4.

01
Many beginning physics students confuse the concepts of temperature and heat. In
everyday speech, heat and temperature are directly related: the hotter something is,
the greater its temperature.

The temperature of a material is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

molecules that make up that material.

Heat is the amount of thermal energy flowing from one substance to another. The name
absolute zero has been given to the lowest possible theoretical temperature.

Temperature is related to the random motions of the molecules in a substance, and it is

important to note that temperature is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the
translational motion of the molecules of that substance. In simpler terms, the molecules
of a substance are moving along straight or curved paths. The greater the motion of the
molecules, the greater the kinetic energy of the molecules and temperature of the
substance.

***Note that the temperature is not a measure of the total kinetic energy of all the
molecules in a substance. There is twice as much kinetic energy in two liters of boiling
water as in one liter. However, the temperatures of both amounts of water are the same
because the average kinetic energy of the molecules in each is the same.

In principle, there is no upper limit to temperature. As thermal motion increases, a solid

object first melts and then vaporizes. As the temperature is further increased,
molecules break up into atoms, and atoms lose some or all of their electrons, forming a
plasma. Plasmas exist in stars where the temperature is many millions of degrees
Celsius.

However, there is a definite lower limit to temperature. Experiments in the 19th century
showed that there is a limit to coldness. At this lowest temperature, no more energy
can be extracted from a substance. What is the lowest possible temperature? The name
absolute zero has been given to the lowest possible theoretical temperature.

1. Pressure and Absolute Zero: The value of absolute zero was found in the 1800s by
experimenters who discovered that all gasses contract by the same proportion
when temperature is decreased. It was found that any gas at zero degrees
Celsius, regardless of its initial pressure or volume, changes by 1/273 of its
initial volume for each one degree Celsius change in temperature, when pressure
is held constant. For example, when the temperature is reduced to −100 degrees
Celsius, the volume of the gas is reduced by 100/273. More striking, if a gas at
zero degrees Celsius were cooled to −273 degrees Celsius, its volume would be
reduced by 273/273 and become zero. Clearly, we cannot have a substance with
zero volume.
 2. Temperature and Absolute Zero: It was also found that the pressure of any gas in
a chamber of fixed volume would change by 1/273 for each one degree Celsius
change. So gas in a container of fixed volume cooled to −273 Celsius would have
no pressure whatsoever. In reality, every gas becomes a liquid before it gets this
cold.
3. Kinetic Energy and Absolute Zero: These decreases in volume and pressure by
increments of 1/273 suggested the idea of the lowest possible temperature
(−273 Celsius). This temperature is called absolute zero. Keep in mind,
however, that at absolute zero atoms have a small amount of kinetic energy
called zero-point energy.
4. Definition of Absolute Zero: In his book Conceptual Physics, Paul Hewitt defines
absolute zero as "the temperature at which a substance has no kinetic energy
per particle (thermal) to give up." This temperature corresponds to zero Kelvin.

4.02
Physical properties are easily observable and do not change the chemical property of
matter. Some examples of physical properties are color, smell, density, freezing point,
boiling point, melting point, opacity, viscosity, conductivity, and hardness, to name a
few. Remember that measuring each of these properties will not alter the basic nature
of the substance.

An important physical property is the physical state of matter. There are four basic
states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. A change in physical state or phase
occurs when energy is added or removed. To go from a phase to phase (i.e. from solid
to liquid), we will need to either add or remove heat.

The energy that transfers from one object to another because of a temperature
difference between them is called heat.

The symbol for the quantity of heat transferred when a substance undergoes a
temperature change is "Q." All forms of energy can be measured in a unit called a
Joule. The symbol for the Joule is "J."

Heat is an energy transfer. When it transfers to a substance, the particles that make up
the substance vibrate faster, increasing their kinetic energy.

The average kinetic energy of molecules is what determines the temperature of a

substance. So, hotter objects have faster-moving particles and higher temperatures. At
any time, one particle may have more or less kinetic energy than its neighboring
particle. Therefore, temperature is always the measure of the average kinetic energy of
all particles that make up an object or system.
heat spontaneously flows from a warmer substance to a cooler object when the
objects are in thermal contact.

After these objects reach the same temperature, we say that the objects are in
thermal equilibrium.

Example of thermal equilibrium: When you have a fever, you might want to check your
temperature. You do this by placing a clean thermometer under your tongue. You get
your temperature reading when the thermometer reaches thermal equilibrium with your
body. If you have a fever, heat flows from your body into the thermometer until they
have the same temperature. The temperature of the thermometer is the temperature of
your body.
As warm molecules transfer their kinetic energy to the fluid inside the thermometer, the
fluid rises in the tube in response.

The motion and arrangement of particles in different states are influenced by kinetic
energy and the intermolecular force between them. In a solid, particles are tightly
arranged when there is less kinetic energy to disrupt the attractive forces between
particles. But in liquids or gasses, particles are loosely arranged because kinetic energy
is strong enough to break the intermolecular bonds holding particles in place.
Melting Point
Melting is the process of a solid transforming into a liquid. When heat is added to a
solid, the particles' kinetic energy increases, and they vibrate more and more violently.
If enough heat is added, the attractive forces between the particles are not able to hold
them together, and the substance melts. The temperature at which a given substance
melts is called its melting point.

Freezing Point
Freezing is the process of transforming a liquid into a solid by the removal of heat, the
reverse of the melting process. As the sample of liquid loses heat, the particles'
movement slows down. The particles continue to move slower and slower until the
attractive forces between them are able to hold the particles in a fixed position,
transforming the liquid into a solid. The temperature at which a given substance
transforms from a liquid into a solid is called its freezing point, which is the same
temperature as the substance's melting point.

Boiling Point
Boiling is the process of transforming a liquid into a gas by adding heat. As heat is
added, the particles in the liquid have a greater kinetic energy and move faster.
Particles eventually have enough kinetic energy to escape the liquid phase and become
a gas. The temperature at which a liquid boils, changing from a liquid into a gas, is
called the boiling point.

Condensation Point
The process of transforming a gas into a liquid through the removal of heat is called
condensing. This process occurs when the temperature of the gas is cooled enough for
the particles to slow down and attract each other, forming a liquid. The temperature at
which this phase change occurs is called the condensation point, the same
temperature as the substance's boiling point.

​Phase changes are caused by the transfer of thermal energy (gain or loss of heat),
which changes the amount of kinetic energy in the particles of a substance.

Freezing point of a substance

(losing energy)

Melting point of a substance

(gaining energy)
 Condensation point of a substance
(losing energy)

Boiling point of a substance

(gaining energy)

Scientists can model temperature changes and phase transitions over time using
heating curves and cooling curves. Both types of curves show the relationship
between the temperature of the substance (plotted on the vertical axis) and the time
that has passed (plotted on the horizontal axis).

Heating curve: constant heating, particles gaining energy, phase transitions from solid
to gas

Cooling curve: constant cooling, particles losing energy, phase transitions from gas to
solid
calculate the heat transfer related to the temperature change of a substance

Q = (m)(c)(ΔT)

Q = the quantity of heat flowing in or out of the substance. It is measured in Joules (J).

m = the mass of the substance. It is measured in kilograms (kg).

c = the specific heat capacity of the substance. It is measured in J/(kg * C°)

Δ T = the change in temperature of the substance. It is measured in C°.

Amount
The amount of a substance determines the quantity of heat transferred to the
substance, and its temperature change. The quantity of heat needed to bring a cupful
of soup to a boil is much less than the quantity of heat needed to bring the whole pot of
soup to a boil. The amount of the substance is the mass of the substance. The symbol
for mass is "m." For our work, the mass will be measured in grams (g) or kilograms
(kg). Remember that 1000 grams is equal to 1 kilogram. For example: 454 grams
equals 0.454 kilograms.

Identity
Different substances have different capacities for storing internal energy. If you have
been to the beach, you know that the water heats up much slower than the sand, but
water is also slower to cool in the cold night. This is because water has a greater heat
capacity than sand.

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by
one degree Celsius is called the specific heat capacity. The symbol for the specific
heat capacity is "c," and the unit for measuring this quantity is Joules/(kg * C°).

Temperature difference
Any of the temperature scales we have previously discussed could be used to measure
temperature difference. For our purposes we will use the Celsius scale to measure the
various temperatures. A given point on the Celsius scale is noted by the unit "degrees
Celsius" (°C). For example: water freezes at 0 °C and boils at 100 °C. However, a
difference in temperature is measured in "Celsius degrees" (°C). For example: if the
temperature of a sample of water changes from 20. °C to 75 °C, then the temperature
change is 55 °C.
The latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat energy one unit mass of
material, at its melting point, must absorb to change from the solid phase to the liquid
phase with no change in temperature. The same amount of heat would be released as
the liquid, at its freezing point, changes from the liquid phase into the solid phase with
no change in temperature. The latent heat of vaporization of a material is defined as
the amount of heat energy one unit of mass at its boiling point must absorb to change
from the liquid phase into the gaseous phase with no temperature. The same amount of
heat would be released as the gas, at its condensation point, changes from the gas
phase into the liquid phase with no change in temperature.

If you are trying to calculate the heat transfer related to a phase change, use
the appropriate equation below.

fusion:

Q = (m)(Hf)

quantity of heat flowing in or out of the substance. It is measured in Joules

(J).

m = the mass of the substance. It is measured in kilograms (kg).

Hf = the latent heat of fusion

vaporization:

Q = (m)(Hv)

quantity of heat flowing in or out of the substance. It is measured in Joules

(J).

m = the mass of the substance. It is measured in kilograms (kg).

Hv = the latent heat of vaporization

4.03
Your study of energy will begin with understanding that there are different forms of
energy that can be classified into two types, kinetic energy and potential energy.

Energy is the ability to cause change or the ability to do work and is measured in the
SI unit Joules. All forms of energy can be measured in a unit called Joule.

Joule= kg × m2 s2

Work is the process of causing matter to move against an opposing force. When matter
moves, it is changing position, and that requires energy.
Potential energy is the energy an object has because of its position or composition.
For example, a person standing on a high platform before a bungee jump has potential
energy before the fall.

Potential energy is sometimes called stored energy. The energy stored in gasoline, food,
and chemical compounds are examples of potential energy that can be converted to
other forms of energy during chemical reactions.

The gravitational potential energy of an object depends on the mass (m) and height (h)
of the object, as well as, the value of gravitational acceleration (g). The equation that
relates these values is: GPE = mgh. We have already studied that the weight of an
object is the product of the mass and the gravitational acceleration value: W = mg.
Therefore, we can combine the two equations to yield: GPE = Wh

Stored Mechanical Energy

is energy stored in objects by the application of force. Examples include a compressed

spring or the pulled back string of a bow before shooting an arrow.

Electric Potential Energy

is the stored energy of electric charges due to their position and interaction around
other charges. Non-Moving charges in circuits are examples of electric potential energy.

Chemical Energy

is stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. This is a type of energy we will be
discussing a lot in this course. Biomass, natural gas, and propane are all examples of
stored chemical energy.

Nuclear Energy

is energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. This is the energy that holds atoms together
and can be released in processes called fusion and fission.

Gravitational Energy

is the potential energy of position. The rock resting at the top of a hill has gravitational
potential energy.

Kinetic energy is energy an object has due to its motion. A car rolling down the street,
particles of air moving around inside a balloon, and a bungee jumper falling through the
air are all examples of objects with kinetic energy.
Mechanical Energy
is the movement of objects from one place to another. This includes wheels turning and wind
blowing.

Electrical Energy
is the movement of electrical charge. Electricity running through wires and lightning are both
examples of electrical energy.

Radiant Energy
is electromagnetic energy that travels in waves. Radiant energy includes x-rays, microwaves,
visible light, and radio waves.

Sound
is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal waves. Sound is produced when a
force causes an object to move or vibrate and energy is transferred through the object in a wave.

Thermal Energy
also known as heat, is the internal energy in a substance caused by vibration of atoms and
molecules. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy. Heat is also a byproduct of a lot
of energy conversions.

If an object is moving, it has energy of motion. This energy that a moving object
possesses is called kinetic energy (KE). The kinetic energy of an object depends on
the mass of the object, as well as, its speed. The equation that relates these values is
KE = 1/2mv^2. Consider the following example problem.

***Notice that the Joule is a derived unit. 1 Joule = 1 (kg)(m/s)2 = (kg)(m2/s2) In

order for the kinetic energy to be expressed in Joules, the mass must be expressed in
kilograms (kg) and the speed must be expressed in meters per second (m/s), which is
then squared in the formula.

4.04
We have previously learned that a net force acting on an object changes the motion of
the object. That change in motion is related to both the force and the distance through
which the force acts. This is the essence of the concept of work. Two factors enter into
every case where work is done: (1) the application of a force, and (2) the movement of
something by that force. Work is defined as the product of the force exerted on an
object and the displacement through which the object is moved (when the force is
constant and the motion is in a straight line in the direction of the force).
There are two categories of work to consider.

● The first category is work done against another force. When you lift a book up
from the surface of a desk, you are doing work against the opposing force of
gravity. Also, when you pull on a bowstring, you are doing work against the
elastic forces of the bow.
● The second category of work is work done to change the speed of an object. You
do this type of work when you increase or decrease the speed of a car.

The equation is: W = Fd

W = the work done; it is measured in joules (J).

F = the applied constant force; it is measured in newtons (N).
d = the displacement the object moves in the direction of the force; it is
measured in meters (m).

Work is the area under a Force versus Displacement Graph:

***You can use WORK to find GPE now because GPE=Wh

*Notice that a joule is the same unit as a N-m.

The rate at which work is done is called power.

1. Power Equation
Power is equal to the amount of work done divided by the time interval during
which the work is done.
The equation is P = W/t.

● P = power; it is measured
● in watts (W). 1 watt = 1 J/s
● W = work done; it is measured in joules (J).
● t = time interval; it is measured in seconds (s).

3. Horsepower
Where did this unit come from? Well, a large draft horse is considered to be
able to work at the rate of 550 ft*lb/s for an extended period of time.

● Foot pound: The work accomplished when a one pound force pushes something
through a distance of one foot. In the SI system, the unit would be the Joule (a
Newton meter), which is the work accomplished when one Newton pushes
something through a distance of one meter.
 ● Horsepower: This is a measurement for power. Watts is the typical
measurement for power, the rate at which work is done. There is a
relationship between horsepower, foot pounds, and Watts.
1 hp = 550 ft*lb/s = 746 Watts

Therefore, a foot pound is a measure of energy (the ability to do work), while

"horsepower" measures energy expended per unit time.

4.05

Work-Energy Relationship
An interesting property about the gravitational force is that when an object is lifted to a higher
location, the increase in potential energy depends only on the vertical increase in height and not on
the path taken.

We now state that the total energy within a closed system is equal to the sum of the kinetic
energy, potential energy, and internal energy.
Etotal = KE + PE + Q
In the case of an object falling in the presence of air resistance, some of the potential
energy is transferred into heat or internal energy as the molecules in the air are pushed
aside. In the case of a falling object when air resistance is present, some of the
potential energy the object loses on the way down is converted into heat or internal
energy.

In the case of a pendulum swinging, some of the kinetic energy is converted into heat
or internal energy. This conversion takes place during the time the pendulum moves
from the bottom of its arc to the top of its swing. It happens at the point of attachment
and within the string.

A conservative force is one that, in moving an object between two points, does
the same work independent of the path taken between the points. Another
way of looking at this is that the work done around a closed path is zero. A
force is non-conservative if the work it does is path-dependent. This means
that as the path length is increased, so is the amount of work needed to
complete the path. If the force is non-conservative on a closed loop, the work
will not be zero.

Examples of conservative forces:

● Gravitational force
● Electric force

Examples of non-conservative forces:

● Air resistance
● Tension

Without friction→We can set the total energy at the crest equal to the total energy at
the bottom of the drop:
Etot = (PE + KE)top = (PE + KE)bottom

With friction→We can set the total energy at the crest equal to the total energy at the
bottom of the drop:

Etot = (PE + KE)top = (PE + KE + Q)bottom

Thermal energy is the net disordered kinetic energy of the molecules that make up the
object. The organized mechanical energy of the object is converted into thermal energy,
and the temperature of the object increases. This increase can be measured in a
laboratory setting.

Thermal units of heat are occasionally measured in calories. The conversion between
calories and Joules is shown below:

1 calorie = 4.186 Joules

1 Kilocalorie = 4186 Joules

Hooke's Law forms the basis of the theory of elasticity and in its most general form.
This law describes the relationship between the stress that is applied to a spring and
the strain that is produced. The strain caused by stress is independent of time and
disappears completely on removal of the stress.

When an object is acted on by a force, it may be bent, compressed, or stretched. If the

object returns to its original shape after the deforming force is removed, we say it is
"elastic." If the force is not too large, many materials exhibit this elasticity; for
example, such materials are bone, tendons, cables, and steel. Materials that do not
return to their original shape and remain distorted are plastic.
F=kΔx
F is the Force
k is the spring constant
Δ x is the change in length
The units of the spring constant are in dimensions of force per unit length (N/m). A
spring that behaves according to this equation is said to be an ideal spring.

Elastic Potential Energy:

A stretched or compressed spring is capable of storing elastic potential energy. The
work done on a spring is the area under the Force versus Elongation curve. This also
equals the change in elastic potential of the system (EPE).

Looking at the graph below, the area under the curve is the work done to elongate the
spring and the stored EPE of the spring:

The area is in the shape of a triangle:

Area of Triangle = (1/2)(base)(height)

The area represents the stored Elastic Potential Energy (EPE).

The base represents the elongation of the spring (Δ x).
The height represents the average force [(1/2)( Force)] applied to the spring.

We may write the equation as follows:

EPE = 1/2(F)(Δ x)
EPE = (1/2)(10.0 m)(15.0 N)
EPE = 75.0 Nm
EPE = 75.0 J

Elastic Deformation:
We have seen that springs return to their original shape when the deforming force is
removed. Forces that cause stretching are called "tensile" forces. From an atomic
perspective, it is the interatomic forces that hold objects together. It takes considerable
force to stretch a solid object. The stronger the interatomic bonding, the greater the
force that must be applied to separate the atoms and, in turn, to stretch the material.
The measure of the stiffness of materials is called Young's Modulus (Y), named after
Thomas Young (1773-1829). This Modulus is the ratio of stress to strain for a body
obeying Hooke's law.

Stress is the ratio of the deforming force to the cross-sectional area of the solid (stress
= F/Acs). Strain is the ratio of the change in length of the solid to the original length of
the solid (strain = Δ L/Lo).
The equation for Young's Modulus is: Y = (F/Acs)/(Δ L/Lo)

Y is Young's Modulus
F is the deforming Force
Acs is the cross-sectional area
Δ L is the change in length
Lo is the original length of the object

Tensile Strength:
Tensile strength is the ultimate strength of a material as measured under tension. The
stress corresponding to the rupture of the sample is the breaking strength and applies
whether the sample is being stretched, compressed, or sheared.

Tensile strength = F/A

Surface Tension:
The surface tension is defined as the force per unit length exerted by the surface. The
symbol for surface tension is gamma, γ, which has the same value everywhere on the
surface and is measured in N/m. Surface tension is responsible for a range of familiar
occurrences. For example, a free water droplet tends to be a spherical shape due to its
surface tension. Insects are able to walk on the surface of water. Surface tension is due
to the mutual attractions between molecules in a liquid. Molecules in the interior are
attached in all directions; it is the molecules at the surface that are attracted inwards
from the surface.

4.06

Internal Energy
The internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of all the kinetic and potential
energies of the molecules.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that there is no net flow of heat between
two systems in thermal contact that have the same temperature. Two systems
individually in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation that specifically
includes heat energy. Simply stated: In a closed system the total amount of heat
energy added to a system is equal to the increase in the internal energy of the system
plus the work done by the system. A system is defined as a group of atoms, molecules,
particles, or objects.

Heat added to a system equals an increase in internal energy and the work done by the system.

U is the internal energy of an object, Q is the heat added to it, and W is the work done
by the object. The first law of thermodynamics can be written as follows:

Q = W + ΔU

Work (W) is positive when the system does work on the environment and negative
when the environment does work on the system.

Heat (Q) is positive when the system absorbs the heat and negative when the system
liberates the heat.

The internal energy (U) depends only on the state of a system: its temperature.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction in which any chemical or
physical process involving energy takes place. The Second Law of Thermodynamics is
the result of the work of a French physicist Nicolas Carnot. In nature, heat is never
found to proceed up a temperature gradient of its own accord. External work is
necessary to achieve a net flow of heat from a cool region to a warm region.

Heat itself never flows from a cold object to a hot object.

Another consequence of the second law is that heat can never be converted completely
into work. Some of the heat will be transferred into the environment, which means no
heat engine is ever 100 percent efficient.

During all natural processes, the entropy, or amount of disorder of a system, tends to
increase. The term disorder in this case means a lack of organization. The temperature
of a material is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules; if heat flowed
from a cold region into a warm region, eventually all of the fast moving molecules
would be in one region and the slower moving molecules would be in a different one.
This would result in a gradient based on the kinetic energy of the molecules, which
would be an organized system.

In natural processes, order tends toward disorder.

Gas Laws: Overview—
1. Volume (V)
2. Pressure (P)
3. Temperature (T)
4. Number of particles (n)

1. Changes to V, n, and T will affect pressure, kinetic energy, and the number of
collisions within a sample.
2. If the volume of a sample is large, the pressure will be low, and there will be few
particle collisions.
3. If the volume of a sample is small, the pressure will be higher, and more
collisions will occur.
4. If the number of particles decreases, the number of collisions will decrease.
5. If the number of particles increases, the number of collisions will increase.
6. If temperature increases, the number of collisions will increase.
7. If temperature decreases, the number of collisions will decrease.

Initial Quantities
P1 = initial pressure

V1 = initial volume

T1 = initial temperature

n1 = initial number of moles

Final Quantities
P2 = final pressure

V2 = final volume

T2 = final temperature

n2 = final number of moles

Charles' Law

V1/T1 = V2/T2

Boyle's Law

P1V1 = P2V2

Gay-Lussac's Law

P1/T1 = P2/T2

Combined Gas Law

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2