CHALLENGES FACED IN TEACHING SCIENCE TO PUPILS WITH VISUAL

IMPAIRMENT: A CASE STUDY OF PHATLOGO PRIMARY

SCHOOL IN FRANCISTOWN, BOTSWANA

By

KGOMOTSO CHABONGWA
21105986

A dissertation submitted to The University of Zambia Institute of Distance Education in

partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of a Masters Degree in Primary
Education.

@ FEBRUARY 2025

I
COPYRIGHT

All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise-without prior written permission of the author or the University of Zambia.

© Kgomotso Chabongwa, 2025

II
DECLARATION

I, Kgomotso Chabongwa hereby declare that this thesis represents my own work, except where
acknowledgments indicate otherwise. Neither the whole work nor any part of this work has been
submitted before for Masters at the University of Zambia or other Universities.

Signed (Candidate) ………………………………. Date………………………………

Signed (Supervisor) ………………………………. Date………………………………

III
IV
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my precious father David Uyapo, mother Susan David,grandmother
Keitsheletse Chabongwa and my lovely son Tlotso Ogha David.

And in memory of my late grandfather Edward Chabongwa Mphusu.

V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere and intense sense of gratitude to my advisor

Dr Christopher Haambokoma for his judicious guidance, constant encouragement, inspiration, and

facilitation during my Masters studies. His experience and mentor-ship have been critical in

motivating me to work diligently on my research project. I am thankful to him for providing timely

feedback and inputs related to my work and for the preparation of this manuscript.

I express a deep sense of gratitude to my family for providing motivation, encouragement,

everlasting affection, and moral support during the course of my Masters studies. Huge thanks to

my closest friends who have always believed in me and have rooted for me as I was pursuing my

academic endeavors.

I would like to express my gratitude to all the participants in the research.

Most importantly, I want to thank the Almighty God for his Grace and guidance upon my life.

VI
Abstract
This study examined the challenges and methods associated with teaching science to visually
impaired learner. The objectives of this study were to establish the methods used in teaching
science to the visually impaired pupils for the completion of the science school curriculum, identify
challenges teachers face when teaching science to learners with visual impairment aswell as
determine solutions to the challenges faced by teachers when teaching science to visually impaired
learners.

The study was qualitative in nature and used a case study design. The research involved 22 teachers
and 6 visually impaired learners from grades 5 and 6. Purposive sampling was used to select
teachers of visually impaired learners. Data from the teachers was collected using semi-structured
questionnaires, interviews and observations. The data was analysed thematically which involved
coding and catergorazing data to generate themes which were descriptively presented. The themes
are supported by direct quotations from participants. To maintain anonymity, participants were
identified using codes. The major indentified grouped in to themes identified include classroom
size/ workloads, material resources, attitudes of learners, teaching methods, curriculum
adaptation, professional development, teaching strategies, school support system, strategies for a
more inclusive science education. Teachers reported that large class sizes hinder personalized
support for visually impaired learners, while the scarcity of specialized materials limits hands-on
learning experiences. Negative learner attitudes towards science, exacerbated by a lack of inclusive
teaching methods, further challenge educational outcomes. The study underscores the need for
better resource allocation, teacher training in inclusive strategies, and development of adaptive
materials to improve science education for visually impaired learners.

Keywords: visually impaired learners, science, teaching

VII
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

COPYRIGHT .................................................................................................................................. II
DECLARATION ...........................................................................................................................III
APPROVAL .................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ V
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................ VI
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................ VII
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... XII
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...................................................................................XIII
CHAPTER ONE: .............................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................................................1
1.0 Overview ................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of the Study ...........................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................5
1.3 Purpose of the study ...............................................................................................................6
1.4 Objectives of the Study ..........................................................................................................6
1.5 Research Questions ................................................................................................................6
1.6 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................7
1.7 Delimitations of the study .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.8 Limitations of the Study .........................................................................................................7
1.9 Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................................8
1.10 Conceptual Framework ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1.11 Structure of the Thesis .........................................................................................................9
1.12 Operational defination of terms .........................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO: ..........................................................................................................................11
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE .....................................................................................11

VIII
 2.0 Overview ..............................................................................................................................11
2.1 Global view of children with special needs .........................................................................12
2.2 Education of learners with special needs .............................................................................15
2.3 Challenges and Criticism of teaching science in special schools ........................................19
2.4 Teachers Opinion on visual impairment ..............................................................................21
2.5 Effective Strategies for Teaching Learners with Visual Impairments .................................22
2.6 Summary ..............................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER THREE: ......................................................................................................................26
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................26
3.0 Overview ..............................................................................................................................26
3.1 Research paradigm ...............................................................................................................26
3.2 Research approach................................................................................................................27
3.3 Case Study design ................................................................................................................29
3.4 Location of Study .................................................................................................................30
3.5 Study Population ..................................................................................................................30
3.6 Sample Size ..........................................................................................................................30
3.7 Sampling Techniques ...........................................................................................................32
3.8 Data Collection Instrument ..................................................................................................32
3.9 Pilot Study ............................................................................................................................33
3.10 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................34
3.11 Data Analysis .....................................................................................................................35
3.12 Systematic data Integration ................................................................................................36
3.13 Measures To Ensure Trustworthiness ................................................................................37
3.14 Ethical Considerations.......................................................................................................37
CHAPTER FOUR;.........................................................................................................................38
PRESENTATIONS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ........................................................................38
4.0 Overview ..................................................................................................................................38
a) Teaching Methods Used for Visually Impaired learners ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.

IX
 b) Adaptation of Science Curriculum for Visually Impaired learners ..... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
c) Specific Teaching Strategies Effective for Visually Impaired learners Error! Bookmark not
defined.
d) Challenges Encountered in Teaching Science to Visually Impaired Pupils .................. Error!
Bookmark not defined.
e) Strategies and Accommodations to Address Challenges ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
4.2 Teaching Methods Used for Visually Impaired learners ....................................................39
4.3 Adaptation of Science Curriculum for Visually Impaired learners.....................................41
4.4 Specific Teaching Strategies Effective for Visually Impaired learners ..............................42
4.5 Challenges Encountered in Teaching Science to Visually Impaired Pupils .......................44
CHAPTER FIVE ...........................................................................................................................55
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ......................................................................................................55
5.0 Overview ..............................................................................................................................56
5.1 Discussion of findings ..........................................................................................................56
CHAPTER SIX ..............................................................................................................................60
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY .................................................61
6.1 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................61
6.2 RECOMENDATIONS .........................................................................................................62
REFERENCES ..............................................................................................................................65
APPENDICES ...............................................................................................................................73
Appendix A ....................................................................................................................................73
Appendix B ....................................................................................................................................75
Appendix C ....................................................................................................................................77
Appendix D ....................................................................................................................................79

X
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Systematic data integration………………………………………………………….37

Figure 2: different teaching methods the teachers said they use………………………………40

XI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 : Demographic Information Background of the Participants…………………….. 31
Table 2 : Profiles of Learners with Visual Impairment (LVI)…………………………….. 32
Table 3 : Responses on the size question…………………………………………………...49
Table 4 : Responses“Do the learners have negative attitude towards school”……………..51

XII
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

WHO-World Health Organization

NFB- National Federation for the Blind

HIV/AIDS- Human Immune Virus/ Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

MOE- Ministry of Education

UNICEF- United Nations Children's Fund

SEN- Special Educational Needs

CRPD- Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

MoEDS- Ministry of Education and Skills Development

TVET- Technical Vocational Education and Training

STEM-Science, technology, engineering and mathematics -
AT- assistive technologies
OCR- Optical Character Recognition

DPE- Diploma in Primary Education

B. Ed- Bachelor of Education

B.Ed Special- Bachelor of Education in Special Education

HOD- Head of Department

LD-Learning Disabilities

SPED- Special Education

XIII
 CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION
1.0 Overview

This introductory chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the study, encompassing the

background, statement of the problem, and research objectives that this study aims to achieve. It

outlines the research questions designed to attain these objectives and explains the significance of

the topic within the context of educational science for visually impaired learners. The chapter also

comprises the following sections: operational definitions of key terms, theoretical framework,

interpretation of my research model, scope of the study and chapter Summary.

1.1 Background of the Study

The incidence of visual impairment has been steadily increasing over the years, as highlighted by

Resnikoff, S., et al.(2017). Global figures indicate that approximately one child loses their vision

every minute, resulting in around 500,000 children worldwide annually (World Health

Organization-WHO, 2012). In the America alone, the estimated number of blind school children

surpasses 1million with the expected to double by 2050 (NIH. 2016).

The scenario in Africa mirrors this trend, particularly concerning the impact of Human Immune

Virus/Acquired Immune Defficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS), which has contributed to an increase

in visual impairment cases.

Lupiya (2017) notes that Zambia holds the highest rate of blindness in Southern Africa, with more

than 105,000 visually impaired. These individuals often face socio-economic disadvantages due

to inadequate access to essential resources. Consequently, they necessitate specialized educational

support and appropriate assistive technologies to optimize their academic capabilities (Ministry of

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Education-MOE, 1996; Lupiya, 2017). Ensuring that all learners receive high-quality education is

a primary responsibility shared by educators and stakeholders within the Ministry of Education ,

Vocational Training, and Early Education . This education should be tailored to meet the unique

requirements of each learner. Doe & Smith (2023) emphasizes the importance of recognizing and

accommodating the diverse needs and abilities of all learners.

The main objectives of education include preparing individuals for life and enabling them to react

to events in their daily lives. The contribution of science lessons is significant in achieving these

goals because learners can systematically examine nature and natural phenomena in science

lessons (Costu, 2017). To predict unobserved events, they can recognize their surroundings and

develop appropriate reactions. To adapt to the world, they live in, they need to observe the

environment, establish cause-effect relationships between events, and acquire the skills to reach

results. In this context, for learners to be beneficial to themselves, their families and society, they

can be taught to examine their environment with scientific methods and develop correct thinking

and make decisions in events/situations through science lessons (Kaptan, 2018).

In other words, science classes enable students to conduct scientific research on the world around

them, (Hardy, 2019). At the same time, they can be prepared for the future with their decision

making and problem-solving skills and improve their knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes,

and values with the science class (Topsakal, 2015). Science classes aim to raise individuals who

can produce knowledge, use it in daily life, think critically, solve problems, be entrepreneurs, have

strong communication skills, and contribute to society and culture (Ministry of Education, 2018).

Today, individuals are faced with many complex problems. Therefore, to overcome these

problems, they need to acquire some skills and have 21st-century skills that provide a universal

literacy framework (Akgunduz et al., 2015). Learners must develop these skills, especially

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acquiring competencies in a science program (Bahar et al., 2018). Additionally, a science course

is one of the primary subjects where these skills are taught and plays a crucial role in their

development, (Smith, 2020).

In today's world, where knowledge and technology are developing very rapidly, there is a need for

individuals who have problem-solving and decision-making skills based on science and

technology in every field. Therefore, science education is essential for each student. In this respect,

it is necessary to provide all learners with the knowledge, attitude, or skills required by the age,

whether they have any disabilities or not. In short, science education is necessary for all learners,

and no discrimination should be made on gender, culture, disability, etc. (Doe & Smith, 2023).

In this context, science lessons have an important place in the education of learners with visual

impairment and all learners. learners with visual impairment may have limitations in learning

processes and cognitive development due to reasons arising from their lack of vision (Sozbilir et

al., 2017). Therefore, they may experience more difficulties than their peers who study, especially

in courses requiring field knowledge (Doe & Smith, 2022) In particular, they may have more

problem in science lessons where visual information is used extensively (Karakoc, 2016).

Moreover, the science curriculum contains a large number of abstract topics, concepts, or

knowledge.

This situation may cause learners with visual impairment to have difficulties in science classes

(Kizilaslan, 2019). learners with visual impairment need more concretization to access abstract

contents in science classes (Smith & Doe 2023). learners with visual impairment need a rich

environment to gain diverse, continuous experiences and opportunities to learn by doing and living

(Doe, A., & Smith, J. (2022). It is estimated that sighted learners learn about 85% of their

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academic, social, and functional skill areas through the sense of sight (Smith & Doe 2021)).

Therefore, unique methods and techniques are needed in the education of learners with visual

impairment. For example, learners with visual impairment need to use their remaining senses other

than sight to systematically explore the contents of science classes.

Visual impaired learners need to primarily learn through tactile and auditory means in order to

participate effectively in educational activities (Yalcin et al, 2020). Accordingly, it can be said that

it is essential for science teachers to choose appropriate teaching activities and make some

adaptations in the materials or course contents to enable learners with visual impairment to access

the curriculum (Kizilaslan, 2016). Adapting the materials or content delivery used for learners with

visual impairment means that these learners have a great chance to achieve academic success

(NCAGC, 2019).

According to Fraser (2018), science teachers have many responsibilities, and they are equally

likely to have difficulties during lesson plan implementation. Science teachers receive a general

education during their college education, and therefore they lack the idea of adapting the content

for learners with visual impairment (Fraser, 2018). When the curriculum of the universities that

train science teachers in most countries is examined, there is a lesson called "special education and

inclusion" (Council of Higher Education, 2018). The lesson's content in question generally

includes special education subjects and learners with visual impairment to a limited extend. For

that reason, it can be said that science teachers have limited knowledge about learners with visual

impairment. This situation will cause science teachers assigned to schools for the visually impaired

to feel ineligible and have difficulties in teaching activities.

Islek (2017) states that the infield teachers working in the school for the visually impaired are

assigned without any special training; they consider themselves inadequate in the education of

4
learners with visual impairment and that there are fundamental problems in academic lessons.

According to Yazici (2017), science teachers are hesitant about science lessons with learners with

visual impairment and generally prefer verbal expression. Based on this, we can state that science

teachers working with learners with visual impairment should be supported to teach effectively.

Doe & Smith (2023) says that teacher training is an effective way for more accessible science

education . They also suggest that teachers should be taught how to teach science to learners with

visual impairment through in-service training activities.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite advances in inclusive education, there is evidence that some learners with visual

impairment continue to face significant challenges in effectively learning and understanding

science concepts therefore completing both primary and secondary education without having

grasped basic concepts of science. This is a great concern because the government spends lots of

money to improve the quality of science education (teaching & learning), for example this year

alone the Ministry of Education and Skills Development has been allocated the largest share of the

2024/25 proposed recurrent budget, amounting to 15.5 billion (fifteen billion, five hundred and

forty million pula) which is 24.4% of the total budget, according to the Minister of Finance, Ms

Peggy Serame.

The performance of learners still does not justify the huge expense in the sector (Mosekiemang,

2019). Inclusive education in a classroom setting encompasses the integration of both learners with

special needs and their typically developing peers, with the teacher serving as the facilitator of

content delivery. While existing research has explored the challenges encountered by learners with

special educational needs, there remains a notable gap in the literature regarding the difficulties

5
faced by teachers in delivering science education to these students. This gap underscores the need

for further investigation into the specific challenges experienced by educators in this context.

1.3 Purpose of the study

The purpose of this study was to identify the challenges face by teachers in teaching science to

learners with visual impairments at Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study was guided by the following objectives:

1. To establish the methods used in teaching science to the visually impaired pupils for the

completion of the science school curriculum.

2. To identify challenges teachers face when teaching science to learners with visual impairment

3. To determine solutions to the challenges faced by teachers when teaching science to visually

impaired learners.

1.5 Research Questions

The study intended to answer the following questions:

1. What methods are used in teaching science to the visually impaired pupils for the

completion of the science school curriculum?

2. What challenges do teachers face when teaching science to learners with visual

impairment?

3. What solutions could address the challenges faced by teachers when teaching science to

visually impaired learners?

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1.6 Significance of the Study

This study aims to raise awareness among policymakers about the challenges faced in teaching

science to pupils with visual impairments, ultimately contributing to the development of more

inclusive and effective educational policies. The insights generated from this research are intended

to be valuable to the Ministry of Education, educational stakeholders, and primary school

administrators, with the goal of improving science education for visually impaired learners. By

highlighting specific obstacles and successful strategies, the study seeks to inform and enhance

staff development programs, enabling teachers to adopt and refine teaching methods that are

effective for visually impaired learners.

Furthermore, this study aims to bridge the gap between curriculum developers and teachers,

fostering a more cohesive approach to addressing the educational needs of visually impaired

learners. By providing evidence-based recommendations, the research intends to support the

formulation of refined policies that ensure equal educational opportunities for all learners,

regardless of their visual abilities.

The findings of this study will serve as a resource for other researchers, contributing to the limited

body of knowledge.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

Limitations are circumstances beyond the researcher's control that may restrict the study's

conclusions. This study encountered several limitations. Firstly, the participants were often too

busy to complete the questionnaires, which led to delays and a reduced response rate. The

demanding schedules of teachers and learners, particularly during examination periods,

significantly impacted the timely collection of data.

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Secondly, the study was constrained by the behavior and experience of the participants. The varied

levels of experience among teachers and the diverse attitudes of learners towards science education

posed challenges in obtaining uniform and consistent responses. Additionally, transportation

presented a significant challenge.

Lastly, the results of the study are not generalizable beyond the specific population from which

the sample was drawn. The unique sample, comprised solely of teachers and learners from

Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown, limits the applicability of the findings to other contexts

or regions. Despite these limitations, the insights gained from this study provide valuable

contributions to understanding the challenges of teaching science to visually impaired learners and

can inform future research and educational practices.

1.9 Theoretical Framework

This study is underpinned by Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. This theory highlights the

interactions between observational learning, personal beliefs, and environmental factors, which

are crucial for understanding the complexities of teaching in inclusive classrooms.

The key elements of social cognitive theory relevant to this study involves observational learning,

self efficacy and reciprocal determinism. Social Cognitive Theory emphasizes that individuals

learn by observing others. For teachers of learners with VIs, it is important to recognize that these

students may not have access to visual models for social behavior. Instead, they depend on auditory

and tactile cues. Teachers need to modify their instructional approaches to include clear verbal

explanations and physical demonstrations, enabling students to learn through non-visual means

(Salleh & Zainal 2018). Self-efficacy, or the belief in one's capabilities, is crucial for both teachers

and learners. Teachers who feel confident in their ability to teach students with VIs are more likely

8
to employ effective teaching strategies. Conversely, learners with VIs need to develop self-efficacy

through successful social interactions and reinforcement from their teachers. Understanding how

to foster this self-efficacy can help address the challenges teachers face in creating an inclusive

environment (Haegele & Porretta, 2017). Reciprocal determinism concept illustrates the interplay

between personal factors (like a teacher's beliefs), behaviors (teaching methods), and

environmental influences (classroom dynamics). In inclusive settings, teachers must carefully

navigate these interactions. They may need to adapt their teaching methods based on the specific

needs of visually impaired students while considering how these changes impact the overall

classroom atmosphere (Caron et al., 2023).

In conclusion applying social cognitive theory as a guiding framework allows researcher to

investigate the various challenges faced by teachers working with learners who have visual

impairments. By focusing on observational learning, self-efficacy, and reciprocal influences

within educational settings, studies can identify effective strategies for teacher training and support

systems that enhance inclusive education practices. This approach not only aids teachers but also

significantly improves the educational experiences of visually impaired learners.

1.11 Structure of the Thesis

This thesis is organized into six chapters, each addressing different aspects of the research study

on teaching science to visually impaired learners at Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown.

Chapter One: This introductory chapter includes the Background Information, Statement of the

Research Problem, Objectives of the Study, Research Questions, Significance of the Study,

Delimitations, Limitations, and the Theoretical Framework. These components establish the

foundation of the study, outlining its purpose, scope, and theoretical underpinnings.

9
Chapter Two: The Literature Review. This chapter examines existing literature related to the

topic, providing a comprehensive overview of previous research, theories, and findings. It situates

the current study within the broader academic context and identifies gaps that this research aims

to fill.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology. This chapter details the research paradigm, research

design, and research approach adopted for the study. It describes the location and study population,

sampling procedures, data collection methods, validity and reliability of the instruments, data

analysis techniques, and ethical considerations. This methodology ensures the study's rigor and

credibility.

Chapter Four: Presentation of Findings. This chapter presents the data collected during the

research process. It includes a systematic presentation of the findings, organized to align with the

research questions and objectives.

Chapter Five: Discussion of Findings. In this chapter, the findings are analyzed and interpreted

in the context of the theoretical framework and literature review. It explores the implications of

the results, addressing how they contribute to the understanding of teaching science to visually

impaired learners and highlighting any unexpected outcomes.

Chapter Six: Conclusion and Recommendations. The final chapter summarizes the key findings

of the study, draws conclusions based on the research objectives, and provides recommendations

for policy makers, educational stakeholders, and future research. It emphasizes the practical

implications of the study and suggests ways to improve the teaching of science to visually impaired

learners.

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This structured approach ensures a coherent and comprehensive presentation of the research, from

the initial background and theoretical foundation to the detailed methodology, findings, discussion,

and concluding insights.

1.12 Operational defination of terms

Blind: Those who have no sight or whose sight is so defective that they require special methods

used for visual impairment. (WHO, 2023)

Curriculum: Is a course of study given to a group of learners in a specified period according to

grade level and it has outcome based results. Posner, G.J (2004)

Learners with Visual Impairment: These are learners with visual impairments encompassing

both the blind and the low vision learners. WHO , (2023)

Special Needs: These refers to conditions, which could be physical, psychological. Social or

cognitive that make someone’s performance and abilities differ from that of an average person.

It’s some form of extra help and assistance. WHO, (2023

CHAPTER TWO:

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.0 Overview

This chapter reviews relevant literature on the experiences of instructors teaching learners with

visual impairments (LVI) in relation to the study’s research questions. The chapter is organized

into six sections. Section 2.1 provides a global overview of children with special needs, focusing

on the prevalence and challenges faced by this population. Section 2.2 explores the education of

11
learners with special needs, with an emphasis on the approaches and policies implemented to

support inclusive education. Section 2.3 discusses the challenges and criticism associated with

teaching science in special schools, identifying key obstacles in science education for learners with

disabilities. In Section 2.4, teachers' opinions and perspectives on visual impairment are reviewed

to better understand their attitudes and experiences in working with visually impaired learners.

Section 2.5 examines effective strategies and methodologies for teaching learners with visual

impairments, highlighting best practices from recent research. Finally, Section 2.6 summarizes the

key points discussed in the chapter and sets the stage for subsequent sections of the study.

2.1 Global view of children with special needs

The global view of children with special needs is complex and multifaceted. An estimated 240

million children globally have disabilities, with 150 million of these being children under the age

of five with developmental disabilities (WHO-UNICEF, 2023). These children face significant

barriers to accessing education, healthcare, and other essential services, which can exacerbate their

disabilities and limit their opportunities for growth and development (Olusanya et al, 2022).

Below is a summary of the challenges and barriers to the inclusion of children with special needs

adopted from a global pespective deduced from literature (Olusanya et al, 2022; Kızılaslan, 2019;

Sikanku, 2018; Yalcin & Arslantas, 2020).

Stigma and social exclusion-Children with disabilities are often stigmatized and excluded from

society, leading to limited access to education and essential services

Infrastructure and Accessibility- Many schools lack necessary facilities and resources to support

children with disabilities; buildings are often not designed to be accessible.

12
Lack of Awareness and Training- Teachers and service providers often lack awareness and

training to effectively support children with disabilities, resulting in inadequate inclusion.

Poverty and Socioeconomic Factors- Children from low-income families are more likely to have

limited access to education and essential services, exacerbating their disabilities.

These challenges highlight the multifaceted barriers that hinder the inclusion of children with

special needs and underscore the need for comprehensive solutions to address these issues

effectively. These will later be elaborated with empirical literature in section 2.3.

The following discussion presents a global perspective on how the aforementioned challenges can

be addressed, drawing on findings from previous research (Olusanya et al., 2022; Kızılaslan, 2019;

Sikanku, 2018; Yalcin & Arslantas, 2020).

Inclusive Education - Ensure that children with disabilities have access to quality education by

providing specialized support and accommodations to meet their unique needs. Inclusive education

helps children with disabilities reach their full potential and participate fully in society

Accessibility and Infrastructure- Improve educational infrastructure by designing buildings and

facilities that are accessible and inclusive. This ensures that children with disabilities can

physically access education and other essential services.

Awareness and Training- Provide ongoing training and professional development opportunities

for teachers and service providers to equip them with the necessary skills and knowledge to support

children with disabilities effectively. Increasing awareness about the needs of children with

13
disabilities helps create a more inclusive environment. Increasing awareness about the needs of

children with disabilities helps create a more inclusive environment.

Poverty Reduction and Socioeconomic Support - Address poverty and provide socioeconomic

support by offering financial assistance and resources to families and communities. This ensures

that children with disabilities have access to the resources and services they need to thrive,

reducing the impact of socioeconomic factors on their development and inclusion.

The provision of special education in the world has evolved significantly over time that is also

inclusive Botswana. Initially, special education was provided only to children of school age in

Botswana (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021). However, research on Early Childhood Intervention has

shown that providing special education from birth or at the first diagnosis leads to better outcomes

for both the child and their family. Wolf Wolfensberger's theory of Normalization (1980)

emphasized the right of people with special needs to lead "normal" lives, which includes being

part of a family, attending a local school, and holding a job in the community. This philosophy

spurred the integrated education movement, aiming for schools to provide an environment where

all learners could learn together.

Recent studies in Botswana highlight the ongoing challenges and progress in providing special

education (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021). Mukhopadhyay et al., (2021) noted that Botswana is

working towards ratifying the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD),

which would further bolster the country's commitment to inclusive education. Botswana has made

significant strides in ratifying international human rights instruments. In 2021, the country ratified

the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), a pivotal step in promoting the

rights and dignity of persons with disabilities. This development underscores Botswana's

14
commitment to the principles of the CRPD, which include ensuring access to justice, dignity,

autonomy, non-discrimination, equality, and mobility for individuals with disabilities.

The ratification of the CRPD is particularly noteworthy as it formally acknowledges the

importance of these principles and calls for urgent action to address the barriers faced by persons

with disabilities. This move aligns with Botswana's broader efforts to enhance human rights and

inclusivity within its legal and social frameworks, further solidifying the country's dedication to

creating an equitable society for all its citizens (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020; Mpuang, 2015).

Another study by Molosiwa and Mpofu (2017) examined the practices and opportunities for

inclusive education in Botswana, emphasizing the need for more comprehensive and inclusive

approaches. Their work highlights the importance of addressing the diverse educational needs of

learners in Botswana, particularly those with intellectual disabilities. The authors argue that

inclusive education is fundamental to addressing the needs of diverse learners and that it requires

extraordinary commitment from all stakeholders, including teachers and policymakers. The

Ministry of Education and Skills Development (MoEDS) has also stressed the importance of

inclusive education, advocating that all schools should cater to the diverse needs of all learners

(Mpuang, 2015).

So the provision of special education in Botswana has progressed from a limited, school-age-only

approach to a more inclusive and early intervention-focused model. Despite the advancements,

recent studies underscore the challenges still faced and the necessity for a more inclusive

educational framework.

2.2 Education of learners with special needs

15
In Botswana, the landscape of education for learners with special needs has undergone significant

transformation in recent years, aiming to foster inclusivity and provide tailored support systems

(Mpuang, 2015). Recognizing the fundamental right to education for all, irrespective of abilities

or disabilities, Botswana has embarked on a journey towards inclusive education within

mainstream educational settings. This shift is guided by a commitment to acknowledging and

addressing the diverse learning needs of every student (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021).

A pivotal initiative driving this evolution is the Special Education Needs Policy of 2011 (Mensi et

al., 2022). This policy reflects the government's dedication to furnishing quality education for

learners with disabilities, emphasizing early identification, intervention, and the provision of

requisite support services. Key to its implementation is the investment in training for educators

and professionals, particularly special education teachers. These individuals undergo specialized

training to equip them with the expertise needed to cater to the unique requirements of learners

with disabilities or learning difficulties (Mensi et al., 2022).

Moreover, the government has prioritized ensuring the accessibility of educational facilities for

learners with physical disabilities. This entails the construction of ramps, provision of assistive

devices, and adaptation of learning materials to accommodate diverse learning styles and abilities

(Modimakwane, 2015).

Despite these strides, challenges persist in fully realizing inclusive education in Botswana.

Resource constraints, inadequate infrastructure, and societal attitudes towards disability continue

to pose significant obstacles (Modimakwane, 2015). Addressing these challenges necessitates

greater collaboration among government agencies, educational institutions, and civil society

organizations to comprehensively meet the multifaceted needs of learners with special needs

(Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021).

16
Research plays a crucial role in informing and enhancing educational practices for learners with

special needs. Three notable studies from a a global perspective are reviewed to shed light on

various aspects of this domain, offering insights into this subject:

Cheng and Lai's (2020) review of technology-supported special education studies highlights the

significant role technology plays in enhancing learning outcomes for learners with special needs.

Analyzing various dimensions of such research, including learning devices, strategies, domains,

and research issues, the study reveals a notable increase in the use of technology, with diverse

devices and applications being employed. However, it also identifies a trend towards conservative

learning strategies, indicating a need for more inclusive and varied approaches. The review points

out that technology-supported special education is predominantly focused on elementary school

learners and resource classrooms, suggesting a need for more comprehensive and inclusive

strategies across different educational levels.

Despite these limitations, the study concludes that technology can be effective across various types

and levels of disabilities, though further research is necessary to fully understand its impact.

Overall, Cheng and Lai's review emphasizes the importance of adopting more comprehensive and

inclusive approaches to technology-supported special education, particularly concerning learning

strategies and the focus on specific student populations (Cheng & Lai, 2020).

Salas García and Rentería's (2024) study on inclusive education in Peru investigates its effects on

the educational outcomes of learners without special educational needs (non-SEN). Using cross-

sectional regression analyses, the research reveals that, on average, the presence of learners with

special educational needs (SEN) in regular classrooms does not significantly impact non-SEN

learners' educational outcomes. However, the study identifies heterogeneous results depending on

17
the specific type of SEN and the academic placement, indicating that the impact of inclusive

education on non-SEN learners can vary based on these factors.

The research emphasizes the critical role of targeted resources and parental involvement in

ensuring the success of inclusive education, particularly for specific types of SEN. These findings

highlight the necessity for tailored strategies and additional resources to effectively support

inclusive education, acknowledging the diverse needs of learners with SEN and the potential

variations in their influence on non-SEN peers (Salas García and Rentería, 2024).

Tataka's (2018) study on orientation and mobility training for learners with visual impairments in

Kenya highlights significant curriculum barriers and gaps in educational programs. The study

found that the absence of dedicated educational programs for orientation and mobility training

severely hindered the effective teaching of these essential skills. Additionally, the syllabus for such

training was found to be inadequate, contributing to the exclusion of these skills from the official

school timetable. Time constraints further complicated the situation, with insufficient time

allocated for teaching orientation and mobility, making it challenging for teachers to deliver

effective instruction.

Poor administrative support also emerged as a critical issue, impeding the implementation of these

programs. Resource constraints, such as a lack of white canes and proper training materials, were

another significant hurdle. Furthermore, the study noted that the curriculum did not provide a clear

framework for establishing orientation and mobility training programs. These findings underscore

the necessity for more comprehensive and inclusive approaches to teaching orientation and

mobility in schools for learners with visual impairments, emphasizing the need for proper

utilization of resources and robust administrative support (Tataka, 2018).

18
These studies collectively underscore the importance of addressing the diverse educational needs

of learners with special needs through comprehensive, inclusive, and informed approaches. They

advocate for the utilization of technology, targeted resources, and parental involvement to enhance

educational outcomes. Additionally, they emphasize the need for ongoing research to expand our

understanding and inform policy development in this critical area of education (Modimakwane,

2015).

2.3 Challenges and Criticism of teaching science in special schools

Children with special needs face numerous challenges and barriers in accessing education and

other essential services, significantly impacting their development and integration into society

(Morelle et al., 2019; Habulezi, 2016). One of the most pervasive issues is stigma and social

exclusion, where children with disabilities are often marginalized and discriminated against. This

exclusion not only deprives them of educational opportunities but also affects their emotional and

psychological well-being, reinforcing a cycle of disadvantage and low self-esteem (Habulezi,

2016). Social stigmatization can lead to isolation, with these children missing out on critical social

interactions and support systems essential for their overall development (Morelle et al., 2019).

Another major challenge is infrastructure and accessibility (Morelle et al., 2019). Many

educational institutions lack the necessary facilities and resources to accommodate children with

disabilities. Schools often have architectural barriers such as stairs without ramps, inaccessible

restrooms, and lack of adaptive learning materials, which hinder the physical access of these

children to education (WHO-UNICEF, 2023). This lack of accessibility in physical environments

underscores a broader issue of inadequate infrastructure that fails to support inclusive education

effectively (Morelle et al., 2019; Habulezi, 2016).

19
Additionally, the lack of awareness and training among teachers and service providers poses a

significant barrier (Morelle et al., 2019; Habulezi, 2016). Educators often do not receive adequate

training on how to support children with special needs, leading to ineffective teaching methods

and insufficient support within the classroom (Cakmak et al., 2017). This gap in knowledge and

skills can result in an unsupportive learning environment that does not cater to the diverse needs

of children with disabilities, thereby limiting their educational outcomes and opportunities for

personal growth (Cakmak et al., 2017)

Poverty and socioeconomic factors further compound these challenges. Children from low-income

families often have limited access to education and essential services, as financial constraints can

restrict their ability to afford specialized care, adaptive equipment, and transportation to accessible

schools (Cakmak et al., 2017; Morelle et al., 2019; Habulezi, 2016). This socioeconomic

disadvantage can exacerbate the impact of their disabilities, creating additional barriers to their

education and overall development. The intersection of poverty and disability often leads to a

vicious cycle of exclusion and limited opportunities, perpetuating inequality and hindering the

potential of these children (Morelle et al., 2019; Habulezi, 2016).

In summary, children with special needs encounter multifaceted barriers in accessing education

and essential services, including stigma and social exclusion, inadequate infrastructure and

accessibility, lack of awareness and training among educators, and poverty-related challenges.

Addressing these issues requires a comprehensive approach that involves improving societal

attitudes, enhancing physical and educational infrastructure, providing targeted training for

educators, and addressing socioeconomic disparities to create an inclusive environment where all

children can thrive (Cakmak et al., 2017; Morelle et al., 2019; Habulezi, 2016 ).

20
2.4 Teachers Opinion on visual impairment

The education of learners with special educational needs in Botswana has a long history marked

by significant changes over time (Modimakwane, 2015). Traditionally, these learners were placed

in rehabilitation centers where the focus was primarily on teaching activities of daily living rather

than education. However, there has been a notable shift towards inclusive education, driven by the

recognition of the rights of people with disabilities to education and the growing emphasis on

inclusive education practices. This shift has integrated learners with special needs into regular

classrooms, reflecting a broader commitment to inclusive education (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021).

Recent studies in Botswana underscore the ongoing challenges in implementing inclusive

education. For example, Mosalagae and Bekker (2021) examined the experiences of learners with

intellectual disabilities at Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions,

finding that the TVET system has both included and excluded these learners, highlighting the need

for more inclusive practices. Additionally, (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020; Mpuang, 2015) noted that

Botswana's efforts to ratify the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)

culminated in 2021, marking a significant step in acknowledging and addressing the educational

needs of individuals with disabilities.

Research papers on teachers' perceptions of inclusive education for learners with special needs

reveal several key points (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021). Generally, teachers have positive

perceptions of STEM education, believing it to be valuable for student learning and outcomes.

They feel that STEM education is motivating for learners and leads to higher expectations post-

high school (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021). However, teachers also face significant barriers to

implementing inclusive education, such as pedagogical, curriculum, and structural challenges. The

lack of teacher support and training, inadequate communication with parents and school staff,
21
negative attitudes and stigma towards learners with disabilities, and insufficient accessible

infrastructure and resources further complicate these efforts (Modimakwane, 2015;

Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020; Mpuang, 2015).

Teachers believe that certain supports would improve inclusive education, including collaboration

with peers, quality curriculum and district support, effective professional development and

training, and clear policies along with sufficient funding for ICT infrastructure and tools

(Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020; Mpuang, 2015). Their perceptions are heavily influenced by factors

such as their education, training, prior experiences, the availability of support materials, class size,

and workload. In some countries, teachers favor inclusive education more when there are laws

requiring it, compared to countries with sophisticated segregated education systems. As key

implementers of education policy, teachers' perceptions are crucial to the success or failure of

inclusion efforts (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020; Mpuang, 2015).

While teachers generally support inclusive education, they face significant barriers related to

training, resources, attitudes, and policies (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2021). Providing teachers with

quality professional development, collaborative support, and the necessary tools and infrastructure

is crucial to enabling successful inclusive education for learners with special needs. The evolution

of inclusive education in Botswana, marked by significant steps like the ratification of the CRPD,

reflects a broader commitment to overcoming these challenges and ensuring that all learners

receive the support they need (Modimakwane, 2015; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020).

2.5 Effective Strategies for Teaching Learners with Visual Impairments

In Botswana, inclusive education for learners with special needs is a priority, as reflected in the

Special Education Needs Policy of 2011. This policy underscores the importance of early

22
identification and intervention, along with providing tailored support services to facilitate the

learning and development of learners with diverse needs (Modimakwane, 2015; Mukhopadhyay

et al., 2020; Mpuang, 2015). Teachers and educational professionals undergo training to

effectively support learners with disabilities or learning difficulties, with special education

teachers receiving specialized training to cater to the unique requirements of these learners.

Infrastructure and accessibility have also been addressed, with investments made to make

educational facilities conducive to learning for learners with physical disabilities, including the

provision of ramps, assistive devices, and modified learning materials (Mukhopadhyay et al.,

2021).

Despite these efforts, challenges such as limited resources, inadequate infrastructure, and societal

attitudes towards disability remain significant barriers to the effective implementation of inclusive

education practices. Collaboration between government agencies, educational institutions, and

civil society organizations is crucial to address these multifaceted needs comprehensively

(Mangope, 2017).

Effective strategies for teaching learners with visual impairments (LVI) involve a multi-sensory

approach, employing specific teaching strategies like inquiry-oriented methods, the use of tactile

representations, and multisensory teaching techniques (Mangope, 2017). Tactile media, including

charts, models, maps, and graphs, are instrumental in facilitating learning for LVI learners, but

there is a need for greater emphasis on teaching them how to create their own tactile graphics

(Otukile-Mongwaketse et al., 2016).

In different contexts, adaptation and implementation of these strategies vary, with an emphasis on

tools and techniques for preparing tactile measuring tools to enhance active learning. Additionally,

student perspectives on teaching strategies highlight the importance of appropriate

23
communication, timely resources, accessible materials, and teacher approachability outside of

lessons (Otukile-Mongwaketse et al., 2016). The integration of assistive technologies (AT) plays

a significant role in enhancing learning outcomes for learners with visual impairments. AT tools

such as screen readers, Braille displays, and OCR software engage senses other than sight,

improving access to educational content. However, challenges such as high costs, lack of training,

and technical support hinder the widespread adoption of AT (Mangope, 2017).

Continued research is essential to expand understanding, enhance educational policy, address

challenges, and ensure truly inclusive education for all learners, including those with special needs.

By employing effective strategies and fostering collaboration, Botswana and other countries can

create inclusive learning environments that cater to the diverse needs of all learners, promoting

engagement and academic success(Modimakwane, 2015; Mukhopadhyay et al., 2020).

2.6 Summary

This chapter has provided a comprehensive overview of the education of learners with special

needs, drawing from both global perspectives and local contexts. It has discussed the shift towards

inclusive education practices, reviewed the challenges and criticisms surrounding the teaching of

science in special schools, and explored teachers' opinions on visual impairments. Additionally, it

has highlighted effective strategies used to support learners with visual impairments in educational

settings.

However, despite the wealth of research on the general challenges in teaching learners with visual

impairments, there remain significant gaps in understanding specific issues within the Botswana

context. While several international studies address the challenges of teaching visually impaired

learners in inclusive settings, there is limited research on the specific challenges teachers in

24
Botswana face when teaching science to visually impaired learners in special schools.

Additionally, there is insufficient evidence on the solutions or strategies that teachers in Botswana

employ to overcome these challenges and effectively complete the school science curriculum.

Thus, this study seeks to address the following gaps in the literature, as aligned with the research

questions:

1. What specific challenges do teachers in Botswana face when teaching science to learners

with visual impairments in special schools?

2. What solutions and strategies are being used to overcome these challenges, particularly in

relation to completing the science curriculum?

3. How effective are the current methods employed by teachers in Botswana in helping

visually impaired learners grasp scientific concepts?

By addressing these gaps, this research aims to contribute valuable insights into improving the

quality of science education for visually impaired learners in Botswana, and potentially inform

broader educational practices in similar contexts.

25
 CHAPTER THREE:

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Overview
This chapter presents a detailed description of the research paradigm, research approach, research

design employed, validation, location of the study, target population, sampling procedures and

sample size. In addition, it highlights the instrumentation, piloting, trustworthiness, data collection,

data analysis techniques and ethical considerations, which was used in the study.

3.1 Research paradigm

This study is located in the interpretive paradigm. Interpretive research paradigm involves a

qualitative approach to inquiry that seeks to understand and interpret the meanings individuals

ascribe to their lived experiences, interactions, and social phenomena (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018).

This paradigm emphasizes subjective interpretation, contextuality, and the construction of reality

through human perception and understanding.

Researchers within the interpretive paradigm aim to explore the complexities of human behavior,

culture, and society by delving into the underlying meanings, values, and beliefs that shape

individuals' perspectives and actions (Schwandt, 2001). They employ methods such as interviews,

26
observations, and textual analysis to uncover multiple layers of meaning and gain insights into the

subjective realities of research participants (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Central to interpretive research is the notion of reflexivity, which involves the researcher's

awareness of her own biases, assumptions, and perspectives, and how these may influence the

research process and findings (Finlay & Gough, 2003).in interpretive paradigm Researcher strive

to engage in a continuous process of self-reflection and critical examination of their role in shaping

the research process and interpreting the data.

The interpretive research paradigm is particularly well-suited for investigating complex social

phenomena, cultural practices, and subjective experiences where meanings are socially

constructed and context-dependent (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). By embracing a holistic and

inductive approach to inquiry, interpretive researchers seek to generate rich, nuanced

understandings of the phenomena under study, contributing to theory-building and informing

practical interventions (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

In summary, the interpretive research paradigm offers a valuable framework for exploring the

multifaceted nature of human experience and social reality through the lens of subjective

interpretation, reflexivity, and contextual understanding.

3.2 Research approach

The qualitative research approach is a methodological framework that emphasizes understanding

and interpreting the subjective meanings, experiences, and perspectives of individuals within their

natural context (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). This approach involves exploring the complexities of

27
human behavior, culture, and social phenomena through in-depth examination and analysis of

qualitative data.

Researcher employed the qualitative research approach and used methods such as interviews,

observations,questionnaires and textual analysis to collect rich, detailed data that capture the

richness and depth of human experience (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Unlike quantitative research,

which focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis, qualitative research seeks to uncover the

underlying meanings, patterns, and themes inherent in the data.

Central to the qualitative research approach is the concept of contextuality, which acknowledges

the influence of social, cultural, and historical factors on individuals' lived experiences and

behaviors (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). The researcher strived to understand the unique perspectives

and realities of research participants within the specific context, recognizing the importance of

cultural norms, values, and social dynamics in shaping their experiences. Denhart's (2008) study

emphasizes the significance of individual perspectives in qualitative research, particularly in

exploring the experiences of teachers in teaching LVI. Thus, this research prioritized hearing

directly from teachers who have lived through such experiences.

The qualitative research approach is characterized by flexibility and openness to emergent themes

and insights that may arise during the research process (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Researcher often

engaged in iterative data collection and analysis, refining the research questions and theoretical

frameworks based on ongoing reflection and interpretation of the data.

Qualitative research findings are typically presented in narrative form, using descriptive language

and illustrative examples to convey the richness and complexity of the phenomena under study

28
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2018). The goal of qualitative research is not to generalize findings to a larger

population but to generate rich, contextually grounded understandings that contribute to theory-

building and inform practical applications.

3.3 Case Study design

The researcher used a case study research design, a case study is a research method that involves

an in-depth examination of a particular instance or case, aiming to understand its complexities and

unique characteristics within its real-life context. Researcher used a case study to explore

phenomena in their natural settings, providing rich and detailed insights into the subject under

investigation (Yin, 2018). In this study, the case was an inclusive school that integrates visually

impaired learners into mainstream. The school, located in Francistown, North East District

Botswana, was selected because it represents an educational setting where inclusive teaching

strategies are implemented to support visually impaired students in learning science.

The study focused on how science teachers adapted their instructional methods, materials, and

assessments to accommodate visually impaired learners. It examined classroom interactions, the

use of assistive technologies, tactile learning aids, and teacher-student engagement strategies. The

research covered the period from when the teachers started teaching in the school, analyzing both

the challenges and effective practices in making science education accessible in an inclusive

environment.

This case was chosen because it provides valuable insights into the practical application of

inclusive education policies and the effectiveness of different teaching strategies in ensuring that

visually impaired learners can meaningfully engage with science concepts

29
3.4 Location of Study

Singleton (2013) points out that in choosing a study locale, the ideal setting for any study should

be directly directed to the researcher’s interest.The research was conducted at a primary school in

Francistown. This place was chosen because at the time of the study, it was the only primary school

in North East District, Botswana that has a special unit for learners with visual impairment.

3.5 Study Population

The population comprised of teachers teaching science to learners with visual impairment and

learners with visual impairment.

3.6 Sample Size

The study involved 22 teachers of learners with visual impairment and 6 visually impaired learners

from standard 5 & 6 at the school. The profiles of these participants are detailed below.

Table 1: Teacher Profiles

WORK
CODE GENDER QUALIFICATION CADRE
EXPERIENCE

Senior Teacher
GT001 F DPE 20 years
Guidance

GT002 F DPE 20 years Senior Teacher 2

ST003 F B.Ed 15 years Senior Teacher 2

GT004 F B.Ed Special 1 year Teacher

GT005 F DPE 17 years Senior Teacher 2

GT006 F DPE 10 years Senior Teacher 2

30
GT007 F DPE 6 years

ST008 F B.Ed Special 33 years HOD LD

GT009 F DPE 39 years HOD Lower

ST010 F B.Ed Special 2 years Teacher

GT011 F DPE 10 years Senior Teacher 2

DPE + Degree in
GT012 M 20 years HOD Middle
Admin

GT013 M DPE Temp Assistant Teacher

GT014 F DPE 7 years Senior Teacher 2

Senior Teacher Maths

GT015 M DPE 20 years
& Science

ST016 F B.Ed Special 20 years Senior Teacher 1

Senior Teacher
GT017 M DPE 17 years
Practicals

GT018 F DPE 2 years Senior Teacher 2

GT019 M DPE 22 years Senior Teacher 1

Senior Teacher
GT020 F DPE 17 years
Guidance

Senior Teacher
ST021 F B.Ed 30 years
Languages

ST022 F B.Ed Special 30 years HOD SPED

31
Table 2: Profiles of Learners with Visual Impairment (LVI)

CODE GENDER AGE

LVI 1.5 M 17

LVI 2.5 M 16

LVI 3.5 F 16

LVI 4.5 F 15

LVI 1.6 M 18

LVI 2.6 M 19

3.7 Sampling Techniques

In order to select the teachers to participate in this study a list of all the teachers from Phatlogo

Primary School was obtained from the head teacher’s office.Homogeneous Purposive sampling

was used in selecting the 22 teachers to participate in this study. In order for the researcher to

obtain the 22 teachers who participated in this study, the researcher only specifically targeted

teachers with visually impaired learners in their classes.

3.8 Data Collection Instrument

Three research instruments were used for data collection. The participants were interviewed to

collect data.Interviews played a crucial role in case study research, enabling the researcher to

32
directly engage with key individuals involved in or knowledgeable about the case. Through

interviews, researcher elicited detailed accounts, perspectives, and experiences, shedding light on

various aspects of the case (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

Semi- structured questionnaires were also used to collect qualitative data from teachers. A

questionnaire is an instrument that contains questions aimed at obtaining specific information on

a variety of topics (Kombo and Tromp, 2006). The semi-structured questionnaire was chosen

because it allowed the researcher to use the same question items to all respondents. The semi-

structured questionnaire was also chosen because it could be presented to each participant in

exactly the same manner to minimize the role and influence of the interviewer.The instrument had

11 main questions, some of which had sub questions. The questions and their sequence were

determined in advance. The findings from this instrument helped to answer all the research

questions of the study.

Observations complemented interviews & questionnaires by providing the researcher with

firsthand insights into the behaviors, interactions, and dynamics within the context of the case.

Observation protocol helped to get information as it is through observing the interaction of the

study participants. According to constructivism theory, learners play an active role in the

development of their own knowledge (Prawatt & Floden, 1994). Prawatt and Floden (1994) argue

that knowledge emerges from social interactions and takes place within a socio-cultural framework

(Gergen, 1995). Consequently, the researcher monitored the activities of teachers and students in

various settings, including classrooms, staff rooms, and school grounds.

3.9 Pilot Study

In the pursuit of methodological rigor, the study employed a process of piloting interviews and

questionnaires to ascertain the consistency and accuracy of the research instrument. The research

33
instrument was pre-tested in one school, namely Matsieng Primary School. The school was

chosen because they have learners with visual impairment. The environmental setting in the

schools is the same as where the study was carried out and the learners are subjected to the same

curriculum and taught by the teachers with similar professional qualification. The researcher

administered questionnaires to four teachers who teach science to visually impaired learners.

Subsequently, the findings were scrutinized in collaboration with the supervisor to ensure their

veracity and solicit expert guidance. Some of the discrepancies included participants struggling

to understand some survey question which needed the researcher to reword unclear questions for

better comprehension. Questions which were not relevant to the study were also

dropped. Other suitable questions were formulated.

Rigorous attention was paid to identifying and rectifying any errors, discrepancies, or logical

inconsistencies, thereby ensuring that only pertinent information was deliberated upon. This

meticulous approach bolstered the trustworthiness of the research outcomes, thereby fostering

confidence in their validity.

3.10 Data Collection Procedure

Before commencing the exercise of data collection in the field, permission was sought from the

Research Ethics Committee from the University of Zambia. The researcher then presented an

introductory letter, Ethical clearance from UNZA and the methodology chapter to the North East

Education Regional Operations. Lastly Before implementing any instruments, the researcher

requested that all participants complete a consent form. Semi-structured interviews were

conducted with specialist teachers, school head teachers, and visually impaired learners during

school hours, as this was the most suitable time to reach these specific participants.

34
The researcher administered the questionnaires to the teachers and they were given ample time to

fill in questionnaires. The questionnaires were collected during class visits for observations.

Throughout that week the researcher was in the institution observing as teaching and learning takes

place while interviewing teachers and learners to gain more insight. Interviews were conducted

with visually impaired learners and their science teachers, generating valuable data from these

respondents. The participants were encouraged to feel at ease and express their opinions openly.

An audio recorder was utilized to capture the interviews, and field notes were also taken. The use

of audio recording is cost-effective and non-intrusive, making it easy to extract information during

transcription. This data collection method was preferred as it did not rely on the writing skills of

the learners, unlike questionnaires; instead, it allowed them the freedom to articulate their

thoughts. This approach also enhanced data validation by enabling the researcher to assess the tone

of voice used. Each interview lasted between 10 to 15 minutes per participant.

3.11 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was used to identify common themes and patterns in the data. It involved coding

and categorizing data to uncover key challenges and potential solutions.

Initially, the researcher engaged in the meticulous review of audio recordings, transcribing

interviews from tape to written form, thereby fostering familiarity with the collected data.

Extensive reading ensued to comprehend the nuances of the data, with the researcher noting

impressions, discerning significance, and discerning valuable data segments.

In the analysis phase, coding techniques were employed to identify and annotate underlying

concepts within the data set, categorizing collected data into thematic groups to elucidate

35
interrelationships among ideas and themes (Rubin & Rubin, 1995). This analytical approach, as

outlined by Creswell (1998), encompasses organizing, identifying, and synthesizing concepts,

culminating in the development of overarching themes while ensuring consistency and precision

in the analysis process and resultant findings.

3.12 Systematic data Integration

Field notes from

observations Interview
and transcriptions
questionnaires.

Data
Integration

Figure 1: Systematic data integration

In examining the challenges faced in teaching science to pupils with visual impairment at Phatlogo

Primary School in Francistown, Botswana, a systematic data integration approach was employed.

Thematic analysis was used to analyze field notes from observations and questionnaires, as well

as interview transcriptions as seen in figure 2. This process involved meticulously coding the

qualitative data to identify recurring themes and patterns. Observational field notes and focus

group discussions were carefully reviewed to capture the lived experiences and contextual

challenges faced by both teachers and learners. Simultaneously, interview transcriptions were

analyzed to extract in-depth insights and personal accounts. The themes identified from these

36
different data sources were then integrated to provide a comprehensive understanding of the

multifaceted challenges in teaching science to visually impaired pupils. This thematic synthesis

allowed for a holistic view of the issues, highlighting key areas such as large classroom sizes,

shortages of material resources, learner attitudes, teaching methods, and the inadequacies in

adapting and modifying teaching and learning resources.

3.13 Measures To Ensure Trustworthiness

To ensure validity and reliability in interviews, semi-structured questionnaires, and observations,

various strategies were applied. For interviews, validity was tested through content validation by

expert reviews, pilot testing, and constructed validation by comparing responses to existing

theories, while reliability wass ensured through inter-rater reliability (multiple interviewers

cross-checking interpretations), test-retest reliability (conducting follow-up interviews), and

member checking (confirming responses with participants). For semi-structured questionnaires,

content validity was assessed through expert judgment, construct validity through factor analysis,

and criterion validity by comparing responses to external measures, while reliability was tested

using Cronbach’s alpha for internal consistency, test-retest reliability by administering the

questionnaire twice, and split-half reliability by comparing responses from different sections. For

observations, validity was enhanced by using predefined checklists (content validity), conducting

observations in real-life settings (ecological validity), and triangulating with other data sources.

3.14 Ethical Considerations

This study ensured the following steps to uphold respondents‟ ethical rights; Through Director of

Institute of Distance Education (IDE) University of Zambia, a research permit was sought from

the Permanent Secretary Ministry of Basic Education. The researcher reported to the Regional

37
Education Officer of the area who allowed her to carry out the research. A preliminary visit was

made to the school to book the appointment for the intended research and a date to administer the

instruments arranged. Informed consent of the participants to participate in the study was sought

and all reasonable effort was made to ensure that confidentiality was not breached. To protect the

participants identity, names weren't disclosed and instead codes were used to represent the

participants as well as structuring the one participant put it as follows received during interviews.

The teachers' ages were also not indicated. As the table shows, GT stands for general teacher and

ST stands for special teacher. The number reflected the number of participants in the study

wherever it was inserted (for example, gt 1, gt-2... stands for the first, second... teacher). The

numbers, however, do not have any rank values because they were just used for identification.

CHAPTER FOUR;

PRESENTATIONS OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

4.0 Overview

The study aimed to explore the challenges and strategies used by teachers in teaching science to

visually impaired learners at Phatlogo Primary School. Multiple sources of data—interviews with

teachers, classroom observations, and questionnaires—revealed several insights into the current

teaching practices, challenges, and adaptations made to accommodate the needs of visually

impaired (VI) learners. The findings are presented below, triangulated from the various data

sources, and interpreted through the lens of the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT).The presentation

of findings was guided by the following research questions;

38
 1. What methods are used in teaching science to the visually impaired pupils for the completion

of the science school curriculum?

2. What challenges do teachers face when teaching science to learners with visual impairment?

3. What are the solutions to the challenges faced by teachers when teaching science to visually

impaired learners?

4.2 Teaching Methods Used for Visually Impaired learners

20%

traditional
differentiated

80%

Figure 2: different teaching methods the teachers said they use.

4.2.1 Methods Used to Teach Science to Visually Impaired learners

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From the responses of teachers and observations, it was noted that many teachers use traditional

methods of teaching which heavily rely on visual aids, diagrams, and charts. These materials are

inaccessible to visually impaired learners, limiting their ability to grasp complex science concepts.

Teachers are challenged to explore alternative tactile and auditory resources to convey information

effectively.

The researcher observed that the use of visual terminology when teaching was a challenge for

teachers because they always needed to be mindful of using descriptive and inclusive language

that allows visually impaired learners to conceptualize scientific ideas without relying on visual

references.This reliance on visual aids without sufficient adaptation is aligned with SCT, which

stresses that learning is influenced by the environment and the models presented within it. In this

case, the environment is primarily visual, which constrains learning opportunities for visually

impaired students. Thus, the traditional methods being used in the classroom, while familiar, are

insufficient for meeting the diverse needs of these learners.

A key challenge that emerged from the data was the division of labor between general and

special education teachers. One teacher expressed frustration with the disparity in compensation

and responsibilities between the two roles: "The special teacher is given a 25% scarce skill

allowance, and the general teacher receives nothing, but the general teacher is the one

responsible for delivering the curriculum." This systemic issue contributed to a lack of

motivation among general teachers to assist visually impaired learners, especially in the absence

of the special education teacher. As one general teacher explained, she never bother to assist VI

learners in the absence of a special teacher because she does not receive any allowance.

40
This finding indicates that the lack of financial incentive and structural support for general

teachers exacerbates the challenges faced by visually impaired learners. The researcher noted

that this issue needs to be addressed to ensure that all teachers, regardless of their role, are

equipped and motivated to support VI learners effectively.

4.3 Adaptation of Science Curriculum for Visually Impaired learners

4.3.1 How do you adapt the science curriculum to accommodate visually impaired
learners?

The adaptation of the science curriculum to accommodate visually impaired learners included

several key strategies. Teachers reported simplifying complex scientific content, using Braille

textbooks, and incorporating sensory experiences such as tactile materials and auditory aids. As

one teacher shared, that she uses Braille textbooks and simplify the content to make it more

accessible, while another emphasized the importance of hands-on activities.

The researcher observed that while these adaptations were beneficial, there remained a

significant gap in the availability of tactile teaching aids such as 3D models and tactile diagrams.

This reliance on Braille textbooks and simplified content showed a step in the right direction but

revealed that further innovation and resource availability are necessary. This aligns with SCT's

emphasis on environmental factors influencing learning, as students require a more inclusive

environment to engage fully with science content.

Incorporating Sensory Experiences

Hands-on activities that engage other senses are crucial for visually impaired learners. These

activities include using tactile learning materials, auditory aids, and other sensory inputs to teach

scientific concepts.

41
ST010 highlighted that Hands-on activities that engage other senses are crucial for learners.

From the responses of teachers and observations, the researcher noted that many teachers use

traditional methods of teaching, which heavily rely on visual aids, diagrams, and charts. This

reliance poses significant challenges for visually impaired learners who cannot benefit from visual

learning materials.

Teachers were seen attempting to describe visual content verbally, but this method often fell short

in conveying detailed scientific concepts effectively.

There was a noticeable gap in the availability of non-visual teaching aids, such as 3D models and

tactile diagrams, which are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of scientific topics for

visually impaired learners.

Classroom observations revealed that while some teachers made commendable efforts to adapt

their teaching methods, there was still a heavy dependence on visual teaching aids, highlighting

the need for more inclusive resources and training.

The adaptation of the science curriculum at Phatlogo Primary School is a work in progress, with

teachers striving to balance traditional teaching methods with the need for more inclusive, sensory-

based learning strategies. The use of Braille textbooks, simplification of content, and incorporation

of hands-on, sensory experiences are steps in the right direction, but there is a clear need for

continued improvement and support to fully meet the educational needs of visually impaired

learners.

4.4 Specific Teaching Strategies Effective for Visually Impaired learners

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To the question “are there any specific teaching strategies that you find particularly effective for

visually impaired learners in science classes?”

Teachers highlighted several effective teaching strategies for visually impaired learners in

science classes, emphasizing the importance of multisensory approaches, individualized

instruction, and the use of technology aids such as screen readers and Braille displays.

4.4.1 Multisensory Approaches: These methods engage multiple senses, allowing

learners to grasp complex concepts more effectively. By incorporating tactile materials, audio

explanations, and hands-on activities, teachers can make abstract scientific ideas more accessible

to visually impaired learners.

4.4.2 Individualized Instruction: Tailoring lessons to meet the specific needs of each

student is crucial. This personalized approach ensures that visually impaired learners receive the

support and accommodations necessary for their academic success.

Teachers said that individualized instruction and technology aids had made a significant

difference.

Technology Aids: Utilizing screen readers, Braille displays, and other assistive

technologies can significantly enhance the learning experience for visually impaired learners.

These tools help bridge the gap created by traditional visual-centric teaching methods.

However, from the responses of teachers and observations made during the study, it was

noted that many teachers still rely heavily on traditional methods of teaching. These methods often

depend on visual aids, diagrams, and charts, which are not accessible to visually impaired learners.

This reliance on visual-centric teaching strategies poses a significant barrier to effective science

education for these learners.

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4.4.3 Challenges

Traditional Methods: The researcher noted that many teachers use traditional methods of

teaching which heavily rely on visual aids, diagrams, and charts.

While some teachers have successfully integrated multisensory approaches and technology aids,

there remains a need for broader adoption of these strategies. Professional development and

training could help teachers transition from traditional methods to more inclusive teaching

practices.

4.5 Challenges Encountered in Teaching Science to Visually Impaired Pupils

The questionnaires administered to participants, observations performed, and information gleaned

from the papers all revealed that teachers experience numerous problems while teaching science

to visually impaired learners. The findings are mainly presented under the following five themes:

4.5.1 Teaching Methods Used for Visually Impaired learners

To the question “What methods do you use to teach science to visually impaired learners?”

Teachers predominantly used tactile learning materials, audio resources, and group discussions to

teach science to visually impaired learners. Peer tutoring was also a common method employed to

facilitate learning.

Participant A and B mentioned that they often used tactile diagrams and 3D models to explain

scientific concepts. Additionally, they emphasized that audio recordings and peer support were

essential in their science lessons.

44
4.5.2 Adaptation of Science Curriculum for Visually Impaired learners

To another question “How do you adapt the science curriculum to accommodate visually impaired

learners?”

The curriculum was adapted by simplifying content, using Braille textbooks, and incorporating

sensory experiences.

Participant C & D indicated that they use Braille textbooks and simplify the content to make it

more accessible to their learners. They justified by saying that braille textbooks are essential

because they provide the foundational text for students who are visually impaired, allowing them

to read independently. However, simply providing the textbook is not always enough. To ensure

that students fully understand and engage with the material, they adapt and simplify the content

to break down complex concepts. This makes it more digestible and tailored to their specific needs,

offering clarity and easier comprehension. By doing this, they create a learning environment where

my students can access information more effectively and feel confident in their ability to learn.

However, there are challenges that can hinder this process. One major obstacle is the availability

and accessibility of high-quality Braille textbooks and materials. There are no enough Braille

versions of textbooks or up-to-date content, which can limit what’s available for our students.

Additionally, the time and resources needed to simplify and adapt the content can be

overwhelming, especially when there is a lack of support or specialized tools. Without proper

training and adequate resources, it becomes much more difficult to deliver the level of accessibility

that my students need.

The participants continued to highlight that they engaged learners in hand-on activities which

allowed learners to make connections between the content and the real world, reinforcing their

45
understanding. When students engage with physical materials and activities, helping them

internalize lessons in a more meaningful and impactful way. However the resercher noted that

Many classrooms were not equipped with the necessary tools, such as tactile models, auditory

devices, or other sensory-friendly materials. Furthermore, some teachers may not have had the

proper training in how to incorporate these types of activities effectively.

4.5.3 Specific Teaching Strategies Effective for Visually Impaired learners

To the question “Are there any specific teaching strategies that you find particularly effective for

visually impaired learners in science classes?”

Teachers highlighted the effectiveness of multisensory approaches, individualized instruction, and

technology aids such as screen readers and Braille displays.

4.5.4 Challenges Encountered in Teaching Science to Visually Impaired Pupils

What are the main challenges you encounter when teaching science to visually impaired pupils?

The study also highlighted significant challenges faced by teachers when teaching science to

visually impaired learners. Teachers reported a lack of specialized materials, such as Braille

books and tactile learning aids, which made it difficult to effectively teach scientific concepts.

One teacher expressed, "There is a severe shortage of Braille books and tactile learning aids."

Additionally, large classroom sizes were a persistent challenge, making individualized attention

difficult to provide. "Managing a large class size with diverse needs is incredibly challenging,"

one participant shared.

These challenges were observed by the researcher as well, especially regarding the difficulty in

maintaining individualized education programs (IEPs) due to the large class sizes. As one teacher

46
noted, "The large class size compromises the effectiveness of IEPs," underscoring the systemic

issues within the school’s infrastructure.

Large Classroom Sizes and Workloads

The class attendance registrations examined revealed the following class enrollments:

Table 3: Responses on the size question

Class Standard # of VI Learners # of Sighted Learners

a 1 - 32

b 2 2 31

c 3 2 31

d 4 - 32

e 5 4 29

f 6 2 30

The attendance registers verified the findings of the teachers interviewed, who complained about

large class sizes. Teachers expressed that managing and engaging a larger number of learners can

lead to increased workload and decreased job satisfaction. Additionally, larger class sizes may

hinder the development of positive teacher-student relationships and impede effective

communication in the educational setting.

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Teachers expressed concern that the larger class size was compromising the effectiveness of the

Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) for learners with special educational needs. They

explained that these learners require a more personalized approach, additional support, and

accommodations to thrive academically and socially. Unfortunately, they noted that the current

situation impeded their ability to deliver the level of support these learners deserve.

This feedback highlights the challenges teachers face in providing adequate attention and tailored

support to visually impaired learners, is exacerbated by the demands of managing large

classrooms.

4.5.5 Shortage of Material Resources

Most of the responses from teachers echoed that they often rely on tactile models and hands-on

experiments to enhance the learning experience for visually impaired learners. Traditional teaching

tools, such as visual aids and diagrams, may not be accessible to learners with visual impairments,

limiting their ability to grasp abstract scientific ideas. However, the shortage of these specialist

materials limits the type and depth of experiments that may be carried out. This constraint may

hinder learners' capacity to fully connect with and comprehend certain scientific topics that are

best communicated through hands-on activities.

Furthermore, a lack of adaptive technology and assistive gadgets can limit visually challenged

learners' incorporation into mainstream science classrooms. To accommodate varied learning

demands, inclusive education necessitates creative tools and resources, and a lack of such materials

might lead to the marginalization of visually impaired learners in the science curriculum.

4.5.6 Negative Attitudes of Learners

Table 4: Responses on the question “Do the learners have negative attitude towards school?”

48
 Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 16 72.7%

No 5 22.7%

Not sure 1 4.6%

Total 22 100%

72.7% of teachers indicated that the main challenge they encounter in an inclusive class with

visually impaired learners is their negative attitudes towards the science subject.

Teachers mentioned that the learners have a fear or lack of interest in science due to perceived

difficulties in accessing and comprehending visual information, and that they seem to be

frustrated by the diagrams provided to them. They gave the example of a child who was born

blind being given a labeled diagram of the parts of a plant or an insect, explaining that the child

would have no idea what an insect looks like. They noted that such diagrams could cause

significant stress for the learners, making it difficult for them to comprehend the information.

They further explained that some visually impaired learners may be reluctant to participate in

hands-on experiments or activities due to concerns about their safety or the belief that they will be

unable to fully engage in such tasks without visual input. These learners may feel apprehensive

about navigating unfamiliar materials, tools, or environments, fearing potential accidents or

mistakes. Additionally, they may worry that without the ability to visually observe demonstrations

or read labels, they will miss out on important details or not be able to perform tasks as effectively

as their peers. This fear or uncertainty can lead to a lack of confidence, making them hesitant to

49
participate in activities that require active involvement, despite the potential benefits of hands-on

learning.

This feedback implies that visually impaired learners struggle with self-perception and confidence

in their abilities to engage with science. The absence of visual cues contributes to feelings of

insecurity or a sense of being different from their sighted peers.

4.5.7 Inadequate Adaptation and Modification of Teaching and Learning Resources

From the findings of the study, when materials are not adapted or modified to be tactile, it poses a

significant challenge to teachers instructing learners with visual impairments. Teachers also

mentioned that they find it difficult and challenging to engage visually impaired learners in group

activities, especially when teaching resources are not modified to support collaborative learning.

ST08 put it as followss:

"As you are aware, inclusive education is a cornerstone of our commitment to providing quality

learning experiences for all learners. However, the current state of adaptation in science

instruction for visually impaired learners is falling short of our aspirations. The consequences of

this inadequacy are profound and impact the educational journey of these learners in several

critical ways."

This qualitative study provides a comprehensive overview of the challenges faced in teaching

science to visually impaired pupils at Phatlogo Primary School, highlighting critical areas for

improvement and support.

4.6 Strategies and Accommodations to Address Challenges

50
What strategies or accommodations have you found effective in addressing the challenges

mentioned in question 4?

To address the numerous challenges faced while teaching science to visually impaired pupils,

teachers at Phatlogo Primary School have employed various effective strategies and

accommodations. Key strategies include:

Collaboration with Special Education Professionals: Teachers reported that working closely

with special education professionals has significantly helped in addressing the unique needs of

visually impaired learners. This collaboration provides valuable insights and practical strategies

tailored to the learners' requirements.

Using Assistive Technology: The integration of assistive technology, such as screen readers,

Braille displays, and audio resources, has proven to be highly effective. These tools enable visually

impaired learners to access and engage with scientific content more independently.

ST010 explained that assistive technology tools help bridge the gap for learners by providing

tailored support to meet their unique needs, enabling them to access content, communicate, and

engage with lessons in ways that would otherwise be difficult or impossible. These tools, such as

screen readers, speech-to-text software, and adaptive devices, allow learners to interact with the

curriculum more independently and effectively, ensuring that they can participate in the learning

process alongside their peers.

Implementing Personalized Learning Plans: Teachers have found that creating and

implementing individualized learning plans helps cater to the specific educational needs of visually

impaired learners. These plans allow for customized teaching methods and resources that enhance

learning outcomes.

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GT004 emphasized that the main key to overcoming these challenges would be the use of

assistive technology, alongside personalized learning plans. She noted that without these

adaptations, the challenges would persist, and learners would continue to face barriers in

accessing and engaging with the curriculum effectively.

Are there specific training or professional development opportunities that you believe would help

teachers better educate visually impaired learners in science?

Teachers expressed a strong need for more specialized training in special education techniques,

specifically tailored to teaching science to visually impaired learners. They suggested that

workshops and seminars focusing on this area would be highly beneficial.

GT007 stated that if they could receive more training in special education techniques, it would be

beneficial. They also emphasized the need for professional development workshops focused on

teaching visually impaired learners, as these would enhance their ability to effectively support

these students in the classroom.

What improvements or resources would you suggest for schools to better support teachers in

teaching science to visually impaired learners?

Teachers suggested several improvements and resources to better support the teaching of science

to visually impaired learners:

Increased Funding for Specialized Materials: There is a critical need for more funding to

acquire specialized materials such as Braille books, tactile aids, and other learning resources that

are specifically designed for visually impaired learners.

52
ST022 expressed the need for more funding for Braille books and tactile aids, as these resources

are essential for supporting visually impaired learners in accessing the curriculum and engaging

fully in their education.

Smaller Class Sizes: Reducing the number of learners in each class would allow teachers to

provide more individualized attention and support to visually impaired learners, thereby enhancing

their learning experience

ST022 suggested that smaller class sizes and additional special education teachers would make a

significant difference. By reducing the number of students in each class, teachers would be able

to provide more individualized attention and support, particularly for students with special

educational needs, including visually impaired learners. Smaller class sizes would allow for more

tailored instruction and better management of students' diverse learning needs, enabling teachers

to focus on specific challenges faced by each student. Additionally, having more special

education teachers would ensure that the necessary expertise is available to address the unique

needs of visually impaired learners, facilitating more effective teaching and learning strategies.

This increased support could help students overcome barriers and fully participate in classroom

activities.

More Dedicated Special Education Teachers: Increasing the number of special education

teachers in the school would help in effectively addressing the needs of visually impaired learners

and providing the necessary support to regular classroom teachers.

In your opinion, what can schools or educational institutions do to ensure that science education

is more inclusive for visually impaired pupils?

53
Teachers recommended several actions that schools and educational institutions could take to

ensure a more inclusive science education for visually impaired pupils:

Integrating Universal Design Principles in Curriculum Development: By designing curricula that

are accessible to all learners, including those with visual impairments, schools can create a more

inclusive learning environment.

Increasing Awareness about the Needs of Visually Impaired learners: Educating all staff and

learners about the specific needs and challenges faced by visually impaired learners can foster a

more supportive and understanding school culture.

ST010 emphasized that raising awareness and fostering a supportive school culture can greatly

benefit visually impaired learners. By promoting understanding and empathy among teachers,

students, and the wider school community, it would create an environment where visually impaired

learners feel valued, included, and supported. A culture of inclusivity would encourage positive

interactions and reduce stigma, enabling these learners to engage more confidently in school

activities. Additionally, raising awareness would help equip teachers with the knowledge and tools

to better address the specific needs of visually impaired students, ensuring they receive the

appropriate resources and accommodations to succeed academically and socially.

Fostering a Supportive and Inclusive School Culture: Creating an environment that supports

diversity and inclusion, where all learners feel valued and understood, is crucial for the success of

visually impaired learners.

From the responses of teachers and observations, the researcher noted that many teachers still use

traditional methods of teaching, which heavily rely on visual aids, diagrams, and charts. This

54
reliance on visual materials poses significant challenges for visually impaired learners,

underscoring the need for the adoption of more inclusive teaching methods and resources.

As the researcher, I observed that while the teachers at Phatlogo Primary School were making

commendable efforts to adapt their teaching methods, systemic barriers such as limited

resources, inadequate compensation, and reliance on traditional methods hindered their ability to

fully support visually impaired learners. The triangulation of data from teacher responses,

observations, and classroom interactions highlighted a disconnect between the need for

multisensory, inclusive teaching strategies and the continued reliance on visual-centric methods.

From the perspective of Social Cognitive Theory, these findings suggest that learning is shaped

not only by personal factors (such as teachers' motivation and skills) but also by environmental

factors, including available resources and institutional support. The challenges identified point to

an environment that is not yet fully conducive to inclusive learning for visually impaired

students, thereby limiting their opportunities to learn effectively.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

55
5.0 Overview

This chapter present the discussion of the findings given in the chapter above. The discussion is

aligned in such a way that all related data was discussed and expanded from the finding according

to the subjects and with relation to the theoretical framework.

The findings of the study indicate that both teachers and students in large classes encounter a range

of experiences and challenges. Despite their differing roles, both groups faced similar difficulties.

The positive experiences reported were largely overshadowed by a range of negative factors,

including issues related to the work load, learners attitudes , insufficient teaching and learning

resources, the lack of individualized attention, the challenges posed by large class sizes and limited

student participation, teacher stress, the presence of slow learners, and inadequate curriculum

adaptation.

5.1 Discussion of findings

5.1.1 Large classroom sizes/ workloads

In Botswana, one visually impaired student is equivalent to four sighted learners. So, having 30

sighted learners and 3 learners with vision impairment in a class indicates that the class had a total

enrollment of 46 learners, which is just too many. These findings are consistent with Koh and

Shin's (2017) observation that class numbers are another demand placed on teachers that influences

their feelings and performance in inclusionary practices. A number of scholars (Mambwe, 2020;

Mambwe, R., & Lufungulo, E. S., 2020; Mambwe, R., 2019, Mambwe, et al., 2019, & Smith &

Fergurson, ,2018) also agree that teachers in larger classrooms often face heightened stress levels

which negatively affects quality of education delivery. Additionally, managing and engaging a

larger number of learners can lead to increased workload and decreased job satisfaction among

56
teachers (Jones et al., 2020). In this scenario, the level of assistance for learning is jeopardized as

the aim of reducing class size is to enhance support for learners facing disadvantages (Bruwiler &

Blatchford, 2011; Njue, Aura, & Komen, 2014).

The challenges of managing large workloads in inclusive classrooms align closely with social

cognitive theory's principles. By focusing on enhancing self-efficacy, promoting observational

learning, and understanding reciprocal influences within the educational environment, educators

can develop more effective strategies for managing their responsibilities. This approach not only

supports teachers but ultimately benefits students by fostering a more inclusive and responsive

learning environment.

5.1.2 Shortage of material resources

The scarcity of instructional materials poses considerable challenges when teaching science to

learners with visual impairments. The limited availability of tactile and accessible resources

creates obstacles in effectively conveying scientific concepts. This shortage hinders the

implementation of hands-on experiments and activities, restricting the diverse learning

experiences that are essential for a comprehensive understanding of science (Smith & Ferguson,

2018). Additionally, the lack of adaptive technology and specialized materials can impede the

integration of visually impaired learners into mainstream science classrooms (Brown & Davis,

2019). As educational institutions grapple with this issue, it is crucial to address the challenges

imposed by the shortage of materials to ensure equitable access to quality science education for

visually impaired learners (Jones et al., 2020). Increased investment in the development and

dissemination of accessible instructional materials, such as tactile models and assistive

technologies, is imperative for fostering an inclusive learning environment (Ludlow, 2017; Hasan,

2020).

57
In the context of a shortage of resources, the social cognitive theory suggests that even in resource-

poor environments, learners with visual impairment can still strive by fostering self-efficacy,

promoting adaptive strategies, using observational learning and creating supportive environments.

Through creative problem-solving, social support and a focus on building internal motivation,

educators and caregivers can mitigate the impact of resource shortages and help students develop

skills and confidence they need to succeed.

5.1.3 Negative self perception

From the interviews conducted and the observations it is clear that learners are resigned to believe

that science is a difficult subject therefore learners with visual impairment cannot pass it.

Moreover, the numerous diagrams prevalent in science assessment tasks can lead to frustration

among learners, contributing to their unfavorable perceptions of the subjects. The absence of

inclusive preparations by teachers, including the failure to provide embossed diagrams in advance

of interactions with learners, further contributes to the development of negative attitudes among

learners towards science. The challenge compasses the cognitive hurdles associated with adapting

science education to address sensory limitations. Negative attitudes among learners, which may

include feelings of frustration, self-doubt, or disinterest, pose cognitive challenges that hinder the

learning process.

In this case of negative attitudes, support involves implementing inclusive teaching strategies,

utilizing adaptive technologies, and fostering a positive and encouraging learning atmosphere.

Teachers must actively engage in dismantling misconceptions, encouraging a growth mindset, and

demonstrating the relevance and accessibility of science education for visually impaired learners.

By aligning the challenge of negative attitudes with the social cognitive framework , educators can

work towards creating an inclusive science learning environment. This approach not only
58
recognizes the cognitive hurdles associated with negative attitudes but also emphasizes the

provision of targeted support structures to facilitate the engagement and success of visually

impaired learners in science.

5.1.4 Teaching methods

Teaching methods that are centered around the teacher and do not cater to all learners, as

highlighted by Habulezi, Molao, Mphuting, and Kebotlositswe (2016), can have adverse effects

on learners' performances. The Ministry of Basic Education's (2015) inspection report and

observations during this study reveal significant shortcomings. Teachers, as valuable sources of

information and support, must be responsive, creative, accommodating, and inclusive in their

everyday facilitation of classroom activities to benefit all learners. Specifically, for learners with

visual impairment conducting pre or post-lesson sessions would be suitable to compensate for the

lack of incidental information acquisition and ensure equal participation in classroom activities.

Teaching science to visually impaired learners poses unique challenges for educators, primarily

related to the adaptation of teaching methods to accommodate diverse learning needs. Science

teachers may not be fully aware of or trained in the use of assistive technologies that could enhance

the learning experience for visually impaired learners. This lack of awareness can limit the

effectiveness of teaching methods. Additionally some teaching methods may not be easily

adaptable to include visually impaired learners. Teachers may face challenges in modifying lesson

plans and activities to ensure inclusivity. Social Cognitive Theory offers valuable strategies for

teaching learners with visual impairments by emphasizing observational learning, self-efficacy,

reciprocal determinism, cognitive processes, social interaction, and goal-setting. By adjusting

teaching methods to be multisensory, adaptive, and supportive, educators can enhance the learning

experience of visually impaired students, making education more accessible and engaging.

59
5.1.5 Inadequate adaptation and modification of teaching and learning resources

The educational content in science, both in teaching and learning materials, is filled with visual

representations that can be overwhelming for learners with vision impairments. Insufficient

adaptation and modification of teaching and learning resources pose significant challenges for

science educators instructing learners with visual impairments. This issue relates to the need for

tailored strategies to accommodate diverse learning needs, emphasizing the importance of

inclusivity in science education (Gibbs & Simpson, 2004).

In the context of learners with visual impairments, the challenge is evident in the limited

adaptability of traditional teaching methods and learning resources that predominantly cater to

sighted learners. Inadequate adaptation and modification of teaching and learning resources can

hinder student learning by disrupting the principles of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), which

emphasizes the interplay between personal, behavioral, and environmental factors. When

resources are not appropriately tailored to students' needs, it undermines their self-efficacy by

making the material inaccessible or too challenging, which in turn lowers motivation and

engagement. Additionally, students may miss out on opportunities for observational learning and

social modeling, as they are not provided with the necessary tools or role models to succeed. The

lack of adaptation creates an environment that fails to support diverse learners, impacting their

ability to engage with content and interact meaningfully with peers, thus reducing the likelihood

of positive learning outcomes. In this way, inadequate resource modification can disrupt the

reciprocal relationship between behavior, cognition, and environment, limiting students' potential

for success.

60
 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY

6.1 CONCLUSION

The purpose of this study was to examine the challenges in teaching science to learners with visual

impairments at Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown. The study aimed to address the following

research questions: (1) What methods are used in teaching science to visually impaired pupils for

the completion of the science curriculum? (2) What challenges do teachers face when teaching

science to students with visual impairments? (3) What are the solutions to the challenges faced by

teachers when teaching science to visually impaired learners?

In response to the first research question, the study found that teachers primarily rely on traditional

teaching methods, such as oral instruction and tactile learning aids, to engage visually impaired

learners in science lessons. However, the methods used are often limited due to inadequate

adaptation of teaching materials and a lack of specialized tools. While some resources, such as

braille textbooks and tactile diagrams, are available, they are not sufficient to fully support learners

in grasping complex scientific concepts, leading to incomplete coverage of the curriculum.

Regarding the second research question, the research identified several significant challenges.

These include a lack of adequate teaching resources, such as specialized science equipment and

assistive technologies, which hinder the effective teaching of scientific concepts. Additionally,

teachers reported difficulties managing large classroom sizes and heavy workloads, which further

constrained their ability to provide individualized instruction to visually impaired learners.

Negative attitudes from both teachers and learners towards inclusive science education also

61
emerged as a challenge, with some teachers feeling unprepared or unsupported in adapting their

pedagogical practices to meet the needs of visually impaired students.

In addressing the third research question, the study highlighted several potential solutions.

Teachers emphasized the need for more targeted training on inclusive education and the teaching

of science to visually impaired learners. They also recommended the provision of more specialized

teaching resources, such as tactile science kits and digital tools that cater to visually impaired

students. Collaboration with external experts and organizations that specialize in visual

impairment could further enhance teaching methods. Furthermore, the adaptation and modification

of teaching materials to better suit the needs of visually impaired learners were suggested as critical

steps towards improving science education outcomes.

In conclusion, while some human and material resources are available at Phatlogo Primary School,

they are insufficient to meet the academic needs of visually impaired learners. The challenges

identified, including inadequate resources, negative attitudes, and teaching methods that are not

fully adapted to meet the specific needs of visually impaired learners, must be addressed to

improve the quality of science education for this group. However the research does not conclude

whether these solutions have been implemented or tested for their impact and The research does

not provide any comparison with other schools or educational contexts, making it difficult to

generalize the findings beyond Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown. The conclusions are

specific to this school and may not be applicable to other schools with different resources or

contexts.

6.2 RECOMENDATIONS

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Based on the findings of this study, several comprehensive intervention measures are proposed to

enhance the quality of science teaching and learning for visually impaired learners. These

recommendations aim to address the challenges identified and support both teachers and learners

in improving educational outcomes.

Provision of Specialized Teaching Resources: It is crucial to provide more specialized

teaching resources for visually impaired students, such as tactile science kits, Braille

textbooks, tactile diagrams, and digital tools designed for visually impaired learners.

These resources will support a more comprehensive understanding of complex scientific

concepts and ensure that students have the materials they need to engage with the

curriculum effectively.

Teacher Training on Inclusive Education: Teachers should receive targeted

professional development and training on inclusive education strategies, particularly

those that focus on the effective teaching of science to visually impaired learners. This

training should include methods for adapting lessons, using specialized tools, and

understanding the unique needs of visually impaired students in a science classroom.

Smaller Class Sizes: Reducing the size of classrooms would allow for more

individualized attention and better management of students' specific needs. Teachers

would be able to provide more personalized instruction and support for visually impaired

learners, enhancing their ability to participate fully in science lessons.

Integration of Assistive Technologies: Schools should invest in assistive technologies,

such as screen readers, audio devices, and digital learning platforms that cater to the

63
needs of visually impaired students. These technologies can significantly improve the

accessibility of science content and help students engage with the material in more

diverse and effective ways.

Collaboration with External Experts and Organizations: Phatlogo Primary School

should collaborate with external organizations and specialists in visual impairments to

enhance teaching methods and resource availability. These collaborations can bring in

valuable expertise, training, and additional materials to improve the overall quality of

science education for visually impaired students.

Fostering Positive Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education: There needs to be a

concerted effort to change the negative attitudes towards inclusive education. Teachers,

students, and the broader school community should be educated on the importance and

benefits of inclusivity. This could involve awareness campaigns, peer support programs,

and creating an inclusive school culture that values diversity.

Adapting and Modifying Teaching Materials: Teachers should receive ongoing

support in adapting and modifying science teaching materials to better suit the needs of

visually impaired students. This includes creating accessible versions of scientific texts,

diagrams, and practical experiments that visually impaired students can engage with

through touch, sound, or other sensory means.

Increased Funding and Resource Allocation: The school should seek additional

funding or government support to ensure that visually impaired learners have access to

the necessary resources and technologies. Investing in the necessary infrastructure and

64
 materials will help bridge the gap and enable students to fully participate in science

education.

By implementing these recommendations, Phatlogo Primary School can create a more supportive

and inclusive environment that ensures visually impaired learners receive a quality science

education and have the tools and support needed to succeed.

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 APPENDICES

Appendix A

Interview Guide for Special & Inclusive School Teachers

My name are Kgomotso Chabongwa a student at the University of Zambia pursuing a Masters

Degree in Education. You are kindly asked to participate and contribute your experiences and ideas

to help make improvements in the area of teaching science to learners with visual impairment. Be

assured that the information you provide will be handled with confidentiality that will protect your

personal identity. The information you provide will be used for educational purposes and shall not

be divulged to anyone for purposes other than what it is intended for.

1. Being a special and or inclusive teacher for more than two years, you have been

facing various challenges with the teaching strategies for LVI. Could we please

discuss those challenges and see if we have any proposed solution.

2. Now tell me, how is the component of teaching methods and strategies for learners

with visual impairments incorporated in CPDs?

3. Do you feel supported by your seniors in the capacity in which you are teaching

LVI?

4. When you have any need(s), do you ever present them to your seniors?

5. How would you describe your relationship with your colleagues who also teach

learners with visual impairments in other schools?

6. From your point of view, what are the appropriate ways to strengthen the teaching

strategies for learners with visual impairments in special and inclusive schools?

7. Why do you think that the ways identified above are the best to enhance
73
teaching for learners with visual impairments?

8. Is there anything else that you may want to say?

Thank you very much for participating in this discussion

74
 Appendix B
Classroom observation guide

Name of the School:

Anonymous Name of the teacher:

Grade observed:

Subject observed:

Date: ..................................... Starting time: .........................Ending time: .................

Classroom observation: The practice in interactive classroom

Statement of practice (Do/Does) Comment/ Remarks

Physical setting of the room allows for

learners
with visual impairment to move freely

Classroom has adequate light for learners

with
visual impairments to scribe and take notes
with their equipment

Hand-out prepared and available in large font

and in Braille

Use of assistive technology

Familiar with the supportive technology in the

school available to assist LVI

75
Taken LVI into consideration when planning
teaching and learning activities

Planned a variety of presentation modes and

assignments, textual, verbal, and visual, so as
to
accommodate the visual, audio, kinaesthetic,
and tactile learners.

LVI have equal opportunity to practice the

skills taught in the class
Using group discussion/ co-operative learning

Systematically adapts instructional methods

Extra time (is given) allowed

Adapting written texts

Creates a cooperative atmosphere in the

classroom

The use of teaching materials, for example,

visual and Audio devices and tactile materials

76
 Appendix C
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS AT PHATLOGO PRIMARY SCHOOL

My name is Kgomotso Chabongwa, a Master of Primary Education student at the University of

Zambia, carrying out research on challenges faced in teaching science to pupils with visual
impairment in Phatlogo Primary School. I kindly request you to provide me with information in
this questionnaire which will be treated as confidential and used for academic purposes only.
SECTION A: BACKGROUND INFORMATION (tick the right option or fill in the blank
spaces)
1). Gender
Male ( ) Female ( )

2) Age Bracket
20-25yrs ( ) 26 -30yrs ( )
31 -35yrs ( ) 36-40yrs ( )
41-45yrs ( ) 41 and above ( )

3) What are your academic qualifications?

Diploma ( ) Degree ( )
Masters ( )
Any other ………………………

4) What is your cadre in Phatlogo Primary School?

HOD ( ) Senior Teacher ( )
Teacher ( ) Assistant Teacher ( )

5). How long have you been employed as a Teacher?

Less than a year ( ) 1- 2 years ( ) 3-4 years ( )
5-6 years ( ) 6-10 years ( ) Over ten years ( )

77
 1. What methods do you use to teach science to visually impaired learners?
...........................................................................................................................................
2. How do you adapt the science curriculum to accommodate visually impaired learners?
..........................................................................................................................................
3. Are there any specific teaching strategies that you find particularly effective for visually
impaired learners in science classes?
..............................................................................................................................................
4. What are the main challenges you encounter when teaching science to visually impaired
pupils?
..............................................................................................................................................
5. How do these challenges affect the learning experience of visually impaired learners in
your science class?
..............................................................................................................................................
6. Have you encountered any obstacles related to accessing suitable teaching materials or
resources for visually impaired learners? If so, please describe.
..................................................................................................................................................
7. Do you face any difficulties in providing adequate individualized support to visually
impaired learners in a mainstream science class?
.................................................................................................................................................
8. What strategies or accommodations have you found effective in addressing the
challenges mentioned in question 4?
.................................................................................................................................................
9. Are there specific training or professional development opportunities that you believe
would help teachers better educate visually impaired learners in science?
...................................................................................................................................................
10. What improvements or resources would you suggest for schools to better support teachers
in teaching science to visually impaired learners?
.....................................................................................................................................................
11. In your opinion, what can schools or educational institutions do to ensure that science
education is more inclusive for visually impaired pupils?

78
.......................................................................................................................................................

Appendix D
Informed Consent Form

PROJECT TITLE: Examining challenges in teaching science to learners with visual

impairment at Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown

What you should know about this research study:

• We give you this informed consent document so that you may read about the

purpose, risks, and benefits of this research study.

• You have the right to refuse to take part, or agree to take part now and

change your mind later.

• Please review this consent form carefully. Ask any questions before you

make a decision.

• Your participation is voluntary.

Purpose

You are being asked to participate in a research study on Examining the challenges in teaching
science to learners with visual impairment at Phatlogo Primary School in Francistown. You
were selected as a possible participant in this study because you have experience in teaching

learners with visual impairments accommodated in special and inclusive

schools. Before you sign this form, please ask any questions on any aspect of this study

that is unclear to you. You may take as much time as necessary to think it over.

Risks and Discomforts

The study has minimal risks that you may encounter in everyday life, for instance,

by spending time answering the interview questions. The great benefit will be that you are

79
adding to the body of literature that exists on teaching science to learners with visual

impairments accommodated in special and inclusive schools which could prompt change

in best practices in the field of special education services.

Benefits and/or Compensation

Participants will not receive any payment or any types of compensation for

participating in this study.

Confidentiality

The data from this investigation will be for scholarly purposes only and none of the

data will be used for commercial use.

Voluntary Participation

Participation in this study is voluntary. If you decide not to participate in this study,

your decision will not affect your future relations with the Ministry of Education in Botswana
and the University of Zambia, its personnel, and associated institutions. If you decide to
participate, you are free to withdraw your consent and to discontinue participation at any time
without penalty.

Authorisation

You are making a decision whether or not to participate in this study. Your

signature indicates that you have read and understood the information provided above,

have had all your questions answered, and have decided to participate.

Name of Research Participant (please print)

Date

_______________________________ ___________

Signature of Staff Obtaining Consent Date

80