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 Chapter 5
Geospatial Data Management
Every user of geospatial data has experienced the challenge of obtaining,
organizing, storing, sharing, and visualizing their data. The variety of formats and
data structures, as well as the disparate quality, of geospatial data can result in a
dizzying accumulation of useful and useless pieces of spatially explicit information
that must be poked, prodded, and wrangled into a single, unified dataset. This
chapter addresses the basic concerns related to data acquisition and management
of the various formats and qualities of geospatial data currently available for use in
modern geographic information system (GIS) projects.

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Chapter 5 Geospatial Data Management

5.1 Geographic Data Acquisition

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. The objective of this section is to introduce different data types,

measurement scales, and data capture methods.

Acquiring geographic data is an important factor in any geographic information

system (GIS) effort. It has been estimated that data acquisition typically consumes
60 to 80 percent of the time and money spent on any given project. Therefore, care
must be taken to ensure that GIS projects remain mindful of their stated goals so
the collection of spatial data proceeds in an efficient and effective manner as
possible. This chapter outlines the many forms and sources of geospatial data
available for use in a GIS.

Data Types

The type of data that we employ to help us understand a given entity is determined
by (1) what we are examining, (2) what we want to know about that entity, and (3)
our ability to measure that entity at a desired scale. The most common types of data
available for use in a GIS are alphanumeric strings, numbers, Boolean values, dates,
and binaries.

An alphanumeric string1, or text, data type is any simple combination of letters

and numbers that may or may not form coherent words. The number data type can
be subcategorized as either floating-point or integer. A floating-point2 is any data
value that contains decimal digits, while an integer3 is any data value that does not
1. A data type made up of any
simple combination of letters contain decimal digits. Integers can be short or long depending on the amount of
and numbers that may or may significant digits in that number. Also, they are based on the concept of the “bit” in
not form coherent words. a computer. As you may recall, a bit is the most basic unit of information in a
2. A numerical data value that computer and stores values in one of two states: 1 or 0. Therefore, an 8-bit attribute
contains decimal digits. would consist of eight 1s or 0s in any combination (e.g., 10010011, 00011011,
11100111).
3. A numerical data value that
does not contain decimal
digits.
Short integers4 are 16-bit values and therefore can be used to characterize
4. An integer characterized by a numbers ranging either from −32,768 to 32,767 or from 0 to 65,535 depending on
16-bit value. whether the number is signed or unsigned (i.e., contains a + or − sign). Long
5. An integer characterized by a integers5, alternatively, are 32-bit values and therefore can characterize numbers
32-bit value. ranging either from −2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 or from 0 to 4,294,967,295.

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A single precision floating-point6 value occupies 32 bits, like the long integer.
However, this data type provides for a value of up to 7 bits to the left of the decimal
(a maximum value of 128, or 127 if signed) and up to 23-bit values to the right of the
decimal point (approximately 7 decimal digits). A double precision floating-point7
value essentially stores two 32-bit values as a single value. Double precision floats,
then, can represent a value with up to 11 bits to the left of the decimal point and
values with up to 52 bits to the right of the decimal (approximately 16 decimal
digits) (Figure 5.1 "Double Precision Floating-Point (64-Bit Value), as Stored in a
Computer").

Figure 5.1 Double Precision Floating-Point (64-Bit Value), as Stored in a Computer

Boolean, date, and binary values are less complex. Boolean8 values are simply those
values that are deemed true or false based on the application of a Boolean operator
such as AND, OR, and NOT. The date data type is presumably self-explanatory, while
the binary data type represents attributes whose values are either 1 or 0.

6. A floating-point data value Measurement Scale

occupying 32 bits,
characterized by up to 7 bits to
the left of the decimal and up In addition to defining data by type, a measurement scale acts to group data
to 23 bit values to the right of according to level of complexity (Stevens 1946).Stevens, S. S. 1946. “On the Theory
the decimal point.
of Scales of Measurement.” Science 103 (2684): 677–80. For the purposes of GIS
7. A floating-point data value analyses, measurement scales can be grouped in to two general categories. Nominal
occupying 64 bits, and ordinal data represent categorical data; interval and ratio data represent
characterized by up to 11 bits
to the left of the decimal and numeric data.
up to 52 bit values to the right
of the decimal point.
The most simple data measurement scale is the nominal9, or named, scale. The
8. A data type whose values can nominal scale makes statements about what to call data points but does not allow
be either true or false (1 or 0).
for scalar comparisons between one object and another. For example, the
9. A data scale that records the attribution of nominal information to a set of points that represent cities will
name of features but that does describe whether the given locale is “Los Angeles” or “New York.” However, no
not allow for numerical, scalar
further denotations, such as population or voting history, can be made about those
comparisons between one
object and another.

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Chapter 5 Geospatial Data Management

locales. Other examples of nominal data include last name, eye color, land-use type,
ethnicity, and gender.

Ordinal data10 places attribute information into ranks and therefore yields more
precisely scaled information than nominal data. Ordinal data describes the position
in which data occur, such as first, second, third, and so forth. These scales may also
take on names, such as “very unsatisfied,” “unsatisfied,” “satisfied,” and “very
satisfied.” Although this measurement scale indicates the ranking of each data
point relative to other data points, the ordinal scale does not explicitly denote the
exact quantitative difference between these rankings. For example, if an ordinal
attribute represents which runner came in first, second, or third place, it does not
state by how much time the winning runner beat the second place runner.
Therefore, one cannot undertake arithmetic operations with ordinal data. Only
sequence is explicit.

A measurement scale that does allow precise quantitative statements to be made

about attributes is interval data11. Interval data are measured along a scale in
which each position is equidistant to one another. Elevation and temperature
readings are common representations of interval data. For example, it can be
determined through this scale that 30 ºF is 5 ºF warmer than 25 ºF. A notable
property of the interval scale is that zero is not a meaningful value in the sense that
zero does not represent nothingness, or the absence of a value. Indeed, 0 ºF does not
indicate that no temperature exists. Similarly, an elevation of 0 feet does not
indicate a lack of elevation; rather, it indicates mean sea level.

Ratio data12 are similar to the interval measurement scale; however, it is based
around a meaningful zero value. Population density is an example of ratio data
whereby a 0 population density indicates that no people live in the area of interest.
10. A data scale that places
Similarly, the Kelvin temperature scale is a ratio scale as 0 K does imply that no
attribute information into heat (temperature) is measurable within the given attribute.
ranks.

11. A data scale based on values Specific to numeric datasets, data values also can be considered to be discrete or
with equal intervals but with
continuous. Discrete data13 are those that maintain a finite number of possible
no meaningful zero.
values, while continuous data14 can be represented by an infinite number of
12. A data scale based on values values. For example, the number of mature trees on a small property will
with equal intervals and a
necessarily be between one and one hundred (for argument’s sake). However, the
meaningful zero.
height of those trees represents a continuous data value as there are an infinite
13. Data that can are limited to a number of potential values (e.g., one tree may be 20 feet tall, 20.1 feet, or 20.15 feet,
finite number of potential
20.157 feet, and so forth).
values.

14. Data that can take on an

infinite number of potential
values.

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Primary Data Capture

Now that we have a sense of the different data types and measurement scales
available for use in a GIS, we must direct our thoughts to how this data can be
acquired. Primary data capture15 is a direct data acquisition methodology that is
usually associated with some type of in-the-field effort. In the case of vector data,
directly captured data commonly comes from a global positioning system (GPS) or
other types of surveying equipment such as a total station (Figure 5.2 "GPS Unit
(left) and Total Station (right)"). Total stations are specialized, primary data capture
instruments that combine a theodolite (or transit), which measures horizontal and
vertical angles, with a tool to measure the slope distance from the unit to an
observed point. Use of a total station allows field crews to quickly and accurately
derive the topography for a particular landscape.

Figure 5.2 GPS Unit (left) and Total Station (right)

In the case of GPS, handheld units access positional data from satellites and log the
information for subsequent retrieval. A network of twenty-four navigation satellites
is situated around the globe and provides precise coordinate information for any
point on the earth’s surface (Figure 5.3 "Earth Imaging Satellite Capturing Primary
15. A direct data acquisition Data"). Maintaining a line of sight to four or more of these satellites provides the
methodology that is associated user with reasonably accurate location information. These locations can be
with an in-the-field effort.

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collected as individual points or can be linked together to form lines or polygons

depending on user preference. Attribute data such as land-use type, telephone pole
number, and river name can be simultaneously entered by the user. This location
and attribute data can then be uploaded to the GIS for visualization. Depending on
the GPS make and model, this upload often requires some type of intermediate file
conversion via software provided by the manufacturer of the GPS unit. However,
there are some free online resources that can convert GPS data from one format to
another. GPSBabel is an example of such an online resource
(http://www.gpsvisualizer.com/gpsbabel).

In addition to the typical GPS unit shown in Figure 5.2 "GPS Unit (left) and Total
Station (right)", GPS is becoming increasingly incorporated into other new
technologies. For example, smartphones now embed GPS capabilities as a standard
technological component. These phone/GPS units maintain comparable accuracy to
similarly priced stand-alone GPS units and are largely responsible for a renaissance
in facilitating portable, real-time data capture and sharing to the masses. The
ubiquity of this technology led to a proliferation of crowdsourced data acquisition
alternatives. Crowdsourcing16 is a data collection method whereby users
contribute freely to building spatial databases. This rapidly expanding methodology
is utilized in such applications as TomTom’s MapShare application, Google Earth,
Bing Maps, and ArcGIS.

Raster data obtained via direct capture comes more commonly from remotely
sensed sources (Figure 5.3 "Earth Imaging Satellite Capturing Primary Data").
Remotely sensed data offers the advantage of obviating the need for physical access
to the area being imaged. In addition, huge tracts of land can be characterized with
little to no additional time and labor by the researcher. On the other hand,
validation is required for remotely sensed data to ensure that the sensor is not only
operating correctly but properly calibrated to collect the desired information.
Satellites and aerial cameras provide the most ubiquitous sources of direct-capture
raster data (Chapter 4 "Data Models for GIS", Section 4.3.1 "Satellite Imagery").

16. The collection and reporting of

spatial data by a diffuse user
community.

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Figure 5.3 Earth Imaging Satellite Capturing Primary Data

Secondary Data Capture

Secondary data capture17 is an indirect methodology that utilizes the vast amount
of existing geospatial data available in both digital and hard-copy formats. Prior to
initiating any GIS effort, it is always wise to mine online resources for existing GIS
data that may fulfill your mapping needs without the potentially intensive step of
creating the data from scratch. Such digital GIS data are available from a variety of
sources including international agencies (CGIAR, CIESIN, United Nations, World
Bank, etc.); federal governments (USGS, USDA, NOAA, USFWS, NASA, EPA, US
Census, etc.); state governments (CDFG, Teale Data Center, INGIS, MARIS, NH GIS
Resources, etc.); local governments (SANDAG, RCLIS, etc.); university websites
(UCLA, Duke, Stanford, University of Chicago, Indiana Spatial Data Portal, etc.); and
commercial websites (ESRI, GeoEye, Geocomm, etc.). These secondary data are
available in a wide assortment of file types, extents, and sizes but is ready-made to
be used in most GIS software packages. Often these data are free, but many sites will
charge a fee for access to the proprietary information they have developed.
17. An indirect data acquisition
methodology that utilizes the
vast amount of existing data Although these data sources are all cases where the information has been converted
available in both digital and
hard-copy formats. to digital format and properly projected for use in a GIS, there is also a great deal of

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spatial information that can be gleaned from existing, nondigital sources. Paper
maps, for example, may contain current or historic information on a locale that
cannot be found in digital format. In this case, the process of digitization18 can be
used to create digital files from the original paper copy. Three primary methods
exist for digitizing spatial information: two are manual, and one is automated.

Tablet digitizing19 is a manual data capture method whereby a user enters

coordinate information into a computer through the use of a digitizing tablet and a
digitizing puck. To begin, a paper map is secured to a back-lit digitizing tablet. The
backlight allows all features on the map to be easily observed, which reduces
eyestrain. The coordinates of the point, line, and/or polygon features on the paper
map are then entered into a digital file as the user employs a puck, which is similar
to a multibutton mouse with a crosshair, to “click” their way around the vertices of
each desired feature. The resulting digital file will need to be properly
georeferenced following completion of the digitization task to ensure that this
information will properly align with existing datasets.

Heads-up digitizing20, the second manual data capture method, is referred to as

“on-screen” digitizing. Heads-up digitizing can be used on either paper maps or
existing digital files. In the case of a paper map, the map must first be scanned into
the computer at a high enough resolution that will allow all pertinent features to be
resolved. Second, the now-digital image must be registered so the map will conform
to an existing coordinate system. To do this, the user can enter control points on
the screen and transform, or “rubber-sheet,” the scanned image into real world
coordinates. Finally, the user simply zooms to specific areas on the map and traces
the points, lines, and/or polygons, similar to the tablet digitization example. Heads-
up digitizing is particularly simple when existing GIS files, satellite images, or aerial
photographs are used as a baseline. For example, if a user plans to digitize the
boundary of a lake as seen from a georeferenced satellite image, the steps of
18. The conversion of analog scanning and registering can be skipped, and projection information from the
information to digital
information. originating image can simply be copied over to the digitized file.

19. A manual data capture method

whereby a user enters The third, automated method of secondary data capture requires the user to scan a
coordinate information into a paper map and vectorize the information therein. This vectorization21 method
computer through the use of a
digitizing tablet and a
typically requires a specific software package that can convert a raster scan to
digitizing puck. vector lines. This requires a very high-resolution, clean scan. If the image is not
clean, all the imperfections on the map will likely be converted to false points/
20. A manual data capture method
whereby a user traces the
lines/polygons in the digital version. If a clean scan is not available, it is often faster
outlines of features on a to use a manual digitization methodology. Regardless, this method is much quicker
computer screen. than the aforementioned manual methods and may be the best option if multiple
21. The process of converting
maps must be digitized and/or if time is a limiting factor. Often, a semiautomatic
raster graphics to vector approach is employed whereby a map is scanned and vectorized, followed by a
graphics.

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Chapter 5 Geospatial Data Management

heads-up digitizing session to edit and repair any errors that occurred during
automation.

The final secondary data capture method worth noting is the use of information
from reports and documents. Via this method, one enters information from
reports and documents into the attribute table of an existing, digital GIS file that
contains all the pertinent points, lines, and polygons. For example, new information
specific to census tracts may become available following a scientific study. The GIS
user simply needs to download the existing GIS file of census tracts and begin
entering the study’s report/document information directly into the attribute table.
If the data tables are available digitally, the use of the “join” and “relate” functions
in a GIS (Section 5.2.2 "Joins and Relates") are often extremely helpful as they will
automate much of the data entry effort.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• The most common types of data available for use in a GIS are
alphanumeric strings, numbers, Boolean values, dates, and binaries.
• Nominal and ordinal data represent categorical data, while interval and
ratio data represent numeric data.
• Data capture methodologies are derived from either primary or
secondary sources.

EXERCISES

1. The following data are derived from which measurement scale?

a. My happiness score on a scale of 1 to 10 = 7

b. My weight = 192 lbs.
c. The city I live in = Culver City
d. My current body temperature = 99.8 ºF
e. The number of cheeseburgers I can eat before passing out =
12
f. My license plate number = 1LUVG1S
2. Describe at least two different methods for adding the information from
a USGS topographic map to your GIS dataset.

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5.2 Geospatial Database Management

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. The objective of this section is to understand the basic properties of a

relational database management system.

A database22 is a structured collection of data files. A database management

system (DBMS)23 is a software package that allows for the creation, storage,
maintenance, manipulation, and retrieval of large datasets that are distributed over
one or more files. A DBMS and its associated functions are usually accessed through
commercial software packages such as Microsoft Access, Oracle, FileMaker Pro, or
Avanquest MyDataBase. Database management normally refers to the management
of tabular data in row and column format and is frequently used for personal,
business, government, and scientific endeavors. Geospatial database management
systems, alternatively, include the functionality of a DBMS but also contain specific
geographic information about each data point such as identity, location, shape, and
orientation. Integrating this geographic information with the tabular attribute data
of a classical DBMS provide users with powerful tools to visualize and answer the
22. A structured collection of data spatially explicit questions that arise in an increasingly technological society.
files.

23. A software package that allows Several types of database models exist, such as the flat, hierarchical, network, and
for the creation, storage,
maintenance, manipulation, relational models (Worboys 1995; Jackson 1999).Worboys, M. F. 1995. GIS: A
and retrieval of large datasets Computing Perspective. London: Taylor & Francis., Jackson, M. 1999. “Thirty Years
distributed over one or more (and More) of Databases.” Information and Software Technology 41: 969–78. A flat
files. database24 is essentially a spreadsheet whereby all data are stored in a single, large
24. A database model whereby all table (Figure 5.4 "Flat Database"). A hierarchical database25 is also a fairly simple
data are stored in a single model that organizes data into a “one-to-many” association across levels (Figure 5.5
table. "Hierarchical Database"). Common examples of this model include phylogenetic
25. A simple database model that trees for classification of plants and animals and familial genealogical trees showing
organizes data into a “one-to- parent-child relationships. Network databases26 are similar to hierarchical
many” association across databases, however, because they also support “many-to-many” relationships
levels.
(Figure 5.6 "Network Database"). This expanded capability allows greater search
26. A simple database model that flexibility within the dataset and reduces potential redundancy of information.
organizes data into a “one-to- Alternatively, both the hierarchical and network models can become incredibly
many” or “many-to-many”
association across levels. complex depending on the size of the databases and the number of interactions
between the data points. Modern geographic information system (GIS) software
27. A database model that relates typically employs a fourth model referred to as a relational database27 (Codd
information across multiple
tables according to primary 1970).Codd, E. 1970. “A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.”
and foreign keys. Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery 13 (6): 377–87.

110
Chapter 5 Geospatial Data Management

Figure 5.4 Flat Database

Figure 5.5 Hierarchical Database

Figure 5.6 Network Database

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Relational Database Management Systems

A relational database management system (RDBMS)28 is a collection of tables

that are connected in such a way that that data can be accessed without
reorganization of the tables. The tables are created such that each column
represents a particular attribute (e.g., soil type, PIN number, last name, acreage)
and each row contains a unique instance of data for that columnar attribute (e.g.,
Delhi Sands Soils, 5555, Smith, 412.3 acres)

In the relational model, each table (not surprisingly called a relation) is linked to
each other table via predetermined keys (Date 1995).Date, C. 1995. An Introduction to
Database Systems. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. The primary key29 represents the
attribute (column) whose value uniquely identifies a particular record (row) in the
relation (table). The primary key may not contain missing values as multiple
missing values would represent nonunique entities that violate the basic rule of the
primary key. The primary key corresponds to an identical attribute in a secondary
table (and possibly third, fourth, fifth, etc.) called a foreign key30. This results in all
the information in the first table being directly related to the information in the
second table via the primary and foreign keys, hence the term “relational” DBMS.
With these links in place, tables within the database can be kept very simple,
resulting in minimal computation time and file complexity. This process can be
repeated over many tables as long as each contains a foreign key that corresponds
to another table’s primary key.

The relational model has two primary advantages over the other database models
described earlier. First, each table can now be separately prepared, maintained, and
28. A software package that edited. This is particularly useful when one considers the potentially huge size of
records information in such a many of today’s modern databases. Second, the tables may be maintained
way that data can be accessed separately until the need for a particular query or analysis calls for the tables to be
without reorganization of the
related. This creates a large degree of efficiency for processing of information
tables.
within a given database.
29. The attribute whose value
uniquely identifies a particular
record in an attribute table. It may become apparent to the reader that there is great potential for redundancy
in this model as each table must contain an attribute that corresponds to an
30. The attribute that corresponds
to a primary key in an attribute in every other related table. Therefore, redundancy must actively be
associated table. monitored and managed in a RDBMS. To accomplish this, a set of rules called
normal forms have been developed (Codd 1970).Codd, E. 1970. “A Relational Model
31. The first stage in the
normalization of a relational of Data for Large Shared Data Banks.” Communications of the Association for Computing
database in which repeating Machinery 13 (6): 377–87. There are three basic normal forms. The first normal
groups and attributes are form31 (Figure 5.7 "First Normal Form Violation (above) and Fix (below)") refers to
eliminated by placing them
into a separate tables five conditions that must be met (Date 1995).Date, C. 1995. An Introduction to
connected via primary keys Database Systems. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. They are as follows:
and foreign keys.

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1. There is no sequence to the ordering of the rows.

2. There is no sequence to the ordering of the columns.
3. Each row is unique.
4. Every cell contains one and only one value.
5. All values in a column pertain to the same subject.

Figure 5.7 First Normal Form Violation (above) and Fix (below)

The second normal form32 states that any column that is not a primary key must
be dependent on the primary key. This reduces redundancy by eliminating the
potential for multiple primary keys throughout multiple tables. This step often
involves the creation of new tables to maintain normalization.

32. The second stage in the

normalization of a relational
database in which all nonkey
attributes are made dependent
on the primary key.

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Figure 5.8 Second Normal Form Violation (above) and Fix (below)

The third normal form33 states that all nonprimary keys must depend on the
primary key, while the primary key remains independent of all nonprimary keys.
This form was wittily summed up by Kent (1983)Kent, W. 1983. “A Simple Guide to
Five Formal Forms in Relational Database Theory.” Communications of the Association
for Computing and Machinery. 26 (2): 120–25. who quipped that all nonprimary keys
“must provide a fact about the key, the whole key, and nothing but the key.”
Echoing this quote is the rejoinder: “so help me Codd” (personal communication
with Foresman 1989).

33. The third stage in the

normalization of a relational
database in which all
nonprimary keys are made
mutually exclusive.

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Figure 5.9 Third Normal Form Violation (above) and Fix (below)

Joins and Relates

An additional advantage of an RDBMS is that it allows attribute data in separate

tables to be linked in a post hoc fashion. The two operations commonly used to
accomplish this are the join and relate. The join34 operation appends the fields of
one table into a second table through the use of an attribute or field that is common
to both tables. This is commonly utilized to combine attribute information from one
or more nonspatial data tables (i.e., information taken from reports or documents)
with a spatially explicit GIS feature layer. A second type of join combines feature
information based on spatial location and association rather than on common
34. An operation that appends the attributes. In ArcGIS, three types of spatial joins are available. Users may (1) match
information of one table into a each feature to the closest feature, (2) match each feature to the feature that it is
second table through the use of part of, or (3) match each feature to the feature that it intersects.
an attribute or field that is
common to both tables.

35. An operation that temporarily Alternatively, the relate35 operation temporarily associates two map layers or
associates two attribute tables tables while keeping them physically separate. Relates are bidirectional, so data can
through the use of an attribute be accessed from the one of the tables by selecting records in the other table. The
or field that is common to both relate operation also allows for the association of three or more tables, if necessary.
tables while keeping the tables
physically separate.

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Sometimes it can be unclear as to which operation one should use. As a general rule,
joins are most suitable for instances involving one-to-one or many-to-one
relationships. Joins are also advantageous due to the fact that the data from the two
tables are readily observable in the single output table. The use of relates, on the
other hand, are suitable for all table relationships (one-to-one, one-to-many, many-
to-one, and many-to-many); however, they can slow down computer access time if
the tables are particularly large or spread out over remote locations.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Database management systems can be flat, hierarchical, network, or

relational.
• Relational database management systems (RDBMS) utilize primary keys
and foreign keys to link data tables.
• The RDBMS model reduces data redundancy by employing three basic
“normal forms.”

EXERCISE

1. Identify the three violations of normal forms in the following table.

Instructor Class Class Number Enrollment

Lennon Advanced Calculus 10073 34

McCartney Introductory Physical Education 10045 23

Harrison Auto Repair and Feminism 10045 54

Starr, Best Quantum Physics 10023 39

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5.3 File Formats

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. The objective of this section is to overview a sample of the most

common types of vector, raster, and hybrid file formats.

Geospatial data are stored in many different file formats. Each geographic
information system (GIS) software package, and each version of these software
packages, supports different formats. This is true for both vector and raster data.
Although several of the more common file formats are summarized here, many
other formats exist for use in various GIS programs.

Vector File Formats

The most common vector file format is the shapefile36. Shapefiles, developed by
ESRI in the early 1990s for use with the dBASE III database management software
package in ArcView 2, are simple, nontopological files developed to store the
geometric location and attribute information of geographic features. Shapefiles are
incapable of storing null values, as well as annotations or network features. Field
names within the attribute table are limited to ten characters, and each shapefile
can represent only point, line, or polygon feature sets. Supported data types are
limited to floating point, integer, date, and text. Shapefiles are supported by almost
all commercial and open-source GIS software.

Despite being called a “shapefile,” this format is actually a compilation of many

different files. Table 5.1 "Shapefile File Types" lists and describes the different file
formats associated with the shapefile. Among those listed, only the SHP, SHX, and
DBF file formats are mandatory to create a functioning shapefile, while all others
are conditionally required. As a general rule, the names for each file should
conform to the MS-DOS 8.3 convention when using older versions of GIS software
packages. According to this convention, the filename prefix can contain up to eight
characters, and the filename suffix contains three characters. The more recent GIS
software packages have relaxed this requirement and will accept longer filename
prefixes.
36. A simple, nontopological,
vector file format developed by
ESRI to store the geometric
location and attribute
information of geographic
features.

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Table 5.1 Shapefile File Types

File Extension Purpose

SHP* Feature geometry

SHX* Index format for the feature geometry

DBF* Feature attribute information in dBASE IV format

PRJ Projection information

SBN and SBX Spatial index of the features

FBN and FBX Read-only spatial index of the features

AIN and AIH Attribute information for active fields in the table

IXS Geocoding index for read-write shapefiles

MXS Geocoding index for read-write shapefiles with ODB format

ATX Attribute index used in ArcGIS 8 and later

SHP.XML Metadata in XML format

CPG Code page specifications for identifying character encoding

* Indicates mandatory files

The earliest vector format file for use in GIS software packages, which is still in use
today, is the ArcInfo coverage37. This georelational file format supports multiple
features types (e.g., points, lines, polygons, annotations) while also storing the
topological information associated with those features. Attribute data are stored as
multiple files in a separate directory labeled “Info.” Due to its creation in an MS-
DOS environment, these files maintain strict naming conventions. File names
cannot be longer than thirteen characters, cannot contain spaces, cannot start with
37. A georelational file format a number, and must be completely in lowercase. Coverages cannot be edited in
developed by ESRI that
supports multiple features ArcGIS 9.x or later versions of ESRI’s software package.
types (e.g., points, lines,
polygons, annotations) while
also storing the topological The US Census Bureau maintains a specific type of shapefile referred to as TIGER or
information associated with TIGER/Line (Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing
those features. system)38. Although these open-source files do not contain actual census
38. A vector file format developed information, they map features such as census tracts, roads, railroads, buildings,
by the US Census Bureau rivers, and other features that support and improve the bureauand improve the
including map features such as Bureau’s ability to#8217;s ability to collect census information. TIGER/Line
census tracts, roads, railroads,
buildings, rivers, and other shapefiles, first released in 1990, are topologically explicit and are linked to the
features that support and Census Bureau’s Master Address File (MAF), therefore enabling the geocoding of
improve the bureau’s ability to
collect census information.

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street addresses. These files are free to the public and can be freely downloaded
from private vendors that support the format.

The AutoCAD DXF (Drawing Interchange Format or Drawing Exchange

Format)39 is a proprietary vector file format developed by Autodesk to allow
interchange between engineering-based CAD (computer-aided design) software and
other mapping software packages. DXF files were originally released in 1982 with
the purpose of providing an exact representation of AutoCAD’s native DWG format.
Although the DXF is still commonly used, newer versions of AutoCAD have
incorporated more complex data types (e.g., regions, dynamic blocks) that are not
supported in the DXF format. Therefore, it may be presumed that the DXF format
may become less popular in geospatial analysis over time.

Finally, the US Geological Survey (USGS) maintains an open-source vector file

format that details physical and cultural features across the United States. These
topologically explicit DLGs (Digital Line Graphics)40 come in large-, intermediate-,
and small-scale depending on whether they are derived from 1:24,000-; 1:100,000-;
or 1:2,000,000-scale USGS topographic quadrangle maps. The features available in
the different DLG types depend on the scale of the DLG but generally include data
such as administrative and political boundaries, hydrography, transportation
systems, hypsography, and land cover.

Vector data files can also be structured to represent surface elevation information.
A TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network)41 is an open-source vector data structure
that uses contiguous, nonoverlapping triangles to represent geographic surfaces
(Figure 5.10 "Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)"). Whereas the raster depiction
of a surface represents elevation as an average value over the spatial extent of the
individual pixel (see Section 5.3.2 "Raster File Formats"), the TIN data structure
models each vertex of the triangle as an exact elevation value at a specific point on
39. A vector file format developed the earth. The arcs between each vertex are an approximation of the elevation
by Autodesk to allow
between two vertices. These arcs are then aggregated into triangles from which
interchange between
engineering-based CAD information on elevation, slope, aspect, and surface area can be derived across the
(computer-aided design) entire extent of the model’s space. Note that term “irregular” in the name of the
software and other mapping data model refers to the fact that the vertices are typically laid out in a scattered
software packages.
fashion.
40. The vector file format
developed by the USGS that
maintains information on
physical and cultural features
across the United States.

41. A vector data structure that

uses contiguous,
nonoverlapping triangles to
represent elevation.

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Figure 5.10 Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN)

The use of TINs confers certain advantages over raster-based elevation models (see
Section 5.3.2 "Raster File Formats"). First, linear topographic features are very
accurately represented relative to their raster counterpart. Second, a comparatively
small number of data points are needed to represent a surface, so file sizes are
typically much smaller. This is particularly true as vertices can be clustered in areas
where relief is complex and can be sparse in areas where relief is simple. Third,
specific elevation data can be incorporated into the data model in a post hoc
fashion via the placement of additional vertices if the original is deemed
insufficient or inadequate. Finally, certain spatial statistics can be calculated that
cannot be obtained when using a raster-based elevation model, such as flood plain
delineation, storage capacity curves for reservoirs, and time-area curves for
hydrographs.

Raster File Formats

A multitude of raster file format types are available for use in GIS. The selection of
raster formats has dramatically increased with the widespread availability of
imagery from digital cameras, video recorders, satellites, and so forth. Raster
imagery is typically 8-bit (256 colors) or 24-bit (16 million colors). Due to ongoing

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technological advancements, raster image file sizes have been getting larger and
larger. To deal with this potential constraint, two types of file compression are
commonly used: lossless and lossy. Lossless compression42 reduces file size
without decreasing image quality. Lossy compression43 attempts to exploit
limitations of the human eye by removing information from the image that cannot
be sensed. As you may guess, lossy compression results in smaller file sizes than
lossless compression.

42. A method to reduce the file Among the most common raster files used on the web are the JPEG, TIFF, and PNG
size of an image without
decreasing quality. formats, all of which are open source and can be used with most GIS software
packages. The JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)44 and TIFF (Tagged
43. A method to reduce the file Image File Format)45 raster formats are most frequently used by digital cameras to
size of an image by exploiting
limitations of the human eye
store 8-bit values for each of the red, blue, and green colors spaces (and sometimes
through removal of 16-bit colors, in the case of TIFF images). JPEGs support lossy compression, while
information from that cannot TIFFs can be either lossy or lossless. Unlike JPEG, TIFF images can be saved in either
be sensed. RGB or CMYK color spaces. PNG (Portable Network Graphics)46 files are 24-bit
44. Raster image format that images that support either lossy or lossless compression. PNG files are designed for
stores 8-bit values for each of efficient viewing in web-based browsers such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox,
the red, blue, and green colors Netscape, and Safari.
spaces.

45. Raster image format that

stores 16-bit values for each of Native JPEG, TIFF, and PNG files do not have georeferenced information associated
the red, blue, and green colors with them and therefore cannot be used in any geospatial mapping efforts. In order
spaces. to employ these files in a GIS, a world file47 must first be created. A world file is a
46. Raster image format that separate, plaintext data file that specifies the locations and transformations that
stores 24-bit values for each of allow the image to be projected into a standard coordinate system (e.g., Universal
the red, blue, and green colors Transverse Mercator [UTM] or State Plane). The filename of the world file is based
spaces.
on the name of the raster file, while a w is typically added into to the file extension.
47. A plaintext data file that The world file extension name for a JPEG is JPW; for a TIFF, it is TFW; and for a PNG,
specifies the locations and PGW.
transformations of a feature
dataset.

48. A raster format developed by An example of a raster file format with explicit georeferencing information is the
LizardTech, Inc., for use with proprietary MrSID (Multiresolution Seamless Image Database)48 format. This
large aerial photographs or lossless compression format was developed by LizardTech, Inc., for use with large
satellite images, whereby
aerial photographs or satellite images, whereby portions of a compressed image can
portions of a compressed
image can be viewed quickly be viewed quickly without having to decompress the entire file. The MrSID format
without having to decompress is frequently used for visualizing orthophotos.
the entire file.

49. A raster file format developed Like MrSID, the proprietary ECW (Enhanced Compression Wavelet)49 format also
by Earth Resource Mapping
that supports up to 255 layers includes georeferencing information within the file structure. This lossy
of image information and compression format was developed by Earth Resource Mapping and supports up to
includes georeferencing 255 layers of image information. Due to the potentially huge file sizes associated
information within the file
with an image that supports so many layers, ECW files represent an excellent option
structure.

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for performing rapid analysis on large images while using a relatively small amount
of the computer’s RAM (Random Access Memory), thus accelerating computation
speed.

Like the open-source, vector-based DLG, DRGs (Digital Raster Graphics)50 are
scanned versions of USGS topographic maps and include all of the collar material
from the originals. The geospatial information found within the image’s neatline is
georeferenced, specifically to the UTM coordinate system. These graphics are
scanned at a minimum of 250 dpi (dots per inch) and therefore have a spatial
resolution of approximately 2.4 meters. DRGs contain up to thirteen colors and
therefore may look slightly different from the originals. In addition, they include all
the collar material from the original print version, are georeferenced to the surface
of the earth, fit the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) projection, and are most
likely based on the NAD27 data points (NAD stands for North American Datum).

Like the TIN vector format, some raster file formats are developed explicitly for
modeling elevation. These include the USGS DEM, USGS SDTS, and DTED file
formats. The USGS DEM (US Geological Survey Digital Elevation Model)51 is a
popular file format due to widespread availability, the simplicity of the model, and
the extensive software support for the format. Each pixel value in these grid-based
DEMs denotes spot elevations on the ground, usually in feet or meters. Care must be
taken when using grid-based DEMs due to the enormous volume of data that
accompanies these files as the spatial extent covered in the image begins to
increase. DEMs are referred to as digital terrain models (DTMs)52 when they
represent a simple, bare-earth model and as digital surface models (DSMs)53 when
they include the heights of landscape features such as buildings and trees (Figure
5.11 "Digital Surface Model (left) and Digital Terrain Model (right)").

50. Raster versions of USGS

topographic maps that include
all of the collar material from
the originals.

51. A raster file format developed

by the USGS to represent
elevation.

52. USGS DEMs that represent a

simple, bare-earth model of the
globe.

53. USGS DEMs that include the

heights of landscape features
such as buildings and trees.

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Figure 5.11 Digital Surface Model (left) and Digital Terrain Model (right)

USGS DEMs can be classified into one of four levels of quality (labeled 1 to 4)
depending on its source data and resolution. This source data can be 1:24,000-;
1:63,360-; or 1:250,000-scale topographic quadrangles. The DEM format is a single
file of ASCII text comprised of three data blocks; A, B, and C. The A block contains
header information such as data origin, type, and measurement systems. The B
block contains contiguous elevation data described as a six-character integer. The C
block contains trailer information such as root-mean square (RMS) error of the
scene. The USGS DEM format has recently been succeeded by the USGS SDTS
(Spatial Data Transfer Standard) DEM54 format. The SDTS formatUSGS. 2010.
“What is SDTS?” USGS, http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/sdts/whatsdts.html. was
specifically developed as a distribution format for transferring data from one
computer to another with zero data loss.

The DTED (Digital Terrain Elevation Data)55 format is another elevation specific
raster file format. It was developed in the 1970s for military purposes such as line of
sight analysis, 3-D visualization, and mission planning. The DTED format maintains
three levels of data over five different latitudinal zones. Level 0 data has a
54. A distribution format for resolution of approximately 900 meters; Level 1 data has a resolution of
transferring USGS DEMs from
approximately 90 meters; and Level 2 data has a resolution of approximately 30
one computer to another with
zero data loss. meters.

55. An elevation specific raster file

format developed for military
purposes such as line-of-sight
analysis, 3-D visualization, and
mission planning.

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Hybrid File Formats

A geodatabase56 is a recently developed, proprietary ESRI file format that supports

both vector and raster feature datasets (e.g., points, lines, polygons, annotation,
JPEG, TIFF) within a single file. This format maintains topological relationships and
is stored as an MDB file. The geodatabase was developed to be a comprehensive
model for representing and modeling geospatial information.

There are three different types of geodatabases. The personal geodatabase57 was
developed for single-user editing, whereby two editors cannot work on the same
geodatabase at a given time. The personal geodatabase employs the Microsoft
Access DBMS file format and maintains a size limit of 2 gigabytes per file, although
it has been noted that performance begins to degrade after file size approaches 250
megabytes. The personal geodatabase is currently being phased out by ESRI and is
therefore not used for new data creation.

The file geodatabase58 similarly allows only single-user editing, but this restriction
applies only to unique feature datasets within a geodatabase. The file geodatabase
incorporates new tools such as domains (rules applied to attributes), subtypes
56. A recently developed,
(groups of objects with a feature class or table), and split/merge policies (rules to
proprietary ESRI file format control and define the output of split and merge operations). This format stores
that supports both vector and information as binary files with a size limit of 1 terabyte and has been noted to
raster feature datasets (e.g., perform and scale much more efficiently than the personal geodatabase
points, lines, polygons,
annotation, JPEG, TIFF) within (approximately one-third of the feature geometry storage required by shapefiles
a single file. and personal geodatabases). File databases are not tied to any specific relational
database management system and can be employed on both Windows and UNIX
57. A type of geodatabase
developed for single-user platforms. Finally, file geodatabases can be compressed to read-only formats that
editing, whereby two editors further reduce file size without subsequently reducing performance.
cannot work on the same
geodatabase at a given time.
The third hybrid ESRI format is the ArcSDE geodatabase59, which allows multiple
58. A type of geodatabase that
allows only single-user editing
editors to simultaneously work on feature datasets within a single geodatabase
for unique feature datasets (a.k.a. versioning). Like the file geodatabase, this format can be employed on both
within a geodatabase. Windows and UNIX platforms. File size is limited to 4 gigabytes and its proprietary
nature requires an ArcInfo or ArcEditor license for use. The ArcSDE geodatabase is
59. A type of geodatabase
developed to allow multiple implemented on the SQL Server Express software package, which is a free DBMS
editors to simultaneously work platform developed by Microsoft.
on feature datasets within a
single geodatabase.
In addition to the geodatabase, Adobe Systems Incorporated’s geospatial PDF
60. A nonproprietary file format
developed by Adobe Systems, (Portable Document Format)60 is an open-source format that allows for the
Inc., that allows for the representation of geometric entities such as points, lines, and polygons. Geospatial
representation of geometric PDFs can be used to find and mark coordinate pairs, measure distances, reproject
entities such as points, lines,
files, and georegister raster images. This format is particularly useful as the PDF is
and polygons.

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widely accepted to be the preferred standard for printable web documents.

Although functionally similar, the geospatial PDF should not be confused with the
GeoPDF format developed by TerraGo Technologies. Rather, the GeoPDF is a
branded version of the geospatial PDF.

Finally, Google Earth supports a new, open-source, hybrid file format referred to as
a KML (Keyhole Markup Language)61. KML files associate points, lines, polygons,
images, 3-D models, and so forth, with a longitude and latitude value, as well as
other view information such as tilt, heading, altitude, and so forth. KMZ files are
commonly encountered, and they are zipped versions KML files.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Common vector file formats used in geospatial applications include

shapefiles, coverages, TIGER/Lines, AutoCAD DXFs, and DLGs.
• Common raster file formats used in geospatial applications include JPGs,
TIFFs, PNGs, MrSIDs, ECWs, DRGs, USGS DEMs, and DTEDs.
• Common hybrid file formats used in geospatial applications include
geodatabases (personal, file, and ArcSDE) and geospatial PDFs.

EXERCISES

1. If you were a city planner tasked with creating a GIS database for
mapping features throughout the city, would you prefer using a DLG or a
DRG? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using either of
these formats?
2. Search the web and create a list of URLs that contain working files for
each of the raster and vector formats discussed in this section.

61. An open-source hybrid file

format developed for Google
Earth.

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5.4 Data Quality

LEARNING OBJECTIVE

1. The objective of this section is to ascertain the different types of error

inherent in geospatial datasets.

Not all geospatial data are created equally. Data quality refers to the ability of a
given dataset to satisfy the objective for which it was created. With the voluminous
amounts of geospatial data being created and served to the cartographic
community, care must be taken by individual geographic information system (GIS)
users to ensure that the data employed for their project is suitable for the task at
hand.

Two primary attributes characterize data quality. Accuracy62 describes how close a
measurement is to its actual value and is often expressed as a probability (e.g., 80
percent of all points are within +/− 5 meters of their true locations). Precision63
refers to the variance of a value when repeated measurements are taken. A watch
may be correct to 1/1000th of a second (precise) but may be 30 minutes slow (not
accurate). As you can see in Figure 5.12 "Accuracy and Precision", the blue darts are
both precise and accurate, while the red darts are precise but inaccurate.

62. How close a measurement is to

its actual value; often
expressed as a probability.

63. The variance of a value when

repeated measurements are
taken.

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Figure 5.12 Accuracy and Precision

Several types of error can arise when accuracy and/or precision requirements are
not met during data capture and creation. Positional accuracy64 is the probability
of a feature being within +/− units of either its true location on earth (absolute
positional accuracy) or its location in relation to other mapped features (relative
positional accuracy). For example, it could be said that a particular mapping effort
may result in 95 percent of trees being mapped to within +/− 5 feet for their true
location (absolute), or 95 percent of trees are mapped to within +/− 5 feet of their
location as observed on a digital ortho quarter quadrangle (relative).

Speaking about absolute positional error does beg the question, however, of what
exactly is the true location of an object? As discussed in Chapter 2 "Map Anatomy",
differing conceptions of the earth’s shape has led to a plethora of projections, data
points, and spheroids, each attempting to clarify positional errors for particular
locations on the earth. To begin addressing this unanswerable question, the US
National Map Accuracy Standard (or NMAS) suggests that to meet horizontal
accuracy requirements, a paper map is expected to have no more than 10 percent of
measurable points fall outside the accuracy values range shown in Figure 5.13
64. The probability of a feature "Relation between Positional Error and Scale". Similarly, the vertical accuracy of no
being within +/− units of either more than 10 percent of elevations on a contour map shall be in error of more than
its true location on earth one-half the contour interval. Any map that does not meet these horizontal and
(absolute positional accuracy)
or its location in relation to
vertical accuracy standards will be deemed unacceptable for publication.
other mapped features
(relative positional accuracy).

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Figure 5.13 Relation between Positional Error and Scale

Positional errors arise via multiple sources. The process of digitizing paper maps
commonly introduces such inaccuracies. Errors can arise while registering the map
on the digitizing board. A paper map can shrink, stretch, or tear over time,
changing the dimensions of the scene. Input errors created from hastily digitized
points are common. Finally, converting between coordinate systems and
transforming between data points may also introduce errors to the dataset.

The root-mean square (RMS) error is frequently used to evaluate the degree of
inaccuracy in a digitized map. This statistic measures the deviation between the
actual (true) and estimated (digitized) locations of the control points. Figure 5.14
"Potential Digitization Error" illustrates the inaccuracies of lines representing soil
types that result from input control point location errors. By applying an RMS error
calculation to the dataset, one could determine the accuracy of the digitized map
and thus determine its suitability for inclusion in a given study.

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Figure 5.14 Potential Digitization Error

Positional errors can also arise when features to be mapped are inherently vague.
Take the example of a wetland (Figure 5.15 "Defining a Wetland Boundary"). What
defines a wetland boundary? Wetlands are determined by a combination of
hydrologic, vegetative, and edaphic factors. Although the US Army Corps of
Engineers is currently responsible for defining the boundary of wetlands
throughout the country, this task is not as simple as it may seem. In particular,
regional differences in the characteristics of a wetland make delineating these
features particularly troublesome. For example, the definition of a wetland
boundary for the riverine wetlands in the eastern United States, where water is
abundant, is often useless when delineating similar types of wetlands in the desert
southwest United States. Indeed, the complexity and confusion associated with the
conception of what a “wetland” is may result in difficulties defining the feature in
the field, which subsequently leads to positional accuracy errors in the GIS
database.

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Figure 5.15 Defining a Wetland Boundary

In addition to positional accuracy, attribute accuracy65 is a common source of

error in a GIS. Attribute errors can occur when an incorrect value is recorded
within the attribute field or when a field is missing a value. Misspelled words and
other typographical errors are common as well. Similarly, a common inaccuracy
occurs when developers enter “0” in an attribute field when the value is actually
“null.” This is common in count data where “0” would represent zero findings,
while a “null” would represent a locale where no data collection effort was
undertaken. In the case of categorical values, inaccuracies occasionally occur when
attributes are mislabeled. For example, a land-use/land-cover map may list a
polygon as “agricultural” when it is, in fact, “residential.” This is particularly true if
the dataset is out of date, which leads us to our next source of error.

Temporal accuracy66 addresses the age or timeliness of a dataset. No dataset is

65. The difference between ever completely current. In the time it takes to create the dataset, it has already
information as recorded in an become outdated. Regardless, there are several dates to be aware of while using a
attribute table and the real-
world features they represent. dataset. These dates should be found within the metadata. The publication date will
tell you when the dataset was created and/or released. The field date relates the
66. The potential error related to date and time the data was collected. If the dataset contains any future prediction,
the age or timeliness of a
dataset. there should also be a forecast period and/or date. To address temporal accuracy,

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many datasets undergo a regular data update regimen. For example, the California
Department of Fish and Game updates its sensitive species databases on a near
monthly basis as new findings are continually being made. It is important to ensure
that, as an end-user, you are constantly using the most up-to-date data for your GIS
application.

The fourth type of accuracy in a GIS is logical consistency67. Logical consistency

requires that the data are topologically correct. For example, does a stream
segment of a line shapefile fall within the floodplain of the corresponding polygon
shapefile? Do roadways connect at nodes? Do all the connections and flows point in
the correct direction in a network? In regards to the last question, the author was
recently using an unnamed smartphone application to navigate a busy city roadway
and was twice told to turn the wrong direction down one-way streets. So beware,
errors in logical consistency may lead to traffic violations, or worse!

The final type of accuracy is data completeness68. Comprehensive inclusion of all

features within the GIS database is required to ensure accurate mapping results.
Simply put, all the data must be present for a dataset to be accurate. Are all of the
counties in the state represented? Are all of the stream segments included in the
river network? Is every convenience store listed in the database? Are only certain
types of convenience stores listed within the database? Indeed, incomplete data will
inevitably lead to incomplete or insufficient analysis.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• All geospatial data contains error.

• Accuracy represents how close a measurement is to its actual value,
while precision refers to the variance of a value when repeated
measurements are taken.
• The five types of error in a geospatial dataset are related to positional
accuracy, attribute accuracy, temporal accuracy, logical consistency,
and data completeness.

67. A trait exhibited by data that is

topologically correct.

68. The trait of a dataset

comprehensively including all
features required to ensure
accurate mapping results.

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EXERCISES

1. What are the five types of accuracy/precision errors associated

geographic information? Provide an example of each type of error.
2. Per the description of the positional accuracy of wetland boundaries,
discuss a map feature whose boundaries are inherently vague and
difficult to map.

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