𝑇𝑐42 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦
= ℎ𝑤 𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑎 +
𝐴𝑝 1 1
+ −1
∈𝑐2 ∈𝑠𝑘𝑦

𝑞𝑡 4
= ℎ𝑤 𝑇𝑐2 − 𝑇𝑎 +∈𝑐2 𝜎 𝑇𝑐42 − 𝑇𝑠𝑘𝑦 … … . 3 [∴ ∈𝑠𝑘𝑦 = 1]
𝐴𝑝
Here,
ℎ𝑝−𝑐1 = heat transfer co-efficient from plate to cover 1.
 ℎ𝑐1 −𝑐2 = heat transfer co-efficient from cover 1 to cover 2.
ℎ𝑤 = heat transfer co-efficient from cover 2 to ambient.
∈𝑝 = emissivity of the plate
∈𝑐2 = emissivity of the first cover.
∈𝑐2 = emissivity of the second cover.
𝜎 = Stefan Boltzmann's constant.
If the radiation term is linearized then eq. (10) can be written as,

𝑞𝑡
= ℎ𝑝−𝑐1 + ℎ𝑟𝑝−𝑐1 𝑇𝑝 − 𝑇𝑐1 … … … . . (4)
𝐴𝑝
Where,
𝜎(𝑇𝑝 + 𝑇𝑐1 )(𝑇𝑝2 + 𝑇𝑐21 )
ℎ𝑟𝑝−𝑐1 = … . . (5)
1 1
+ −1
∈𝑝 ∈𝑐
 And it is called the heat transfer co-efficient by radiation from plate
to cover 1.
Then the resistance 𝑅3 can be written as,

1
𝑅3 = … … … (6)
ℎ𝑝−𝑐1 + ℎ𝑟𝑝−𝑐1
Similar expression for 𝑅2 can be written by eqn. (2)

1
𝑅2 = … … … … … . (7)
ℎ𝑐1 −𝑐2 + ℎ𝑟𝑐1 −𝑐2
And using eqn. (3) the resistance to the surrounding for radiation heat
loss may be written as
1
𝑅1 = … … … . . (8 )
ℎ𝑤 + ℎ𝑟𝑐2 −𝑠𝑘𝑦
 Thus for this two cover system the top-loss coefficient from plate to
the ambient is,

1
𝑈𝑡 = … … … … (9)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3
Now energy loss through bottom of the collector is shown by two
series resistance 𝑅4 and 𝑅5 . For very good insulation 𝑅4 ≫ 𝑅5 , then we
neglect 𝑅5 .
Thus the back loss coefficient 𝑈𝑏 is approximately.

1 1 𝑘𝑖
𝑈𝑏 = = = … … … . . (10)
𝑅4 𝛿𝑏 𝛿𝑏
𝑘𝑖
 Where,
𝛿𝑏 = thickness of the back insulation.
𝑘𝑖 = thermal conductivity.
The energy loss from the sides may be estimated by assuming one
dimensional side way heat flow around the perimeter of the collector,
then the side loss effect can be written as,

(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝐿3 𝑘𝑖
𝑈𝑠 = … … … … … (11)
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝛿𝑠
Where,
𝐿1 → length of the collector
𝐿2 → width of the collector
𝐿3 → height of the collector
 𝛿𝑠 → thickness of the edge insulation.
The overall heat transfer coefficient 𝑈𝐿 is given by the sum of top,
bottom and side loss coefficients, i.e.
𝑈𝐿 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑢𝑏 + 𝑢𝑠 … … … … (12)
This is the required expression.
Collector efficiency
A measure of collector performance is the collector efficiency defines
as the ratio of the useful heat (energy) gain over some specified time
period to the incident solar energy over the same time period and given
as.
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜂=
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
 ∫𝑄𝑢 dτ
=
𝐴𝑐 ∫𝐼𝑇 dτ
It’s instantaneous value is given by

𝑄𝑢
𝜂 =
𝐴𝑐 𝐼𝑇
Heat Removal Factor
The heat removal factor 𝐹𝑅 can be interpreted as the ratio of the heat
actually delivered to that which would be delivered if the collector plate
were at a uniform temperature equal to that of the entering fluid.
This temperature equality would theoretically be possible if the fluid
were circulated at such a high rate that there would be a negligible rise in
 it's temperature as it passed through the collector and if the heat
transfer coefficient were so high that the temperature difference between
the absorber surface and the fluid would be negligible. Under such
circumstances the value of 𝐹𝑅 would be equal to 1.0.
In the cause of the liquid flat plate collector the working fluid enters
the collector at a low temperature and is heated as it flow through the
tubes. At the entrance of each tube, the working fluid temperature is 𝑇𝑓𝑖 ,
while at outlet is 𝑇𝑓𝑜 . A temperature distribution exists along the tube as
well as between the tubes. The collector heat removal factor is
introduced to express heat gain in-terms of just one working fluid
temperature.
 The collector heat removal factor is related to the actual useful
energy gain of a collector to the useful gain if the whole collector surface
was at fluid inlet temperature.
Mathematically it is given by,

𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖 )

𝐹𝑅 = 2
𝐴𝑐 𝑆 − 𝑈𝐿 (𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝛼 )
It can also be expressed as,

𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖

𝐹𝑅 =
𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝑆 − 𝑇 − 𝑇
𝑈𝐿 𝑓𝑖 𝛼
 𝑆 𝑆
𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝛼 − 𝑈 − 𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝛼 − 𝑈
𝐿 𝐿
=
𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝑆
− 𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝛼
𝑈𝐿

𝑆
𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑈𝐿 − 𝑇𝑓𝑜 − 𝑇𝛼
= 1−
𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝑆
− 𝑇𝑓𝑖 − 𝑇𝛼
𝑈𝐿

𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝐹 ′
= 1 − exp −
𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝑚𝑐𝑝

This is called the Hotel-Whiller Bliss equation.