HES2281 MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING 1

WEEK 6 – JOINING AND ASSEMBLY PROCESSES

 WELDING PROCESSES
1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding
Two Categories of Welding Processes

Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished
by melting the two parts to be joined, in some
cases adding filler metal to the joint

Examples: arc welding, resistance spot
welding, oxyfuel gas welding

Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are
used to achieve coalescence, but no melting of
base metals occurs and no filler metal is added

Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding,
friction welding
 Arc Welding (AW)
A fusion welding process in which coalescence of
the metals is achieved by the heat from an
electric arc between an electrode and the work

Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough
to melt any metal

Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint
 What is an Electric Arc?
An electric arc is a discharge of electric current
across a gap in a circuit

It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows

To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought
into contact with work and then quickly
separated from it by a short distance
 Arc Welding
A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode
tip, and as electrode is moved along joint,
molten weld pool solidifies in its wake

Figure 31.1 Basic configuration of an arc welding process.

Manual Arc Welding and Arc Time

Problems with manual welding:

Weld joint quality

Productivity

Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours
worked)

Also called “arc-on time”

Manual welding arc time = 20%

Machine welding arc time ~ 50%
Two Basic Types of AW Electrodes

Consumable – consumed during welding
process

Source of filler metal in arc welding

Nonconsumable – not consumed during
welding process

Filler metal must be added separately
 Consumable Electrodes

Forms of consumable electrodes

Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18
inches and 3/8 inch or less in diameter and
must be changed frequently

Weld wire can be continuously fed from
spools with long lengths of wire, avoiding
frequent interruptions

In both rod and wire forms, electrode is
consumed by arc and added to weld joint as
filler metal
 Nonconsumable Electrodes

Made of tungsten which resists melting

Gradually depleted during welding
(vaporization is principal mechanism)

Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate
wire fed into weld pool
 Arc Shielding

At high temperatures in AW, metals are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen in air

Mechanical properties of joint can be
seriously degraded by these reactions

To protect operation, arc must be shielded
from surrounding air in AW processes

Arc shielding is accomplished by:

Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2

Flux
 Flux
A substance that prevents formation of oxides
and other contaminants in welding, or
dissolves them and facilitates removal

Provides protective atmosphere for welding

Stabilizes arc

Reduces spattering
Various Flux Application Methods

Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

Stick electrode coated with flux material that
melts during welding to cover operation

Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in
the core and released as electrode is
consumed
 Power Source in Arc Welding

Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

AC machines less expensive to purchase
and operate, but generally restricted to
ferrous metals

DC equipment can be used on all metals
and is generally noted for better arc control
Consumable Electrode AW Processes

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Electrogas Welding

Submerged Arc Welding
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler
metal rod coated with chemicals that provide
flux and shielding

Sometimes called "stick welding"

Power supply, connecting cables, and
electrode holder available for a few thousand
dollars
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Figure 31.3 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).

 Welding Stick in SMAW

Composition of filler metal usually close to
base metal

Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with
oxides, carbonates, and other ingredients,
held together by a silicate binder

Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder
connected to power source

Disadvantages of stick welding:

Sticks must be periodically changed

High current levels may melt coating
prematurely
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Figure 31.2 Shielded

metal arc welding (stick
welding) performed by a
(human) welder (photo
courtesy of Hobart
Brothers Co.).
 SMAW Applications

Used for steels, stainless steels, cast
irons, and certain nonferrous alloys

Not used or rarely used for aluminum
and its alloys, copper alloys, and
titanium
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
Uses a consumable bare metal wire as
electrode and shielding accomplished by
flooding arc with a gas

Wire is fed continuously and automatically
from a spool through the welding gun

Shielding gases include inert gases such as
argon and helium for aluminum welding, and
active gases such as CO2 for steel welding

Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases
eliminate slag on weld bead - no need for
manual grinding and cleaning of slag
 Gas Metal Arc Welding

31.4 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW).

GMAW Advantages over SMAW

Better arc time because of continuous wire
electrode

Sticks must be periodically changed in
SMAW

Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW

End of stick cannot be used in SMAW

Higher deposition rates

Eliminates problem of slag removal

Can be readily automated
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to
overcome limitations of stick electrodes

Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing
(in coils) containing flux and other ingredients
(e.g., alloying elements) in its core

Two versions:

Self-shielded FCAW - core includes
compounds that produce shielding gases

Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally
applied shielding gases
 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Figure 31.6 Flux-cored arc welding. Presence or absence of

externally supplied shielding gas distinguishes the two types: (1)
self-shielded, in which core provides ingredients for shielding, and
(2) gas-shielded, which uses external shielding gases.
 Electrogas Welding (EGW)
Uses a continuous consumable electrode, either
flux-cored wire or bare wire with externally
supplied shielding gases, and molding shoes to
contain molten metal

When flux-cored electrode wire is used and no
external gases are supplied, then special case
of self-shielded FCAW

When a bare electrode wire used with shielding
gases from external source, then special case
of GMAW
 Electrogas Welding

Figure 31.7 Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire:

(a) front view with molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b)
side view showing molding shoes on both sides.
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire
electrode, with arc shielding provided by a
cover of granular flux

Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil

Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of
arc by gravity from a hopper

Completely submerges operation,
preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation
Submerged Arc Welding

Figure 31.8 Submerged arc welding.

SAW Applications and Products

Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g.,
I-beams)

Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and
pressure vessels

Welded components for heavy machinery

Most steels (except hi C steel)

Not good for nonferrous metals
Nonconsumable Electrode Processes

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Plasma Arc Welding

Carbon Arc Welding

Stud Welding
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode
and an inert gas for arc shielding

Melting point of tungsten = 3410°C (6170°F)

A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding

In Europe, called "WIG welding"

Used with or without a filler metal

When filler metal used, it is added to
weld pool from separate rod or wire

Applications: aluminum and stainless steel
most common
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

Figure 31.9 Gas tungsten arc welding.

Advantages / Disadvantages of GTAW
Advantages:

High quality welds for suitable applications

No spatter because no filler metal through
arc

Little or no post-weld cleaning because no
flux
Disadvantages:

Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes
 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Special form of GTAW in which a constricted
plasma arc is directed at weld area

Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle
that focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas
(argon) into arc region to form a high velocity,
intensely hot plasma arc stream

Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000°C
(50,000°F), due to constriction of arc,
producing a plasma jet of small diameter and
very high energy density
 Plasma Arc Welding

Figure 31.10 Plasma arc welding (PAW).

Advantages / Disadvantages of PAW
Advantages:

Good arc stability

Better penetration control than other AW

High travel speeds

Excellent weld quality

Can be used to weld almost any metals
Disadvantages:

High equipment cost

Larger torch size than other AW

Tends to restrict access in some joints
 Resistance Welding (RW)
A group of fusion welding processes that use a
combination of heat and pressure to
accomplish coalescence

Heat generated by electrical resistance to
current flow at junction to be welded

Principal RW process is resistance spot
welding (RSW)
 Resistance Welding

Figure 31.12 Resistance

welding, showing the
components in spot
welding, the main
process in the RW
group.
Components in Resistance Spot Welding

Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

Two opposing electrodes

Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes

Power supply from which a controlled current
can be applied for a specified time duration
Advantages / Drawbacks of RW
Advantages:

No filler metal required

High production rates possible

Lends itself to mechanization and automation

Lower operator skill level than for arc welding

Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantages:

High initial equipment cost

Limited to lap joints for most RW processes
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)
Resistance welding process in which fusion of
faying surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one
location by opposing electrodes

Used to join sheet metal parts using a series of
spot welds

Widely used in mass production of
automobiles, appliances, metal furniture, and
other products made of sheet metal

Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds

Annual production of automobiles in the
world is measured in tens of millions of units
 Spot Welding Cycle

Figure 31.13 (a) Spot welding cycle, (b) plot of squeezing force & current
in cycle (1) parts inserted between electrodes, (2) electrodes close,
force applied, (3) current on, (4) current off, (5) electrodes opened.
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW)
Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a
series of overlapping spot welds along lap
joint

Can produce air-tight joints

Applications:

Gasoline tanks

Automobile mufflers

Various other sheet metal containers
 Resistance Seam Welding

Figure 31.15 Resistance seam welding (RSEW).

Resistance Projection Welding (RPW)
A resistance welding process in which
coalescence occurs at one or more small
contact points on parts

Contact points determined by design of parts to
be joined

May consist of projections, embossments,
or localized intersections of parts
 Resistance Projection Welding

Figure 31.17 Resistance projection welding (RPW): (1) start of operation,

contact between parts is at projections; (2) when current is applied,
weld nuggets similar to spot welding are formed at the projections.
 Cross-Wire Welding

Figure 31.18 (b) cross-wire welding.

 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)
Group of fusion welding operations that burn
various fuels mixed with oxygen

OFW employs several types of gases, which is
the primary distinction among the members of
this group

Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting
torches to cut and separate metal plates and
other parts

Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding
 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)
Fusion welding performed by a high temperature
flame from combustion of acetylene and
oxygen

Flame is directed by a welding torch

Filler metal is sometimes added

Composition must be similar to base metal

Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation
 Oxyacetylene Welding

Figure 31.21 A typical oxyacetylene welding operation (OAW).

 Acetylene (C2H2)

Most popular fuel among OFW group because
it is capable of higher temperatures than any
other - up to 3480°C (6300°F)

Two stage chemical reaction of acetylene and
oxygen:

First stage reaction (inner cone of flame):
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + heat

Second stage reaction (outer envelope):
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 → 2CO2 + H2O + heat
 Oxyacetylene Torch

Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner
cone, while outer envelope spreads out and
shields work surfaces from atmosphere

Figure 31.22 The neutral flame from an oxyacetylene torch

indicating temperatures achieved.
 Safety Issue in OAW

Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly
flammable

C2H2 is colorless and odorless

It is therefore processed to have
characteristic garlic odor
 OAW Safety Issue

C2H2 is physically unstable at pressures much
above 15 lb/in2 (about 1 atm)

Storage cylinders are packed with porous
filler material (such as asbestos) saturated
with acetone (CH3COCH3)

Acetone dissolves about 25 times its own
volume of acetylene

Different screw threads are standard on the C2H2
and O2 cylinders and hoses to avoid accidental
connection of wrong gases
 Alternative Gases for OFW

Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)

Hydrogen

Propylene

Propane

Natural Gas
Other Fusion Welding Processes
FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,
resistance, or oxyfuel welding

Use unique technologies to develop heat for
melting

Applications are typically unique

Processes include:

Electron beam welding

Laser beam welding

Electroslag welding

Thermit welding
 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
Fusion welding process in which heat for welding
is provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity
stream of electrons striking work surface

Electron beam gun operates at:

High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to
accelerate electrons

Beam currents are low (measured in
milliamps)

Power in EBW not exceptional, but power
density is
 EBW Vacuum Chamber
When first developed, EBW had to be carried out
in vacuum chamber to minimize disruption of
electron beam by air molecules

Serious inconvenience in production

Pumpdown time can take as long as an hour
 Three Vacuum Levels in EBW

High-vacuum welding – welding done in
same vacuum chamber as beam generation

Highest quality weld

Medium-vacuum welding – welding done in
separate chamber with partial vacuum

Vacuum pump-down time reduced

Non-vacuum welding – welding done at or
near atmospheric pressure, with work
positioned close to electron beam generator

Vacuum divider required to separate work
from beam generator
EBW Advantages / Disadvantages

Advantages:

High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles

Limited heat affected zone, low thermal
distortion

High welding speeds

No flux or shielding gases needed
Disadvantages:

High equipment cost

Precise joint preparation & alignment required

Vacuum chamber required

Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays
 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
Fusion welding process in which coalescence is
achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint

Laser = "light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation"

LBW normally performed with shielding gases
to prevent oxidation

Filler metal not usually added

High power density in small area, so LBW often
used for small parts
 Comparison: LBW vs. EBW

No vacuum chamber required for LBW

No x-rays emitted in LBW

Laser beams can be focused and directed by
optical lenses and mirrors

LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW

Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in),
whereas EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)
 Thermit Welding (TW)
FW process in which heat for coalescence is
produced by superheated molten metal from
the chemical reaction of thermite

Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine
powders that produce an exothermic reaction
when ignited

Also used for incendiary bombs

Filler metal obtained from liquid metal

Process used for joining, but has more in
common with casting than welding
 Thermit Welding

Figure 31.25 Thermit welding: (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible

tapped, superheated metal flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to
produce weld joint.
 TW Applications

Joining of railroad rails

Repair of cracks in large steel castings and
forgings

Weld surface is often smooth enough that no
finishing is required
 Solid State Welding (SSW)

Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

Pressure alone, or

Heat and pressure

If both heat and pressure are used, heat

is not enough to melt work surfaces

For some SSW processes, time is also a
factor

No filler metal is added

Each SSW process has its own way of creating
a bond at the faying surfaces
 Success Factors in SSW

Essential factors for a successful solid state
weld are that the two faying surfaces must be:

Very clean

In very close physical contact with each
other to permit atomic bonding
SSW Advantages over FW Processes

If no melting, then no heat affected zone, so
metal around joint retains original properties

Many SSW processes produce welded joints
that bond the entire contact interface between
two parts rather than at distinct spots or seams

Some SSW processes can be used to bond
dissimilar metals, without concerns about
relative melting points, thermal expansions,
and other problems that arise in FW
 Solid State Welding Processes

Forge welding

Cold welding

Roll welding

Hot pressure welding

Diffusion welding

Explosion welding

Friction welding

Ultrasonic welding
 Forge Welding
Welding process in which components to be
joined are heated to hot working temperature
range and then forged together by hammering
or similar means

Historic significance in development of
manufacturing technology

Process dates from about 1000 B.C., when
blacksmiths learned to weld two pieces of
metal

Of minor commercial importance today except
for its variants
 Cold Welding (CW)
SSW process done by applying high pressure
between clean contacting surfaces at room
temperature

Cleaning usually done by degreasing and wire
brushing immediately before joining

No heat is applied, but deformation raises work
temperature

At least one of the metals, preferably both,
must be very ductile

Soft aluminum and copper suited to CW

Applications: making electrical connections
 Roll Welding (ROW)
SSW process in which pressure sufficient to
cause coalescence is applied by means of
rolls, either with or without external heat

Variation of either forge welding or cold
welding, depending on whether heating of
workparts is done prior to process

If no external heat, called cold roll welding

If heat is supplied, hot roll welding
 Roll Welding

Figure 31.26 Roll welding (ROW).

 Roll Welding Applications

Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy
steel for corrosion resistance

Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature

"Sandwich" coins for U.S mint
 Diffusion Welding (DFW)
SSW process uses heat and pressure, usually in
a controlled atmosphere, with sufficient time for
diffusion and coalescence to occur

Temperatures ≤ 0.5 Tm

Plastic deformation at surfaces is minimal

Primary coalescence mechanism is solid state
diffusion

Limitation: time required for diffusion can range
from seconds to hours
 DFW Applications

Joining of high-strength and refractory metals
in aerospace and nuclear industries

Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar
metals

For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of
different metal is often sandwiched between
base metals to promote diffusion
 Explosion Welding (EXW)
SSW process in which rapid coalescence of two
metallic surfaces is caused by the energy of a
detonated explosive

No filler metal used

No external heat applied

No diffusion occurs - time is too short

Bonding is metallurgical, combined with
mechanical interlocking that results from a
rippled or wavy interface between the metals
 Explosive Welding

Commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals,

in particular to clad one metal on top of a
base metal over large areas
Figure 31.27 Explosive welding (EXW): (1) setup in the
parallel configuration, and (2) during detonation of the
explosive charge.
 Friction Welding (FRW)
SSW process in which coalescence is achieved
by frictional heat combined with pressure

When properly carried out, no melting occurs at
faying surfaces

No filler metal, flux, or shielding gases normally
used

Process yields a narrow HAZ

Can be used to join dissimilar metals

Widely used commercial process, amenable to
automation and mass production
 Friction Welding

Figure 31.28 Friction welding (FRW): (1) rotating part, no contact; (2)
parts brought into contact to generate friction heat; (3) rotation
stopped and axial pressure applied; and (4) weld created.
 Two Types of Friction Welding
1. Continuous-drive friction welding

One part is driven at constant rpm
against stationary part to cause friction
heat at interface

At proper temperature, rotation is
stopped and parts are forced together
2. Inertia friction welding

Rotating part is connected to flywheel,
which is brought up to required speed

Flywheel is disengaged from drive, and
parts are forced together
Applications / Limitations of FRW
Applications:

Shafts and tubular parts

Industries: automotive, aircraft, farm
equipment, petroleum and natural gas
Limitations:

At least one of the parts must be rotational

Flash must usually be removed

Upsetting reduces the part lengths (which must
be taken into consideration in product design)
 Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
Two components are held together, oscillatory
shear stresses of ultrasonic frequency are
applied to interface to cause coalescence

Oscillatory motion breaks down any surface
films to allow intimate contact and strong
metallurgical bonding between surfaces

Although heating of surfaces occurs,
temperatures are well below Tm

No filler metals, fluxes, or shielding gases

Generally limited to lap joints on soft materials
such as aluminum and copper
 Ultrasonic Welding

Figure 31.29 Ultrasonic welding (USW): (a) general setup for

a lap joint; and (b) close-up of weld area.
 USW Applications

Wire terminations and splicing in electrical
and electronics industry

Eliminates need for soldering

Assembly of aluminum sheet metal panels

Welding of tubes to sheets in solar panels

Assembly of small parts in automotive
industry
 Weld Quality

Concerned with obtaining an acceptable weld

joint that is strong and absent of defects,
and the methods of inspecting and testing
the joint to assure its quality

Topics:

Residual stresses and distortion

Welding defects

Inspection and testing methods
Residual Stresses and Distortion

Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions
during FW result in thermal expansion and
contraction that cause residual stresses

These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and
warpage

Situation in welding is complicated because:

Heating is very localized

Melting of base metals in these regions

Location of heating and melting is in motion
(at least in AW)
Techniques to Minimize Warpage

Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts

Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat

Tack welding at multiple points along joint to
create a rigid structure prior to seam welding

Selection of welding conditions (speed, amount
of filler metal used, etc.) to reduce warpage

Preheating base parts

Stress relief heat treatment of welded
assembly

Proper design of weldment
 Welding Defects

Cracks

Cavities

Solid inclusions

Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour

Incomplete fusion

Miscellaneous defects
 Welding Cracks
Fracture-type interruptions either in weld or in
base metal adjacent to weld

Serious defect because it is a discontinuity in
the metal that significantly reduces strength

Caused by embrittlement or low ductility of
weld and/or base metal combined with high
restraint during contraction

In general, this defect must be repaired
 Welding Cracks

Figure 31.31 Various forms of welding cracks.

 Cavities
Two defect types, similar to defects found in
castings:
1. Porosity - small voids in weld metal formed
by gases entrapped during solidification

Caused by inclusion of atmospheric gases,
sulfur in weld metal, or surface
contaminants
2. Shrinkage voids - cavities formed by
shrinkage during solidification
 Solid Inclusions

Solid inclusions - nonmetallic material
entrapped in weld metal

Most common form is slag inclusions
generated during AW processes that use flux

Instead of floating to top of weld pool,
globules of slag become encased during
solidification

Metallic oxides that form during welding of
certain metals such as aluminum, which
normally has a surface coating of Al2O3
 Incomplete Fusion

Also known as lack of fusion, it is simply a weld

bead in which fusion has not occurred
throughout entire cross section of joint

Figure 31.32 Several forms of incomplete fusion.

 Weld Profile in AW

Weld joint should have a certain desired profile

to maximize strength and avoid incomplete
fusion and lack of penetration

Figure 31.33 (a) Desired weld profile for single V-groove weld joint.
 Weld Defects in AW

Figure 31.33 Same joint but with several weld defects: (b) undercut, in
which a portion of the base metal part is melted away; (c) underfill,
a depression in the weld below the level of the adjacent base metal
surface; and (d) overlap, in which the weld metal spills beyond the
joint onto the surface of the base part but no fusion occurs.
Inspection and Testing Methods

Visual inspection

Nondestructive evaluation

Destructive testing
 Visual Inspection

Most widely used welding inspection method

Human inspector visually examines for:

Conformance to dimensions

Warpage

Cracks, cavities, incomplete fusion, and
other surface defects

Limitations:

Only surface defects are detectable

Welding inspector must also determine if
additional tests are warranted
Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE) Tests

Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound
waves directed through specimen - cracks,
inclusions are detected by loss in sound
transmission

Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma
radiation provide photograph of internal flaws

Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant
tests - methods for detecting small cracks
and cavities that are open at surface

Magnetic particle testing – iron filings
sprinkled on surface reveal subsurface
defects by distorting magnetic field in part
 Destructive Testing
Tests in which weld is destroyed either during
testing or to prepare test specimen

Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to
conventional testing methods such as tensile
tests, shear tests, etc

Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of
weldment to examine metallic structure,
defects, extent and condition of heat affected
zone, and similar phenomena
 Weldability
Capacity of a metal or combination of metals to
be welded into a suitably designed structure,
and for the resulting weld joint(s) to possess
the required metallurgical properties to perform
satisfactorily in intended service

Good weldability characterized by:

Ease with which welding process is
accomplished

Absence of weld defects

Acceptable strength, ductility, and
toughness in welded joint
Weldability Factors – Welding Process

Some metals or metal combinations can be
readily welded by one process but are difficult
to weld by others

Example: stainless steel readily welded by
most AW and RW processes, but difficult to
weld by OFW
Weldability Factors – Base Metal

Some metals melt too easily; e.g., aluminum

Metals with high thermal conductivity transfer
heat away from weld, which causes
problems; e.g., copper

High thermal expansion and contraction in
metal causes distortion problems

Dissimilar metals pose problems in welding
when their physical and/or mechanical
properties are substantially different
Other Factors Affecting Weldability

Filler metal

Must be compatible with base metal(s)

In general, elements mixed in liquid state
that form a solid solution upon solidification
will not cause a problem

Surface conditions

Moisture can result in porosity in fusion
zone

Oxides and other films on metal surfaces
can prevent adequate contact and fusion
Design Considerations in Welding

Design for welding - product should be
designed from the start as a welded assembly,
and not as a casting or forging or other formed
shape

Minimum parts - welded assemblies should
consist of fewest number of parts possible

Example: usually more cost efficient to
perform simple bending operations on a part
than to weld an assembly from flat plates
and sheets
 Arc Welding Design Guidelines

Good fit-up of parts - to maintain
dimensional control and minimize distortion

Machining is sometimes required to
achieve satisfactory fit-up

Assembly must allow access for welding
gun to reach welding area

Design of assembly should allow flat
welding to be performed as much as
possible, since this is fastest and most
convenient welding position
 Arc Welding Positions

Flat welding is best position

Overhead welding is most difficult

Figure 31.35 Welding positions (defined here for groove

welds): (a) flat, (b) horizontal, (c) vertical, and (d)
overhead.
 Design Guidelines - RSW

Low-carbon sheet steel up to 0.125 (3.2 mm) is
ideal metal for RSW

How additional strength and stiffness can be
obtained in large flat sheet metal components

Spot welding reinforcing parts into them

Forming flanges and embossments

Spot welded assembly must provide access for
electrodes to reach welding area

Sufficient overlap of sheet metal parts required
for electrode tip to make proper contact