CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTERNET OF THINGS

In its inception, the World Wide Web rapidly developed advancements

that changed people's lives in more ways than can be imagined. It started as the
Internet of Computers and has since evolved into the Internet of Things (IoT). The
Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physically identifiable, intelligent objects that
are connected to the Internet and have processing and communication capabilities.
The extensive use of the Internet and the steady decline in the size and cost of sensor
technology over the past few decades are the main drivers of the Internet of Things
exponential growth.

Fig
ure 1.1: IoT Connectivity Worldwide

The development of integrated sensors in devices, the availability of

inexpensive Internet connections, the mobile revolution, and the numerous businesses
creating the required IoT software and applications are additional influencing factors.
The Internet of Things is becoming more and more prevalent and is digitizing the real
world. Besides concerns about privacy and security, IoT is also propelling the growth
of digitization and has direct effects on the physical world (Al-Turjman et al., 2022;
Zhang et al., 2023). The Figure 1.1 shows the increasing trend of IoT device
connectivity across the globe from 2018 to 2030. The data indicates a continuous rise
in the number of connected devices, with projections exceeding 35 billion by 2030,
emphasizing the growing adoption of IoT solutions worldwide (Statista, 2024).

Back in 1982 at Carnegie Mellon University, one of the first IoT-like

devices was created. Researchers hooked up a Coke machine to the ARPANET (one
of the precursors to the internet). The machine had sensors to monitor its contents and
the temperature of the drinks. They could check if the machine was stocked and if the
drinks were cold before walking to the machine. By getting this info over the network,
they could save time and have a better vending experience. This was the first-time
everyday objects were connected to a network to gather real-time data, the precursor
to what we now call the Internet of Things (IoT).

As the names imply, IoT is a combination of "Things" and "The Internet".

Physical objects that can sense, communicate, and respond appropriately can be
considered things. Interconnected devices in the Internet of Things (IoT) can
communicate with one another and the deployed area, and they can carry out tasks
based on the demands of the situation. In order to facilitate communication with
anyone at any time, the Internet of Things (IoT) seeks to create a network
infrastructure with suitable communication protocols and make the "Things"
intelligent (Xu et al., 2021). Because we can control them with our fingertips, smart
objects make life more comfortable than a traditional lifestyle (Kumar et al., 2023).

1.1.1 IOT COMPONENTS

The Internet of Things (IoT) architecture comprises several interdependent

components that function cohesively to enable intelligent and autonomous operations.
At its foundation are sensors, which collect real-time physical and environmental data
such as temperature, motion, and humidity. This raw data is processed by
microcontrollers or embedded processors, which interpret the input and either, make
localized decisions or transmit the data to cloud servers for further analysis. To
facilitate efficient communication, reliable and scalable wireless technologies such as
LoRa, ZigBee, and NB-IoT are employed. These protocols support low-power data
transmission over long distances, making them ideal for battery-powered and remote
IoT deployments (Sinha et al., 2022). Actuators operate alongside sensors by
converting processed data into physical actions, such as opening valves or adjusting
lighting levels thereby enabling real-time interaction with the surrounding
environment.

Figure 1.2 IoT Components Model

Additionally, energy management strategies such as duty-cycling, sleep scheduling,

and energy harvesting are essential for sustaining long-term device operability,
especially in remote or inaccessible locations (Ajra et al., 2024). When these
components are effectively integrated, they form the technological backbone of
resilient, adaptive, and context-aware IoT systems that power a wide range of
applications—from precision agriculture to industrial automation (Majeed et al.,
2021).

1.2 ADVENT OF INDUSTRIAL INTERNET OF THINGS

Building upon the foundational principles of the Internet of Things, the Industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) extends these capabilities into the industrial domain,
marking a pivotal evolution toward smart manufacturing and intelligent infrastructure.
The concept of Industry 4.0 embodies this transformation by integrating IoT
technologies into traditional manufacturing and production systems. This integration
enables enhanced automation, intelligent analytics, and seamless machine-to-machine
(M2M) communication, resulting in highly adaptive and efficient industrial
environments.
FIGURE 1.3: IOT IN INDUSTRY 4.0

As illustrated in Figure 1.3, the convergence of IoT technologies with industrial

automation forms the core of the IIoT paradigm. This convergence enables the use of
smart devices and cyber-physical systems to support continuous monitoring,
autonomous control, and optimization of industrial processes (Li, et al., 2017). These
smart systems leverage data from sensors and actuators to adjust operational
parameters dynamically, leading to self-optimizing production ecosystems. However,
the increasing reliance on interconnected systems also introduces significant security
challenges. Vulnerabilities can emerge at various architectural levels from device
firmware to communication protocols posing risks to system integrity, availability,
and operational safety (Eyeleko and Feng, et al., 2023). The consequences of such
vulnerabilities can be severe, including production downtime, equipment damage,
data theft, and threats to human safety.
To mitigate these risks, a holistic cybersecurity approach is essential. This includes
implementing risk-aware system designs, ensuring end-to-end secure communication,
incorporating authentication and encryption mechanisms, and deploying resilient
network architectures (Mekala et al., 2023). Addressing security as an integral part of
IIoT design is critical for ensuring safe, reliable, and scalable industrial operations.

Table 1: Comparison of IoT with IIoT

Aspect Internet of Things (IoT) Industrial Internet of Things
(IIoT)
Primary Focus Consumer applications Industrial automation,
and smart environments manufacturing, and critical
 infrastructure
Applications Smart homes, wearables, Industrial control systems,
health monitoring, and predictive maintenance, robotics
smart cities
Data Sensitivity Moderate (e.g., user High (e.g., operational data,
preferences, health data) production parameters, safety
systems)
Latency Often tolerant of delays Requires low-latency, real-time
Requirements communication
Security Medium-level, often user- High-level, requires robust, multi-
Requirements based authentication layered cybersecurity
Device Scale Typically, small to Large-scale, interconnected
medium number of industrial devices and systems
devices
Network Centralized (cloud-based) Distributed (edge and fog
Architecture computing integrated)
Standards & Common protocols (e.g., Specialized industrial protocols
Protocols MQTT, CoAP, HTTP) (e.g., OPC-UA, Modbus,
PROFINET)
Reliability Can tolerate some failures Requires high availability and
fault tolerance
Impact of Inconvenience or data Safety risks, operational
Failure loss shutdowns, significant financial
loss

As illustrated in Table 1, IoT is primarily tailored for consumer-oriented applications,

such as smart homes, wearables, and health monitoring. In contrast, the Industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) is designed to support industrial automation, manufacturing
processes, and critical infrastructure operations. IIoT systems demand real-time
responsiveness, high operational reliability, and robust cybersecurity measures due to
the sensitivity and criticality of the data involved. Unlike the IoT’s typically
centralized, cloud-centric architecture, IIoT often leverages edge and fog computing
to enable localized data processing and minimize latency an essential requirement for
time-sensitive industrial tasks. Moreover, while performance issues in IoT
applications may lead to user inconvenience, failures in IIoT environments can result
in serious safety hazards, production disruptions, and financial losses, underscoring
the importance of resilience and fault-tolerance in industrial systems.

1.2.1 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE OF IIOT

Following the broader introduction to IIoT, understanding its layered architecture is

essential to appreciating how smart industrial systems operate. As illustrated in Figure
1.4, the IIoT architecture is commonly structured into four primary layers: device,
network, service, and content. Each of these layers contributes to enabling intelligent,
secure, and responsive industrial environments.

Figure 1.4 Layered Architecture

 Device Layer:
This foundational layer comprises physical entities such as sensors, actuators,
machines, and embedded processors that interface with the industrial environment.
These components are responsible for capturing real-time operational data, forming
the basis for system automation and digital transformation (Boyes et al., 2018).
 Network Layer:
Acting as the communication backbone, this layer facilitates the secure transmission
of data between devices and processing units. It incorporates communication
protocols, networking infrastructure, and supports both cloud and edge computing
models to ensure reliable data flow (Xu et al., 2018).
 Service Layer:
Positioned above the network layer, the service layer is responsible for data
processing, integration, and management. It leverages technologies such as big data
analytics, artificial intelligence, and cloud platforms to enable intelligent decision-
making, automation, and optimization of industrial operations.
 Content Layer:
The final layer focuses on presenting actionable insights to end-users through user-
friendly interfaces—such as dashboards, wearable devices, or control panels. It
ensures that processed information is accessible, interpretable, and usable for human
operators, enabling effective monitoring and control of industrial systems.

Together, these layers establish a modular and scalable framework for deploying IIoT
solutions across industries such as energy, transportation, and manufacturing. This
layered structure not only enhances interoperability and performance but also
strengthens system security and reliability at every level.

1.2.2 IIOT ARCHITECTURE: FUNCTIONAL LAYERS AND COMPONENTS

Building upon the layered architecture of IIoT systems, this section explores the key
functional layers and their corresponding components that collectively enable
intelligent industrial operations. While the layered model provides a conceptual
framework for data flow and system hierarchy, the functional architecture focuses on
the practical roles and integration of physical and digital elements. Each layer,
ranging from sensing devices and edge processing units to cloud infrastructure and
IIoT platforms has a specific function that contributes to real-time monitoring, secure
communication, and autonomous control within industrial environments (Chalapathi
et al., 2019; Rong et al., 2021; Sarasola et al., 2024).
 Figure 1.5 Components of IIoT architecture

 IoT-Enabled Devices
At the foundational layer of the IIoT architecture lie the IoT-enabled devices—
comprising sensors, actuators, and embedded microcontrollers—that are deployed
throughout physical industrial environments. These edge devices play a dual role:
they not only gather data such as temperature, pressure, vibration, and flow from
machinery or surrounding conditions, but also carry out basic signal pre-processing
tasks like data filtering, compression, or thresholding before transmission. These
devices form the crucial interface between the physical and cyber realms, acting as the
sensory organs of the IIoT system. Their energy efficiency, real-time responsiveness,
and rugged design make them suitable for operation in harsh and distributed industrial
settings.
 Edge Data Management
To reduce latency and ensure time-critical responsiveness, edge computing
infrastructure is deployed close to the source of data generation. This layer involves
edge gateways, micro data centers, and localized analytics engines that process, filter,
and summarize incoming data streams. This proximity-based processing architecture
limits the dependency on cloud transmission for routine or repetitive tasks and instead
reserves long-distance communication for high-value or anomalous data. As a result,
edge data management not only improves decision-making speed but also enhances
bandwidth utilization and maintains local autonomy during connectivity disruptions.
  Cloud for Advanced Processing
While edge computing addresses the need for speed and locality, many industrial
applications require deeper insights, historical analysis, or large-scale integration
across devices and geographies. For such needs, the cloud computing layer serves as
the central hub for advanced analytics, storage, visualization, and artificial
intelligence-based reasoning. Here, vast volumes of aggregated IIoT data are
subjected to predictive modeling, anomaly detection, trend analysis, and business
intelligence workflows. The cloud not only offers virtually unlimited storage capacity
and computing power but also facilitates centralized control, cross-site
synchronization, and secure remote access for stakeholders.
 Internet Gateway
Internet gateways act as the critical bridge between local industrial networks (often
using field-specific protocols) and the broader cloud infrastructure. These gateways—
either in hardware or virtualized software form handle a variety of responsibilities,
including protocol translation (e.g., Modbus to MQTT), data encapsulation, traffic
prioritization, and encryption. By serving as secure transit points, gateways ensure
that the data flowing from thousands of sensors is formatted correctly, securely
encrypted, and efficiently routed to destination servers or platforms. Additionally,
they support load balancing, local caching, and fault tolerance features to increase
system reliability (Xu et al., 2018).
 Connectivity Protocols
Interoperability and reliable data transmission are vital for any IIoT deployment,
especially given the diversity of devices and vendors in industrial settings.
Connectivity is facilitated through protocols specifically designed for constrained
environments. For instance, Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) supports
lightweight publish-subscribe messaging; Advanced Message Queuing Protocol
(AMQP) ensures robust and secure queuing; while Constrained Application Protocol
(CoAP) caters to request/response messaging in low-power devices. These protocols
enable seamless communication across the IIoT stack while ensuring data integrity,
low latency, and fault tolerance. Their flexibility and scalability make them
indispensable in orchestrating complex IIoT workflows.
 IIoT Platform
At the apex of the architectural stack is the IIoT platform a centralized system that
aggregates and harmonizes all activities across the layers. It serves as the digital
control center for device management, real-time monitoring, data analytics,
visualization dashboards, and process automation. The platform integrates with both
physical assets and enterprise systems, enabling machine learning-based optimization,
rule-based automation, and policy enforcement. By providing a cohesive environment
for managing operational technology (OT) alongside information technology (IT), the
IIoT platform facilitates enhanced productivity, predictive maintenance, and agile
decision-making across the industrial landscape.

1.2.3 Performance Improvements Enabled by IIoT

As discussed in the previous section, the functional architecture of IIoT systems
comprises interconnected components that facilitate real-time data acquisition, edge
intelligence, cloud analytics, and end-to-end process orchestration. These
technological capabilities are not merely theoretical; they have translated into tangible
performance improvements across various industrial sectors. The integration of IIoT
into operational workflows has significantly enhanced productivity, reliability, safety,
and efficiency.

One of the most impactful benefits is the reduction in operational error rates, achieved
through continuous, real-time monitoring of machinery and environments. Advanced
machine learning algorithms, embedded within IIoT platforms, enable early detection
of anomalies and deviations from normal behavior, thereby reducing human error and
mitigating potential faults before they escalate (Bertino, E., and Islam, N., et al 2017).

Furthermore, task automation, supported by digital twin technologies and intelligent

scheduling systems, has substantially improved overall productivity and workflow
efficiency. These digital replicas of physical assets allow for accurate simulation and
optimization of operations, enabling industries to streamline maintenance schedules,
minimize bottlenecks, and reduce delays in production lines (Hassija et al., 2019).

Predictive maintenance has emerged as another key area of enhancement. By

continuously analyzing the condition of equipment using IIoT-enabled sensors and
diagnostics, maintenance activities can be planned proactively rather than reactively.
This approach minimizes unplanned downtime, reduces maintenance costs, and
extends the operational lifespan of assets (Kouicem, et al., 2018).

Additionally, the costs associated with communication and data processing have been
reduced due to edge computing. By filtering and processing data closer to the source,
only essential information is transmitted to central systems, which minimizes
bandwidth usage and lowers energy and infrastructure expenditures.

From a customer service perspective, field operations have seen notable

improvements. Faster diagnostics and remote troubleshooting capabilities allow
service technicians to resolve issues more efficiently, reducing on-site visits and
improving customer satisfaction through quicker response times (Ray et al., 2018).

IIoT has also played a pivotal role in enhancing workplace safety. The deployment of
connected devices, including wearable sensors and environmental monitors, enables
real-time detection of safety hazards such as gas leaks, excessive temperatures, or
worker fatigue. This allows for immediate corrective actions, promoting a safer and
more responsive work environment (Hu, et al., 2023).

In the realm of operations management, production planning and scheduling have

been optimized through the predictive insights offered by IIoT platforms. Data-driven
planning helps in balancing supply chain variables, allocating resources efficiently,
and anticipating future demand patterns, leading to leaner and more agile operations
(Zrelli, et al., 2024).

Moreover, operational visibility has increased across the production lifecycle.

Integrated dashboards and digital twin visualizations provide stakeholders with real-
time updates and predictive forecasts, facilitating data-driven decision-making at
every level of the organization (Wolfert, et al., 2017).

Finally, IIoT contributes to reduced equipment and asset downtime through predictive
alerts and automated failure prevention systems. These proactive mechanisms detect
signs of wear or abnormal behavior in advance, ensuring timely intervention and
uninterrupted operation (Islam, et al., 2015).

Collectively, these improvements highlight the transformative impact of IIoT on

industrial performance. By embedding intelligence at every layer from sensors and
gateways to cloud analytics and digital control platforms organizations are equipped
to operate with greater precision, agility, and resilience in an increasingly competitive
industrial landscape. While these enhancements showcase IIoT’s transformative
potential, they also expose the infrastructure to new forms of cyber threats,
necessitating robust security solutions such as Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)

1.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF IIOT

While the previous section highlighted the concrete performance, improvements

enabled by IIOT integration, such as enhanced productivity, reduced downtime, and
improved workplace safety this section delves deeper into the strategic advantages
that underpin these outcomes. IIOT does not merely enhance existing operations; it
transforms them by embedding intelligence, autonomy, and security across industrial
workflows. Through seamless machine-to-machine communication, real-time data
analytics, and scalable architectures, IIOT enables smarter maintenance strategies,
safer working environments, rapid decision-making, and robust data protection. These
foundational advantages pave the way for resilient and future-ready industrial
ecosystems. The following subsections explore four core areas where IIOT delivers
transformative value beyond performance metrics: predictive maintenance, workplace
safety, real-time decision support, and data security.

 PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE

One of the most impactful applications of IIoT is predictive maintenance, where

machine learning models analyze sensor-generated data to assess equipment health.
These models are capable of identifying early warning signs of mechanical failure
such as temperature fluctuations, vibration anomalies, or fluid leakage before they
escalate into critical issues. This preemptive maintenance strategy reduces unexpected
equipment downtime, extends machinery life, and minimizes repair costs (Yadav, et
al., 2023). In high-stakes industrial settings, such foresight ensures operational
continuity and prevents costly disruptions.

 WORKPLACE SAFETY

IIoT significantly enhances occupational safety through the deployment of real-time

environmental and operational monitoring systems. Sensors embedded in hazardous
areas or wearable devices can detect unsafe conditions such as gas leaks, abnormal
temperatures, or worker fatigue—and trigger automated safety protocols. When
combined with machine learning algorithms, these systems can predict potential
safety incidents, enabling proactive intervention and risk mitigation (Thirumal, et al.,
2024). This proactive approach not only safeguards personnel but also contributes to
compliance with industrial safety regulations.

 REAL-TIME DECISION SUPPORT

With the growing complexity of industrial systems, timely decision-making has

become critical. IIoT platforms, empowered by edge and cloud computing
infrastructures, analyze massive volumes of heterogeneous data to deliver actionable
insights to decision-makers. These platforms support dynamic dashboards, alerts, and
control systems that allow managers to respond immediately to evolving operational
conditions. As a result, industries benefit from improved process control, more
efficient resource deployment, and enhanced adaptability in volatile environments
(Amjad, et al., 2021).

 DATA SECURITY AND TRUST

As industrial systems become increasingly interconnected, the need for robust data
security mechanisms grows. IIoT addresses these concerns by adopting advanced
technologies such as federated learning, which allows machine learning models to be
trained across decentralized devices without exchanging raw data. Additionally,
blockchain technologies ensure data integrity, traceability, and secure access control
across the IIoT network. These mechanisms are essential for protecting sensitive
industrial information, fostering user trust, and maintaining regulatory compliance—
particularly in sectors with stringent data governance requirements (Bures, et al.,
2020).

The adoption of IIoT offers a comprehensive suite of advantages that go beyond

traditional automation. By enabling smarter maintenance practices, safer working
conditions, real-time operational insights, and secure data exchanges, IIoT acts as a
catalyst for digital transformation in industrial environments. These advantages not
only enhance current operations but also lay the groundwork for future innovations in
intelligent industry systems.

1.2.5 Disadvantages of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

Despite the transformative potential and widespread adoption of the Industrial Internet
of Things (IIoT), its implementation is accompanied by several critical challenges.
These limitations span technical, operational, and ethical dimensions, which, if not
properly addressed, can undermine the reliability, security, and effectiveness of IIoT
systems. This section outlines the principal disadvantages associated with IIoT
deployments.
 Security Vulnerabilities
One of the most pressing concerns in IIoT environments is the heightened risk of
cybersecurity threats. As these systems consist of thousands of interconnected nodes
—ranging from sensors and actuators to cloud-based control platforms—each
component potentially introduces vulnerabilities. Common threats include
unauthorized access, data breaches, man-in-the-middle attacks, and distributed denial-
of-service (DDoS) attacks. The lack of uniform security protocols and the resource
constraints of many edge devices exacerbate these risks, making robust security
architectures difficult to implement consistently across the entire system
(Mosteiro-Sanchez, et al., 2020).
 System Complexity
IIoT systems require seamless integration between heterogeneous technologies,
including various hardware components, communication standards, cloud services,
analytics engines, and legacy infrastructure. Managing this multi-layered architecture
can be technically demanding. Tasks such as initial setup, configuration, software
updates, system monitoring, and fault diagnosis become increasingly complicated as
the network scales. Inadequate technical expertise or insufficient system design can
lead to increased downtime and inefficiencies (Teh, et al., 2020).
 Technological Dependency
The intelligence and autonomy of IIoT systems rely heavily on advanced technologies
such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), and data analytics. While
these tools enhance system responsiveness and decision-making, they also introduce a
critical dependency. Failures in the algorithms, data inaccuracies, or adversarial
manipulation can lead to incorrect system behavior or even total operational
disruptions. Furthermore, the lack of transparency in AI-based decisions (the so-called
"black-box problem") can limit system trustworthiness and traceability (Alotaibi, et
al., 2023).
 Data Overload
A defining characteristic of IIoT is the constant generation of high-volume, high-
velocity data streams. In large industrial settings, this can result in data deluge,
overwhelming central servers and network bandwidth. Without efficient edge
computing or data filtering mechanisms, the sheer volume of data can introduce
latency, degrade system performance, and hinder timely decision-making. Poorly
managed data flows also increase storage costs and complicate data analytics
pipelines.
 Privacy Concerns
IIoT systems often collect sensitive information related to operations, locations, and,
in some cases, individuals. This raises significant privacy and ethical concerns,
particularly when data is shared across multiple stakeholders or transmitted over
unsecure channels. The absence of strong data anonymization techniques, encryption
protocols, and access control policies can expose sensitive data to misuse, regulatory
non-compliance, or reputational damage (Khan, et al., 2020). These concerns are
especially prominent in sectors such as healthcare, smart cities, and logistics.
 Integration and Compatibility Issues
Many industries still operate on legacy infrastructure that lacks compatibility with
modern IIoT solutions. Integrating such systems with contemporary IIoT platforms
presents a host of challenges, including hardware mismatches, outdated
communication protocols, and software incompatibilities. This interoperability gap
often requires custom middleware or extensive reengineering, which increases
deployment costs and introduces new vulnerabilities (Zhou, et al., 2022). Moreover,
partial or fragmented integration can limit the effectiveness of IIoT deployments.
1.2.6 Applications of IIoT
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is reshaping traditional industrial ecosystems
by integrating intelligent devices, sensors, communication networks, and real-time
analytics. These technologies facilitate automation, enhance operational visibility, and
enable data-driven decision-making across critical infrastructure and industrial
domains. Below is an overview of key industry applications, supported by recent
literature.
 Manufacturing
IIoT has become a foundational element in smart manufacturing, providing real-time
data from connected machinery and production systems. This enables predictive
maintenance strategies, which help detect faults before failures occur, reducing
downtime and maintenance costs. Furthermore, IIoT enables continuous quality
monitoring and dynamic resource allocation, thereby enhancing product consistency
and process efficiency (Madakam, et al., 2019).
 Energy and Utilities
In the energy sector, IIoT is instrumental in the development of smart grids and
intelligent energy management systems. Applications include real-time load
monitoring, automated fault detection, and remote control of distribution networks.
IIoT devices also support predictive analytics for demand forecasting and facilitate
the integration of renewable energy sources, which helps enhance service reliability
and reduce operational inefficiencies (Alwarafy, et al., 2020).
 Logistics and Transportation
Logistics and transportation have seen major improvements through IIoT-driven
technologies. Real-time tracking of assets via GPS and RFID ensures better visibility
across the supply chain. Additionally, IIoT enhances route optimization, fleet
management, and fuel efficiency by analyzing data from vehicles and logistics
infrastructure. These systems contribute to reduced delivery times and improved
customer satisfaction (Awotunde, et al., 2021).

 Agriculture
Precision agriculture leverages IIoT technologies for optimized resource use and
increased crop yields. Sensors are used to monitor soil moisture, temperature, and
nutrient levels, which guide irrigation and fertilization strategies. Climate control
systems within greenhouses can also be automated based on real-time environmental
data. This not only improves agricultural productivity but also ensures sustainability
in farming practices (Nuaimi, et al., 2023).
 Healthcare
IIoT applications in healthcare are driving a shift toward more responsive and
efficient care delivery models. Remote patient monitoring systems, powered by
wearable devices and connected diagnostics, allow for continuous tracking of vital
signs and early intervention. Furthermore, IIoT enhances hospital operations through
equipment tracking, automated alerts, and intelligent data management, resulting in
better healthcare outcomes and resource utilization (Ahmad, et al., 2024).
 Mining
The mining industry benefits from IIoT through the automation and remote
monitoring of heavy equipment, improving both safety and productivity. Real-time
environmental sensing enables detection of hazardous gases, temperature fluctuations,
and geotechnical movements. In addition, wearables for miners ensure compliance
with safety standards and provide location and health data in real-time, mitigating
risks in high-hazard environments (Chen, et al., 2022).

Thus the application of IIoT across various sectors demonstrates its transformative
potential in building smarter, safer, and more sustainable industrial systems. By
enabling real-time insights, predictive capabilities, and autonomous operations, IIoT
is not only improving efficiency but also shaping the future of industrial innovation.

1.2.7 Challenges in IIot

The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) holds immense promise in driving digital
transformation across manufacturing, energy, healthcare, and other industrial sectors.
However, realizing its full potential requires addressing several implementation and
operational challenges. These challenges stem from the complexity, scale, and
heterogeneity of IIoT systems, which encompass a wide range of diverse devices,
platforms, and communication protocols. The following sections discuss the major
obstacles to secure and effective IIoT deployment.

 Interoperability

One of the most prominent barriers in IIoT adoption is interoperability. Industrial

environments are composed of a wide variety of sensors, actuators, controllers, and
computing platforms sourced from multiple manufacturers. These devices often
operate on different communication standards and data exchange formats, making
seamless integration complex and resource-intensive. The absence of universally
adopted IIoT standards further complicates device compatibility and hampers the
creation of unified system architectures (Mohamed Amine Ferrag, et al., 2022).

 Scalability

IIoT networks are designed to accommodate a rapidly increasing number of devices,

which generate vast amounts of structured and unstructured data. Ensuring the
infrastructure can scale effectively both vertically (increasing processing power) and
horizontally (adding more devices and nodes) is essential to maintaining performance
and reliability. However, managing such large-scale, heterogeneous networks
demands advanced architecture design, distributed processing, and robust load-
balancing mechanisms (Ferrag, et al., 2022).

 Security

Security is widely recognized as one of the most critical concerns in IIoT systems.
These networks typically operate in open, distributed, and often remote environments
where communication occurs over internet-based protocols. As a result, IIoT systems
are highly vulnerable to cyberattacks, including data interception, spoofing, malware
injection, and unauthorized control. Conventional IT security solutions are not always
well-suited for IIoT contexts, which require lightweight, real-time, and scalable
security mechanisms that can operate effectively within resource-constrained edge
devices (Gueriani, et al., 2025).

 Data Quality
The effectiveness of IIoT-driven analytics depends heavily on the quality of data
captured by sensors and field devices. However, IIoT data is often affected by noise,
inconsistencies, missing values, and environmental disturbances. Poor data quality
compromises machine learning models, real-time analytics, and operational decision-
making. Therefore, robust data validation, cleansing, and preprocessing mechanisms
are essential to ensuring trustworthy insights and system dependability (Hasan, et al.,
2025).

 Integration with Legacy Systems

Industrial facilities frequently rely on legacy systems such as Supervisory Control

and Data Acquisition (SCADA), Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs), and
Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES), which were not originally designed to
communicate with modern IIoT platforms. Bridging this technological gap requires
specialized middleware, protocol conversion, and customized interfaces, all of which
add to system complexity and integration overhead (Yang, et al., 2024). Failure to
achieve effective integration can limit IIoT functionality and increase security
vulnerabilities.

 High Computational Costs

Deploying IIoT infrastructure involves substantial investment in hardware,

networking, cloud platforms, and analytics tools. Edge computing devices, real-time
data processing units, and secure data storage systems incur high computational and
operational costs, which can be prohibitive for small- and medium-sized enterprises
(SMEs). Moreover, the ongoing need for software updates, cybersecurity protections,
and skilled personnel adds to the total cost of ownership (Jouhari, et al., 2024).

Among the many challenges facing IIoT deployment, security remains paramount,
as breaches in data confidentiality, integrity, or availability can have cascading effects
across automated operations, analytics, and real-time decision-making. Overcoming
these obstacles requires a concerted effort across industry, academia, and regulatory
bodies to develop scalable, interoperable, and secure IIoT ecosystems.
1.3 INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM

Figure 1.6: Intrusion Detection System in IoT Architecture

An intrusion is any activity within a network that deviates from normal behavior and
may indicate unauthorized access or malicious intent, thereby compromising
confidentiality, integrity, or availability. An intrusion occurs when an attacker
successfully bypasses defenses and executes unauthorized commands, effectively
breaching the system (Haider, et al., 2016).
Figure 1.6: Intrusion Detection Systems
To mitigate such threats, Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) serve as a crucial line
of defense by continuously monitoring both network traffic and system activities to
uncover abnormal patterns or known threat signatures. An IDS typically consists of
several interrelated components:
 Data Acquisition:
Information is collected from sources such as packet sniffers, log files, or sensor data
across the network.
 Pre-processing:
This stage transforms raw inputs into structured formats using techniques like
normalization, feature extraction, and noise reduction.
 Detection Mechanism:
The core module of the IDS applies either signature-based detection (to identify
known attack patterns) or anomaly-based detection (to detect deviations from normal
behavior). Advanced systems often incorporate machine learning (ML) or deep
learning (DL) techniques for dynamic and adaptive threat detection.
 Alerting System:
Upon detecting suspicious behavior, the IDS generate real-time alerts for system
administrators or triggers automated defensive responses.
 Event Logging and Reporting:
All relevant events and alerts are logged to support forensic investigations, regulatory
compliance, and future system enhancements (Khan et al., 2024; Nuaimi et al., 2023).

Figure 1.7: Process of Intrusion Detection Systems

Given the increasing sophistication of cyber threats, much modern IDS architecture
now integrate ML and DL algorithms to improve detection accuracy and reduce
false alarm (Marteau, et al., 2018). In the context of the Industrial Internet of Things
(IIoT), the role of IDS becomes even more critical due to the presence of distributed,
resource-constrained devices and the necessity for real-time threat responsiveness.
Traditional security mechanisms often fall short in such environments. Therefore, IDS
solutions tailored to IIoT must be lightweight, adaptive, and capable of operating
efficiently at the network edge, ensuring secure and uninterrupted industrial
operations.
1.3.1 Significance of Intrusion Detection in Industrial Internet of Things

A comprehensive understanding of Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) is crucial

within the context of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) environments, where real-
time responsiveness, operational resilience, and infrastructure security are essential.
Unlike general-purpose IoT systems, IIoT involves mission-critical operations
deployed in sectors such as energy, manufacturing, and transportation—making them
particularly vulnerable to sophisticated cyber threats. IDS in these environments go
beyond conventional monitoring; they play a central role in maintaining continuity,
detecting anomalies, and adapting to evolving attack vectors.
 Protection of Critical Infrastructure
IIoT systems are integral to national infrastructure and public safety, making them
attractive targets for cyberattacks. IDS solutions that integrate anomaly detection and
machine learning (ML) techniques can effectively identify concealed threats such as
zero-day vulnerabilities and advanced persistent threats (APTs) before they escalate
into full-scale attacks. This proactive detection is vital for safeguarding both
infrastructure integrity and operational continuity (Subba, et al., 2017).
 Real-Time Threat Monitoring
Timely detection and response are imperative in industrial systems, where delays can
result in significant financial or safety consequences. Traditional signature-based and
periodic scan methods often fail to detect fast-evolving or unknown threats. Modern
IDS leverage edge computing and lightweight deep learning models—such as
BiGRU, 1D CNN, and autoencoders—to deliver near-real-time monitoring, enabling
faster incident response and minimizing system downtime (Fährmann, et al., 2024).
 Security Across Heterogeneous Devices
IIoT ecosystems consist of a diverse array of devices—ranging from sensors and
actuators to gateways and control units—each operating under distinct protocols and
varying security capabilities. IDS enhanced with ML/DL models, trained on
heterogeneous datasets, are capable of generalizing across this diversity to detect
anomalies and malicious behavior, regardless of the device's function or
communication method (Sohi, et al., 2020).
 Adaptability to Evolving Threat Landscapes
The dynamic nature of modern cyber threats, including ransomware, zero-day
exploits, and polymorphic malware, necessitates IDS solutions that go beyond static
rule sets. State-of-the-art systems now integrate advanced techniques such as
attention-based architectures (e.g., BiGRU combined with Inception-CNN),
autoencoder-driven feature extraction, and reinforcement learning. These innovations
enable the detection of both known and previously unseen threats, significantly
enhancing the security posture of IIoT deployments (Chen, et al., 2024).

1.3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS (IDS)

Numerous intrusion detection and prevention systems are available, and they can be
generally categorized based on the types of intrusions they aim to identify and the
methods they use to do so. Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are generally classified
into three primary categories:

 Host intrusion detection systems

 Network intrusion detection systems
 Hybrid Intrusion detection system

[Link] HOST INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS (HIDS)

Host Intrusion Detection Systems (HIDS) are software agents installed
directly on endpoints such as servers, workstations, or virtual machines to monitor
host-level activity. They inspect both inbound and outbound traffic specific to the host
alongside system artifacts including event logs, file integrity, registry changes,
process behavior, and rootkit authentication triggering alerts when abnormalities are
detected (Chen, et al., 2023).
Figure 1.8: Host-Based Intrusion Detection and its Network Model

A central feature of HIDS is file integrity monitoring (FIM), which captures

baseline snapshots of critical system files and compares them against current states.
Any unexpected file modification, deletion, or tampering prompts immediate
notification for administrator review (Diro, et al., 2017). In addition to file-level
oversight, HIDS continuously track registry entries, process creation, user accounts,
CPU and memory usage, as well as audit logs. Alerts are generated when these
metrics exceed defined thresholds or show signs of anomalous behaviour. Compared
to Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS), which rely solely on network traffic,
HIDS deliver more detailed insight into host-specific activity by integrating packet
inspection with local system logs. This enables detection of subtle internal threats—
such as insider misuse, privilege escalation, rootkits, or malware—that may bypass
network-level defenses (Ferrag, et al., 2020).

To strengthen protection further, HIDS are often used in conjunction with

firewalls, anti-malware software, and rootkit detectors. However, admins must
actively manage false positive alerts by regularly reviewing logs and fine-tuning
detection rules to ensure optimal accuracy. When properly calibrated, HIDS serve as a
key layer in endpoint defense, offering comprehensive visibility into host-level threats
and supporting rapid incident response.
[Link] NETWORK INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEMS (NIDS)

Network Intrusion Detection Systems (NIDS) are typically deployed at specific points
within a network infrastructure to monitor the entire traffic flow across interconnected
devices. These systems are designed to inspect data packets in transit, allowing them
to detect and prevent malicious activities in real time (Hajj, et al., 2023). To achieve
this, NIDS employs various sensors that continuously analyze the network traffic
passing through designated segments.

As packets move through the monitored subnet, NIDS captures them and compares
their content and behaviour against a repository of predefined attack signatures. This
process enables the identification of known threat patterns, such as signature-based
attacks, by examining the payload, headers, and protocol usage of each packet. Upon
detecting suspicious or unauthorized activity—whether based on known attack
vectors or behavioural anomalies the system generates alerts, which are forwarded to
network administrators for immediate investigation and response.

Figure 1.9: Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS) Architecture

A common practice is to deploy a NIDS on the subnet associated with firewall
systems. This allows the NIDS to act as a second line of defence by observing traffic
that has already passed the initial perimeter controls, thereby enhancing visibility into
potential intrusion attempts targeting internal resources (Apruzzese et al., 2024).
Figure 1.9: Working of Network Based Intrusion Detection and its Network Model
[Link] HYBRID INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM

Figure 1.10: Network Security Architecture with NIDS and HIDS Implementation
Hybrid Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) merge the capabilities of both Network-
based IDS (NIDS) and Host-based IDS (HIDS) to deliver a robust security
mechanism across networks and hosts. NIDS observe and analyse network-wide
traffic, making them effective at identifying large-scale threats like Distributed Denial
of Service (DDoS) attacks. However, they often fail to inspect encrypted traffic and
cannot monitor activities at the host level, such as file alterations or unauthorized
resource use. Conversely, HIDS scrutinize individual device activities system logs,
file integrity, application behaviour which enables them to catch insider threats or
host-specific malware. But these operate at the expense of system resources and lack
broad network visibility.

Figure 1.10: Hybrid Intrusion detection system (HIDS)

A Hybrid IDS addresses these limitations by integrating NIDS’s network coverage
with HIDS’s detailed endpoint insights. Such systems typically combine data from
both components—network packets and host telemetry—using techniques like
machine learning, data fusion, and anomaly detection to achieve enhanced accuracy
and lower false positive rates. They offer real-time monitoring capabilities with
scalable performance tailored for dynamic environments like IoT networks (Jhanjhi,
et al., 2021).
As industrial environments grow increasingly digitized and interconnected, especially
within the context of the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), traditional intrusion
detection mechanisms face significant challenges. While HIDS, NIDS, and Hybrid
IDS provide critical defense layers, they must operate within a rapidly evolving threat
landscape characterized by heterogeneous devices, insecure protocols, and complex
cyber-physical interactions. The effectiveness of these systems depends not only on
their configuration but also on the broader security infrastructure and threat awareness
within IIoT deployments.
The following section explores the overarching security landscape of IIoT systems,
highlighting their unique architectural features, vulnerability surfaces, and emerging
threats that call for more adaptive and intelligent defense mechanisms.

1.4 CYBERSECURITY RISKS AND THREAT LANDSCAPE IN IIOT

SYSTEMS

As the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) continues to transform manufacturing and

critical infrastructure, it introduces a vast, interconnected ecosystem of sensors,
machinery, and control systems most often managed by centralized Industrial Control
Systems (ICS). While this digital integration drives operational efficiency and real-
time responsiveness, it also exposes systems to a broader range of cyber threats. The
convergence of operational technology (OT) and information technology (IT) blurs
traditional security perimeters, making IIoT systems increasingly vulnerable to
exploitation. Weak or outdated communication protocols such as Modbus/TCP,
commonly used in industrial environments, lack inherent security features and further
complicate authentication, access control, and data confidentiality. These
vulnerabilities underscore the urgent need for advanced security mechanisms capable
of safeguarding IIoT networks from both internal and external attacks.
1.4.1 IIoT Threats and Vulnerabilities
At the heart of IIoT architectures lie Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), which
monitor and manage real-time industrial processes through constraint-driven
operations, system diagnostics, and predictive evaluations. However, the proliferation
of connected devices increases the risk of compromised system integrity and
operational disruption.
Modern smart manufacturing environments often rely on Cyber-Physical
Production Systems (CPPS), which integrate computational control with physical
machinery. These setups are highly vulnerable to both hardware- and software-based
threats. Common risks include side-channel attacks, reverse engineering of embedded
systems, trojans, and runtime exploits that bypass traditional perimeter defenses.
Moreover, communication pathways are susceptible to a wide range of network-based
attacks, including:
 Man-in-the-Middle (MitM)
 Denial-of-Service (DoS)
 Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS)
In addition, social engineering attacks such as phishing, spam, and manipulation
campaigns increasingly target human operators—often considered the weakest link in
IIoT security.

Figure 1.11 CPPS and security issue

These vulnerabilities are often exacerbated by the use of outdated or incompatible

devices, limited connectivity, and non-standardized architectures. Compounding the
issue is the inability of conventional detection algorithms to identify zero-day
attacks, which further undermines the resilience of IIoT systems.
1.4.2 Types of Cyberattacks in the IIoT Environment
Industrial systems are increasingly the target of sophisticated cyberattacks that
exploit vulnerabilities across multiple layers of the IIoT architecture. These threats
can lead to severe consequences, including infrastructure failure, data breaches,
equipment damage, and loss of sensitive information.
Among the most common and impactful attack types are:
 Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks
 Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks
 Malware and ransomware infections
 SQL injection attacks
 Zero-day exploits
These attacks often exploit weaknesses in different layers of the IIoT stack—
including the physical, network, and application layers—each of which presents
unique security challenges. A comprehensive overview of these cyberattacks and their
impact across various layers is presented in Table 2 (Fereidouni, et al, 2025).

Table 2: Types of attacks and their layer-wise impact across the IIoT environment.

Layer Attacks Effects

• Physical Tampering • Denial of service
• Malicious Activity • Access the sensitive
• Sleep Denial information
• RF interference • Control the data flow
jamming • Man-in-the-middle
Physical
• Code Injection • Node shutdown
• Side Channel attack • Resource destruction
• Fake node injection • Collect encryption keys
• Permanent denial of • Jam communication
services
Network • DDoS Attack • Data leakage
• Replay attack • Data manipulation and
• Sybil attack modification
• Man-in-the-middle • Message destruction
attack • Network congestion
 • Selective forwarding • Network flooding
• Routing information • Packet tunneling
attack • Routing loop
• Traffic analysis • Unfair resource allocation
• RFID spoofing
• Wormhole attack
• Sinkhole attack
Data Link and Software • Data breach • Violation of data privacy
• Trojan horse • Data inconsistency
• Worms • Resource destruction
• Virus • Data leakage
• Data inconsistency • Sapping
• Unauthorized access • Existence of infected data
• Adware
• Malware
• Spyware

1.4.3 SECURITY CHALLENGES IN IIOT

The IIoT ecosystem comprising a broad range of devices, complex infrastructure, and
human interactions faces several security vulnerabilities that could compromise both
operational integrity and data reliability (Alrayes, et al., 2024):
i. Device-Level Security
IIoT devices often lack integrated protections, making them susceptible to
malware, firmware exploitation, and unauthorized access. Implementing device
encryption, secure boot, timely firmware updates, and strong authentication
mechanisms is essential to mitigate these risks.
ii. Network Security
Reliance on network connectivity combined with weak segmentation, insecure
protocols, and poorly configured security tools increases the susceptibility of IIoT
systems to network-based attacks. Enhanced network segmentation, secure
communication channels, and comprehensive IDS/IPS deployment are critical
defences.
 iii. Data Protection
Operational metrics, personal credentials, and control commands are frequently
transmitted without sufficient encryption or validation, making them vulnerable to
interception and tampering. This can degrade analytics reliability and decision-
making integrity.
iv. Physical Security
Devices in industrial settings are often exposed to theft, tampering, or sabotage.
Effective physical security measures such as tamper-evident housing, secure
enclosures, and access controls are necessary safeguards.
v. Human-Factor Risks
Human errors such as using weak passwords, skipping updates, or misconfiguring
systems often undermine IIoT security. Regular training, automation of security
practices, and implementation of role-based access controls are required to
address these human vulnerabilities.
vi. Supply-Chain Vulnerabilities
Insecure or compromised third-party hardware and software can introduce hidden
exploitable flaws. Conducting rigorous vendor vetting, component verification
and continuous supply-chain auditing is key to mitigating these risks.

1.4.3 Rising Security Demands in the IIoT Landscape

As IIoT systems become more deeply embedded in industrial ecosystems, their
increasing complexity and layered architecture—from edge sensors to cloud platforms
—introduce expanded cybersecurity vulnerabilities. This interconnected structure
exposes numerous points of attack, widening the overall threat surface. Consequently,
IIoT networks are highly susceptible to sophisticated threats such as ransomware,
unauthorized access, and data exfiltration. Unlike traditional IT systems, even minor
breaches in IIoT environments can cause serious operational disruptions, financial
losses, or even compromise human safety. To address these escalating risks,
organizations are adopting intelligent, real-time cybersecurity frameworks. Intrusion
Detection Systems (IDS) are now central to this approach, enabling timely
identification and response to anomalous behavior across the IIoT infrastructure
(Elsayed, et al., 2021).
[Link] SECURITY MEASURES AND LIMITATIONS
To counteract these threats, various security strategies, such as encryption techniques
and password protections, are employed. However, password-based security and
traditional key generation methods alone are insufficient to provide strong
protection in high-volume IIoT environments.
Advanced authentication techniques are therefore essential. These include:
 Biometric security systems (e.g., facial recognition, iris scans, ear structure,
and voice identification)
 Robust cryptographic methods to ensure secure communication and
authentication
Such techniques help monitor network activity continuously and detect anomalies
with minimal computational overhead.

1.5. RESEARCH GAPS IDENTIFICATION

Despite recent advancements in securing Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
environments, several critical research gaps remain in the development and
deployment of Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS):
 Legacy IDS limitations: Existing IDS solutions are primarily designed for
conventional IT infrastructures and do not adequately address the dynamic and
heterogeneous nature of IIoT networks.
 Inadequate handling of advanced threats: Many IDS frameworks are
ineffective against sophisticated cyber threats, such as zero-day exploits,
which require real-time, adaptive detection mechanisms.
 High false positive rates: Machine learning-based IDS models often generate
excessive false positives due to imbalanced or insufficiently diverse training
datasets.
 Lack of lightweight solutions: A significant portion of current IDS research
overlooks the need for low-complexity models that can be efficiently deployed
on resource-constrained IIoT devices.
 Sector-specific limitations: Much of the existing literature focuses on narrow
industrial domains or threat scenarios, resulting in solutions with limited
cross-domain applicability.
  Scalability challenges: Many proposed IDS architectures are not scalable and
perform poorly when deployed in large-scale or highly distributed IIoT
environments.
 Insufficient context awareness: Few IDS solutions incorporate contextual
information or behavioral analytics tailored to IIoT operations, which limits
their ability to accurately detect abnormal activities.
 Lack of collaborative detection models: There is limited exploration of
distributed or cooperative IDS architectures that leverage the interconnected
nature of IIoT devices for collaborative threat detection.
1.5.1 RESEARCH CHALLENGES

Despite notable advancements in securing Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)

infrastructures, critical vulnerabilities persist due to architectural and operational
constraints, including:

 Inefficient or outdated communication protocols

 Unstable or low-quality connectivity
 Incompatible, heterogeneous, or legacy hardware systems
 Inconsistent interactions among IIoT components
 Persistent intermediate threats such as Man-in-the-Middle (MitM) attacks

Among these issues, MitM attacks remain one of the most severe risks. By covertly
intercepting and altering data in transit, they jeopardize both system reliability and
information integrity. To deal with this risk, creative, real-time defense measures that
explicitly address the resource and connectivity constraints of IIoT settings are
required. To stay abreast with the changing environment of attacks, current Intrusion
Detection and Security Systems (IDSS) tend to actively engage the support of
advanced computational processes, especially machine learning (ML) and deep
learning (DL), to provide more flexible and intelligent protection solutions.
1.6 MACHINE LEARNING AND DEEP LEARNING APPROACHES FOR IDS

Machine learning (ML) algorithms such as Decision Trees, Support Vector Machines
(SVM), and Random Forests have traditionally been used to detect malicious behavior in
IoT networks based on handcrafted statistical features. However, these models often
underperform when faced with the complex and nonlinear characteristics of IIoT traffic
(Elsayed, et al., 2021). To address these shortcomings, researchers have increasingly
adopted deep learning (DL) techniques. 1D-Convolutional Neural Networks (1D-CNNs) are
highly effective at identifying spatial patterns in sequential packet data, while Bidirectional
LSTM (BiLSTM) models learn at learning temporal dependencies to detect evolving threats
(Elsayed et al., 2021).Hybrid models that combine CNN and BiLSTM for example, a CNN–
BiLSTM architecture capitalize on both spatial and temporal pattern recognition to achieve
higher intrusion detection accuracy and resilience (Hodo, et al., 2016). Autoencoder-based
approaches, such as Denoising Autoencoders and Parallel Deep AutoEncoders, have also
proven effective. These models learn representations of normal traffic and identify
anomalies during reconstruction, making them suitable for detecting zero-day and unknown
threats in IoT environments (Sadhwani, et al, 2024). More advanced techniques, like
Quantized AutoEncoders (QAEs), adapt autoencoder models for resource-constrained IoT
devices by reducing model size and computational needs without compromising detection
capability (Sharmila & Nagapadma, et al., 2023).
1.7 OPTIMIZATION ALGORITHMS IN DEEP LEARNING IDS
The effectiveness of deep learning–based intrusion detection systems (IDS) depends heavily
on precise tuning of hyperparameters—such as learning rate, network depth, neurons per
layer, activation functions, and feature selection strategies—and traditionally employs
optimization algorithms like Genetic Algorithms (GA) and Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) to enhance performance.

Recent advancements have integrated graph neural network (GNN) techniques and
metaheuristic optimizations for more sophisticated IDS capabilities. For instance, the
EG-ConMix model applies contrastive learning on hierarchical graph representations of
network traffic using a GNN encoder, effectively capturing intricate structural patterns and
addressing the class‐imbalance problem Another innovation, CAGN-GAT Fusion, combines
Graph Attention Networks (GATs) with contrastive loss to improve detection resilience on
limited or imbalanced traffic samples (Jahin et al., 2025).
Other cutting-edge approaches incorporate physics-inspired and sparsity-enhanced designs.
The Convolutional Sparse Fick’s Law Model leverages diffusion-based learning with sparse
regularization to accentuate minor deviations in traffic, boosting anomaly detection
sensitivity in large-scale datasets (Kim, Dai, et al., 2021 and Wu, et a., 2024). Transformer-
GNN hybrid architectures also enhance context-aware threat detection by dynamically
adjusting edge weights and supporting multi-hop message passing, improving
interpretability in complex network environments (Ma, et al., 2022).
Together, these architectures mark a significant shift from conventional deep learning–based
IDS toward more adaptive, explainable, and highly optimized models, specifically suited for
the demanding requirements of IIoT infrastructures. Despite these advancements, key
limitations remain in deploying such models effectively within IIoT environments
particularly regarding resource efficiency, scalability, and robustness against novel threats.
These limitations define the core of the present research problem.

1.8 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The accelerated adoption of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) technologies under Industry
4.0 has significantly enhanced automation, operational efficiency, and real-time decision-
making. However, this increased interconnectivity has also introduced complex cybersecurity
challenges, particularly concerning intrusion detection. While numerous deep learning (DL)
techniques [16–27] have been proposed for Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) in IoT and
IIoT environments, many of these approaches suffer from critical limitations. These include
suboptimal detection accuracy, increased computational complexity, longer training times,
and higher false alarm [Link], existing models often struggle to adapt to the
heterogeneous, resource-constrained, and dynamically evolving nature of IIoT networks. As a
result, there remains a pressing need for intelligent, lightweight, and accurate IDS
frameworks that can operate efficiently in such environments.

To address these shortcomings, this study proposed, “Hybrid Learning Based Intrusion
Detection System for Securing Industrial IoT Environments”, aiming to enhance detection
accuracy, reduce false positives, and minimize computational overhead.
1.9 MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVE
Traditional Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS), which depend on fixed, rule-based
mechanisms, are inadequate for securing the dynamic, heterogeneous, and resource-
constrained IIoT environments. The increasing complexity of cyber-attacks targeting critical
infrastructure underscores the urgent need for intelligent, adaptive, and scalable IDS
frameworks. This study is driven by the necessity to enhance IIoT security by leveraging
modern techniques that can provide accurate, real-time threat detection and support resilient
infrastructures aligned with Industry 4.0 goals.

1. To explore the growing cyber security risks posed by the integration of IIoT devices
within Industry 4.0 environments.
2. To analyze the shortcomings of traditional IDS solutions in addressing the unique
challenges of IIoT systems, particularly their reliance on static, rule-based
approaches.
3. To identify the complexities introduced by IIoT environments, including device
heterogeneity, real-time constraints, and large-scale data flows that complicate
intrusion detection.
4. To develop advanced IDS frameworks using machine learning, deep learning, and
graph neural networks tailored specifically for IIoT applications.
5. To enhance intrusion detection capabilities by improving detection accuracy, reducing
false positives, and enabling real-time threat identification in support of secure and
intelligent Industry 4.0 systems.

1.10 CONTRIBUTION OF THE WORK

This section presents the structured workflows of the three proposed intrusion
detection models developed in this study. Each model employs distinct feature
selection and optimization strategies tailored to improve detection accuracy. The
integration of these techniques forms a core contribution, enhancing performance
across various IoT-based cybersecurity environments.
 Figure 1.11: Workflow of the three proposed intrusion detection models

1. Model 1: A Novel Hybrid IDS for Enhanced Security in IoT Networks Using Machine
Learning

Contribution

 Proposed a hybrid Intrusion Detection System (IDS) that addresses the dynamic
nature and structure of IoT networks.
 Implemented a machine learning-based classification model to identify both known
and unknown intrusions in the UNSW-NB15 dataset.
 Tackled the limitations of traditional encryption/authentication approaches by
developing a novel detection-centric model tailored to IoT environments.
 Encouraged the design of self-learning IDS systems through the integration of
combined learning strategies.

Advantages

 Capable of detecting both known and zero-day attacks.

 Improves detection accuracy in dynamic IoT environments with constantly changing
behaviors.
 Uses real-world dataset (UNSW-NB15), ensuring practical applicability.
Model 2: An Advanced Framework Leveraging Contrastive Multi-Level Graph Neural
Networks with Snow Avalanches Algorithm to Enhance IoT Network Security for
Intrusion Detection

Contribution

 Introduced CMGNN-SAA-IoT-ID, a multi-layered intrusion detection framework

using Graph Neural Networks with contrastive learning for attack pattern recognition.
 Implemented Bayesian Boundary Trend Filtering (BBTF) for enhanced pre-
processing of IoT network data.
 Employed Banyan Tree Growth Optimization (BTGO) for feature selection,
enhancing detection precision.
 Proposed a novel Snow Avalanches Algorithm (SAA) for optimizing CMGNN
parameters, improving classification accuracy.
 Validated the framework on CICIoT2023 and CIC-MalMem-2022 datasets with
multiple attack classes.

Advantages

 Incorporates multi-dataset learning for improved generalization across diverse attack

types.
 Utilizes a novel optimizer (SAA) to fine-tune the deep learning model, improving
performance.
 Effectively reduces false positives and improves metrics like detection rate and
accuracy.

Model 3 : Advancing IoT Security: A Novel Intrusion Detection System for Evolving
Threats in Industry 4.0 Using Optimized Convolutional Sparse Fick’s Law based Graph
Pointtrans-Net

Contribution

 Developed a cutting-edge intrusion detection model, CSFLGPtrans-Net, tailored for

Industry 4.0 IoT environments.
 Utilized a hybrid feature selection technique by combining Fire Hawk Optimizer and
Spider Wasp Optimizer for enhanced performance.
  Integrated Fuzzy-based Elliptic Curve Cryptography (FECC) for secure and reliable
data transfer in industrial networks.
 Demonstrated superior accuracy, precision, and recall across four benchmark datasets:
ToN-IoT, NSL-KDD, CSE-CIC-IDS2018, and IoT_Bot.

Advantages

 The use of multiple datasets enables cross-domain learning, strengthening

generalizability.
 Combines cryptographic techniques and deep learning, enhancing both detection and
data confidentiality.

1.14 Organization

Chapter 1 explains the introduction, Chapter 2 explains the literature survey,

1.15 Summary

The foundation for understanding the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)including its
architecture, benefits, and critical security concerns, particularly the need for Intrusion
Detection Systems (IDS) tailored to industrial contexts has been discussed in this chapter. It
has also explored the evolution of IDS technologies and the potential of machine and deep
learning approaches to enhance detection accuracy. The next chapter provides a detailed
review of related work to contextualize the proposed research.