Chapter 5

Plastic Theory

CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞☞ Introduction ☞☞ Theorems of plastic analysis

☞☞ Plastic bending of beams ☞☞ Methods of plastic analysis
☞☞ Mechanism

Introduction NOTES
Plastic method of design, also known as ‘limit design’ or 1. In the above stress–strain curve, P is the proportion-
‘collapse method of design’, or ‘ultimate design’, is based on ality limit, Y1 is the upper yield point, Y2 is the lower
ultimate load rather than working load. This is just because yield point and U is the ultimate load point.
of the ductile nature of steel and, thus providing the large 2. The different zones in the stress–strain curve are e­ lastic
reserve strength beyond its yield point. This helps in reduc- zone (from O to point P: stress–strain r­ elationship is
ing the size of sections than those designed by working stress linear), yield zone (from point Y1 to Y2), plastic zone
method. Hence, the present chapter outlines the concept of (from point Y2 to C), strain hardening zone (from
plastic analysis and design of structural steel. point C to U) and Strain softening zone or necking
zone (from point U to B).

Stress–Strain Relation of Mild Steel But in plastic theory of structures, a simplified or idealized
stress–strain curves are used.
A simple stress–strain curve for mild steel is shown below:
True curve 250 250
Fail MPa
Apparent MPa
400
curve
U
Stress (MPa)

300 Y1
Stress

Stress

Fail
P B
Y2 C
200
0.12% 1% 2% 1% 2%
100 Strain Strain
(a) Elastic-Plastic (b) Rigid-Plastic
0 Idealized stress–strain relation for mild steel
0.12

10.0

20.0

30.0
2.0

•• It is on the safer side to assume that the material to be

Strain (%) perfectly elastic–plastic or rigid–plastic ignoring strain
Stress–strain curve for mild steel hardening.

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Plastic Bending of Beams •• Plastic moment Mp is given by:

Suppose a beam section subjected to an increase in bending Mp = fyZp
moment as shown in the following figure. Due to this, the
stress distribution will change as follows: Where
fy = Yield stress in structural steel
Elastic Stage (M < My)
Zp = Plastic section modulus of section
The maximum stress at extreme fibers will be within elastic
range if applied moment is less than the yield moment or at
low values of bending moment. Plastic Hinge
It can be defined as a yielded zone due to flexure in a struc-
Elastic–Plastic Stage (My < M < Mp) tural member in which infinite rotation can take place at a
There will be an yielding at extreme fibers if there is a fur- constant restraining moment Mp of the section.
ther increase in bending moment and there will be shifting
of neutral axis, i.e., neutral axis no longer passes through •• Plastic hinges are formed first at the sections subjected to
the centroid of the section. Location of neutral axis in any the greatest deformation (curvature).
case is such that the bending tensile and the compressive •• The possible places for plastic hinges in a structure are
forces on the section are equal. at the points of concentrated loads, at fixed or rigid sup-
ports, at the change of cross-sections and at the point of
Plastic Stage (M = Mp) zero shears.
In this stage, the entire cross-section will yield and act as a
plastic hinge. The corresponding bending moment is called Plastic Section Modulus
‘plastic moment of resistance’ or simply ‘plastic moment
The plastic moment of beam section is shown below.
(Mp)’. The neutral axis of fully plastic section passes
through the equal area axis.
C = fy A1
Equal area y1 A1
axis σ <σy σ <σy σ <σy σ =σy
y2 A2 T=
fy A2

CG Centroid
Plastic moment of a beam section
axis
•• At equilibrium condition:
Force in compression = Force in tension
σ <σy σ =σy σ =σy σ =σy
i.e., C = T
M < My M = My My < M < Mp M = Mp fyA1 = fyA2
Beam section Elastic Yield Elastic- Fully
under stage point plastic plastic A
bending (ii) (iii) stage stage =
A1 A=
2
(i) (iv) (v) 2
Plastic bending of beam
•• Therefore, areas above and below the neutral axis are
Assumptions equal and, hence, the neutral axis of plasticized section is
The assumptions made in plastic analysis of beams are as called ‘equal area axis’.
follows: A
•• Zp is given by, Z p = ( y1 + y2 )
1. Plane sections normal to the axis of beam remain 2
plane after bending.
Where
2. The material obeys the ideal stress–strain relationship. A = Area of cross-section of sections
The increase in strength due to strain hardening is
y1 , y2 = Distance of centre of gravity of area above
neglected.
and below the neutral axis.
3. Beam is not subjected to axial load and shear strains
are also neglected.
Hinge Length
Plastic Moment •• The value of moment at sections adjacent to the yield
•• The moment at which a plastic hinge is formed called zone of a certain length is known as hinge length.
‘plastic moment’ is denoted by Mp. •• It depends upon loading and geometry of section.

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 Chapter 5 ■ Plastic Theory | 3.433

•• Consider a simply supported rectangular beam with a •• This process of formation of plastic hinges will continue
central concentrated load ‘W’ as shown below. till the ultimate load is reached.
W •• Therefore, the flexural members can sustain the ultimate
Area of yielding
loads only due to redistribution of moments.
•• Redistribution of moments is the main contributing factor
in reserving strength.

Shape Factor
•• It may be defined as the ratio of the plastic moment and
the yield moment of the section.
x •• Denoted by S.

Mp fyZp Zp
=
S = =
Mp WL My f y Ze Ze
My My 4

L L Where, Ze and Zp are the elastic and plastic section

2 2 modulus.
•• It is a function of cross-section form or shape. It indicates
Hinge length a reserve capacity of section.
From bending-moment diagram: Shape factors

Mp My Shape Shape Factor

= b
L L x
−
2 2 2
WL
Where, M p =
4
bd 2 2 2 h
M y = f y Ze = f y × = fyZp = M p. 1.5
6 3 3
\ (L - x) Mp = LMy
On solving,
(a) Rectangle
L
x=
3

Therefore, the hinge length of the plastic zone is equal to

1
rd of the span.
3 h

NOTE 1.2

The plastic hinge length of a simply supported beam sub-

L b
jected to concentrated load is , and due to distributed
3 (b) Diamond
L
load it is .
3

Redistribution of Moments h
•• Plastic hinges are formed first at the highly stressed
2.34
sections. The sections rotate without absorbing any more
moment.
•• The less stressed sections will be in equilibrium. b
Successive formation plastic hinges occurs at these sec-
(c) Triangle
tions by proportionate increase in moment.
(Continued)

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(Continued) Where
Shape Shape Factor fy = Yield stress
f = Permissible stress
S = Shape factor
fy
d = Factor of safety as in elastic design
1.7 f
•• Therefore, the load factor may also be defined as the
product of factor of safety and shape factor.
(d) Circular rod •• It depends upon the nature of loading, the support condi-
tions and the geometrical shape of structural members.
Load Factor (F) (IS: 800–1984)
d
t Dead load 1.7
4
p Dead load + imposed load 1.7
Dead load + wind/seismic load 1.7
(e) Tubular Dead load + imposed load + wind/seismic load 1.3

•• When structures are subjected to wind, the corresponding

load factor for plastic design is reduced by 25%.

Mechanism
•• The conditions of mechanism occur when sufficient num-
1.14
ber of plastic hinges is formed and segments of the beam
between the plastic hinges are able to move without an
increase of load.
Wide flange
(Storng axis)
•• Number of plastic hinges required for mechanism are, N
= Ds + 1.
Ds = Degree of static Indeterminacy.

Types of Mechanisms
•• Various possible Independent mechanisms are as follows:
(a) Beam mechanism: All the loaded spans behave as
1.50 beam mechanism.
(b) Sway mechanism: It is a result of the lateral loads.
(c) Joint mechanism: It is due to action of moment and
Wide flange
the number of members meeting at a joint should be
(Weak axis) three or more.
(d) Gable mechanism: It occurs in gable frames.
•• Any of these two independent mechanisms may be com-
Load Factor bined to form composite (combined) mechanism.
•• It is a factor of safety based upon collapse load.
•• It may be defined as the ratio of the collapse load to the
working load.
Number of Independent Mechanisms
•• The prime function of load factor is to ensure the safety Number of Independent mechanisms, n = N - r
of structure under service conditions. Where
Collapse load (Wu ) N = Number of possible plastic hinges.
•• Denoted by F: F = r = Number of redundancies.
Working load (Ww )

Wu M p fy ⋅ Zp fy Conditions in Plastic Analysis

F= = = = S = FOS × S The conditions to be satisfied in plastic methods of analysis
Ww My f Ze f
are as follows:

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 Chapter 5 ■ Plastic Theory | 3.435

1. Equilibrium condition: SF = 0 and SM = 0 Methods of Plastic Analysis

2. Mechanism condition: Also called ‘continuity
Static Method
condition’, it arises due to formation of plastic hinges
and structure at collapse is capable of deforming as a The collapse load is determined by the following steps:
mechanism. 1. First, calculate the degree of indeterminacy. If it is
3. Yield condition: The bending moment at any section worked out as a redundant structure, then convert
should be less than or equal to the plastic moment of into determinate structure by removing the redundant
the section. It is called ‘plastic moment’ condition’. forces.
2. A bending-moment diagram (i.e., fixed BMD) for
Theorems of Plastic Analysis determinate structure is drawn.
Static or Lower Bound Theorem 3. Bending-moment diagram (i.e., fixed BMD) for
determinate structure with redundant forces is drawn.
•• Satisfies the equilibrium and yield condition.
•• In this, the value of the load ‘W’ must be less than or 4. The free BMD and fixed BMD are combined in such
equal to the collapse load (Wu). The moments should not a way that the mechanism is formed.
be greater than Mp. 5. By applying equilibrium equations, the value of
That is, W ≤ Wu and M >/ Mp collapse load is worked out.
•• Therefore, this method represents the lower limit to the
true ultimate load and has a maximum factor of safety.
Kinematic or Mechanism or Upper
Bound Methods
Kinematic or Upper Bound Theorem 1. In this method, locating the possible places of hinges
•• It satisfies the equilibrium and continuity conditions. such as load points, frame joints, maximum bending
•• In this, the value of load corresponding to any mechanism moment points, etc is the first requirement.
is greater than or equal to collapse load (Wu), i.e. W ≥ Wu 2. Select the independent and combined mechanism and
•• It represents an upper limit to the true ultimate load and the collapse load is worked out by using the virtual
has a smaller factor of safety. work principle.
Uniqueness Theorem 3. A bending-moment diagram corresponding to
collapse mechanism is drawn, and it is to be
•• It satisfies all the three conditions of plastic analysis.
checked that the bending moment at any point in a
•• A collapse load will be chosen in such a way that a bend-
structure should be less than the plastic moment at
ing moment will be equal to the fully plastic moment and
that point.
is sufficient to cause the failure as a mechanism.

Collapse load of standard cases

Concentrated Load at Centre
Simply Supported Beam Fixed Beam
W W

L L
2 2
L L
2 2
Mp
Mp
WuL
WuL W uL
Mp 4
4 8

. .
BMD at collapse
BMD at collapse
θ θ
θ θ Δ
Δ
θ
θ +θ θ

Beam mechanism Beam mechanism

(Continued)

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(Continued)
Concentrated Load at Centre
Static Method Static Method
Wu L Wu L
= Mp = 2M p
4 4

4M p 8M p
Wu = Wu =
L L
Kinematic Method Kinematic Method
External work done = Internal work done External work done = Internal work done

L L 
Wu   θ = M p(θ + θ ) Wu q = Mpq + Mp(q + q) + Mp . q
 2 2
4M p 8M p
Wu = Wu =
L L

Eccentric Load
Simply Supported Beam Fixed Beam
W W

a b

a b
Mp
Mp
Wuab2 Wua2b
Wuab
L2 L2
Mp L
BMD at collapse
BMD at collapse

θ θ1
θ θ1
θ1
θ1
θ
θ
Beam mechanism
Beam mechanism

Static Method Static Method

Wu ab Wu ab
= Mp = 2M p
L L

M pL 2M p L
Wu = Wu =
ab ab

Kinetic Method Kinematic Method

Wuaq = Mp(q + q1) Wuaq = Mpq + Mp(q + q1) + Mpq1

a
= Mp(q + q) a a
b Wuaq = Mpq + Mp(q + q) + Mp( q)
b b
L
Wu = M p L
ab Wu = 2 M p
ab

(Continued)

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(Continued)
Uniformly Load Distributed
Simply Supported Beam Fixed Beam

W W
w= w=
L L

L
L

Mp
WuL
Mp Mp WuL
8 WuL
8
12
BMD at collapse BMD at collapse

θ θ θ θ
Δ Δ

θ +θ θ +θ

Beam mechanism
Beam mechanism
Static Method Static Method
Wu L Wu L
= Mp = 2M p
8 8

8M p 16M p
Wu = Wu =
L L

Kinematic Method Kinematic Method

LL  LL 
Wu  θ  = M p(θ + θ ) Wu  θ  = M pθ + M p (θ + θ ) + M pθ
2 2  2 2 
8M p 16M p
Wu = Wu =
L L

Classification of Cross-sections Semi-compact Sections (Class 3)

Classification of cross-sections is done based on moment– •• Sections which cannot develop fully plastic moment and
rotation characteristics assuming that the flange or web plate stress at extreme fiber in compression can reach yield
does not buckle locally. stress due to local buckling are called ‘semi-compact or
The four different classes of cross-sections are: ‘non-compact sections.
•• These sections are used in elastic design and stress distri-
bution for such sections is triangular.
Plastic Section (Class 1)
•• Used in plastic analysis and design.
•• Can fully develop plastic hinges and failure of structure Slender Sections (Class 4)
by formation of a plastic mechanism. •• Cross-sections in which the elements buckle locally
•• Stress distribution for these sections is rectangular. even before attainment of yield stress are called
‘slender sections’.
Compact Section (Class 2) •• Used in cold-formed members.
•• Can develop plastic hinge, but do not have sufficient
plastic hinge rotation capacity for formation of a plastic NOTE
mechanism before buckling are called ‘compact sections’.
Only plastic and compact sections should be used in limit
•• These may develop fully plastic stress distribution (i.e.,
state design and only plastic sections can be used in mech-
rectangular) across the entire cross-section, but do not
anism forming indeterminate frames.
have adequate ductility.

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Exercises
1. The number of independent mechanisms the gable The length Lp of the plastic zone, when the maximum
frame will have when loaded as shown is bending moment, equals the plastic moment Mp, given
P P by

c
P
P/2 b d

LP
a e
L

(A) 2 (B) 3
Lp 1 Lp
(C) 4 (D) 5 (A) = (B) = L(1 - f  )
2. Equilibrium condition, yield conditions (M ≤ Mp) and L f L
mechanism condition (formation of a plastic collapse
Lp 1 Lp 1
mechanism) are the conditions to be satisfied by any (C) = 1− (D) = 1−
correct plastic analysis results. Which of the above L f L f
conditions does the statical method of plastic analysis
7. A steel beam (with a constant EI, and span L) is fixed
consider?
at both ends and carries a uniformly distributed load
(A) Equilibrium condition alone
(w kN-m), which is gradually increased till the beam
(B) Equilibrium and mechanism conditions
reaches the stage of plastic collapse (refer to the fol-
(C) Yield and mechanism conditions
lowing figure). Assuming ‘B’ to be at mid-span, which
(D) Equilibrium and yield conditions
of the following is true.
3. For a fixed beam with span L, having plastic moment
capacity of Mp, the ultimate central concentrated load w kN/m
will be
4M p Mp
(A) (B)
L 8L A B C

6M p 8M p
(C) (D) L/2 L/2
L L
4. The plastic modulus of a section is 4.8 × 10–4 m3. The (A) Hinges are formed at A, B and C together.
shape factor is 1.2. The plastic moment capacity of the
(B) Hinges are formed at B and then at A and C
section is 120 kN-m. The yield stress of the material is
together.
(A) 100 MPa (B) 240 MPa
(C) 250 MPa (D) 300 MPa (C) Hinges are formed at A and C together and then
at B.
5. The shape factor of the section shown in the figure is (D) Hinges are formed at A and C only.

h 8. A cantilever beam of length l, width b and depth d is

X X
loaded with a concentrated vertical load at the tip. If
h
yielding starts at a load P, the collapse load shall be
(A) 2.0P
(B) 1.5P
b
(C) 1.2P
(A) 1.5 (B) 1.12 (D) P
(C) 2 (D) 1.7 9. When the triangular section of a beam as shown in the
6. A cantilever beam of length L and a cross-section following figure becomes a plastic hinge, the compres-
with shape factor ‘f ’ supports a concentrated load P as sive force acting on the section (with sy denoting the
shown in the following figure: yield stress) becomes

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 Chapter 5 ■ Plastic Theory | 3.439

100 mm

h 20 mm

100 mm
b

bhσ y 2bhσ y 20 mm
(A) (B)
4 9
(A) 15 mm
bhσ y bhσ y (B) 60 mm
(C) (D) (C) 20 mm
2 3
(D) 40 mm
10. At the location of plastic hinge
16. The number of possible independent mechanisms for a
(A) radius of curvature is infinite. portal frame shown in the figure is
(B) curvature is infinite.
(C) moment is infinite. 2P
(D) flexural stress is infinite.
2P
11. Which one of the following is the load factor?
Live load Failure load
(A) (B)
Dead load Working load

Total load Dynamic load

(C) (D)
Dead load Static load
(A) 1 (B) 3
12. The collapse load of a simply supported beam of span
(C) 4 (D) 2
L and fully plastic moment Mp subjected to central con-
centrated load is given by 17. The plastic modulus of a section is 4.5 × 10-4 m3. The
shape factor is 1.5. The plastic moment capacity of the
4M p 6M p section is 150 kN-m. The yield stress of the material in
(A) (B)
L L MPa is ______.
(A) 120 (B) 300
8M p 2M p (C) 330 (D) 250
(C) (D)
L L 18. A continuous beam with constant EI is shown in
13. A structure has two degrees of indeterminacy. The the given figure. Collapse load for this beam will be
number of plastic hinges that would be formed at com- equal to
plete collapse is P P
(A) 0 (B) 1
(C) 2 (D) 3 MP MP

14. A propped cantilever beam AB of length ‘L’ fixed at ‘A’

2L L/3 L L/2
and propped at B is subjected to a concentrated load 3 2
‘w’ at its centre. By kinematic approach calculate the
ultimate collapse load (w) in terms of Mp. 7.5 M p 12M p
(A) (B)
2M p 6M p L L
(A) w = (B) w =
L L 16M p 6M p
(C) (D)
4M p 8M p L L
(C) w = (D) w =
L L 19. Match List I (Beam) with List II (collapse load) and
15. The distance of plastic neutral axis from top of select the correct answer using the codes given below
T-section shown in the following figure: the lists:

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List I List II 12 8
(A) Mp (B) Mp
a. Simply supported beam with a central L L
8M p
point load. 1.
L 6 3
(C) Mp (D) Mp
b. Fixed beam with a central point load
L L
6M p 22. Given figure shows a portal frame with load. All mem-
2.
L bers have the same plastic moment of resistance Mp.
c. Propped cantilever with a central The ratio P1 to P2 for beam and sway mechanism is
4M p _______.
point load 3.
L P1

Codes:
a b c a b c P2
(A) 3 1 2 (B) 3 2 1
(C) 2 1 3 (D) 1 2 3

20. Find the ratio of W1 to W2 for beam and sway mecha-

L
nism for a portal frame shown below.
W1

W2
MP
L/2 L/2

MP MP L
(A) 1 (B) 2
(C) 3 (D) 4
23. A portal frame has a collapse mechanism as shown
L/2 L/2 below. What is the type?

(A) 1 (B) 1.5

(C) 2 (D) 3
21. A propped cantilever beam of uniform moment capac-
ity Mp is shown in the given figure:
W

L/4 (A) Pure portal mechanism

L (B) Panel mechanism
(C) Dual beam mechanism
What is the collapse load W?
(D) Combined mechanism

Previous Years’ Questions

1. The plastic collapse load Wp for the propped cantile- 3M p 4M p
ver supporting two point loads as shown in the figure (A) (B)
L L
in terms of plastic moment capacity, Mp is given by
5M p 6M p
 [GATE, 2007] (D) (D)
L L
W W
2. The shape of the cross-section, which has the largest
L/3 L/3 L/3 shape factor, is [GATE, 2008]
(A) rectangular (B) I-section
(C) diamond (D) solid circular
B

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 Chapter 5 ■ Plastic Theory | 3.441

3. In the theory of plastic bending of beams, the ratio of 7. For formation of collapse mechanism in the follow-
plastic moment to yield moment is called ing figure, the minimum value of Pu is cMp/L. Mp
 [GATE, 2009] and 3Mp denote the plastic moment capacities of
(A) shape factor beam sections as shown in this figure. The value of c
(B) plastic section modulus is ______. [GATE, 2015]
(C) modulus of resilience
Pu
(D) rigidity modulus
4. As per IS:800–2007 the cross-section in which 1m 1m
extreme fiber can reach the yield stress but cannot
develop the plastic moment of resistance due to local MP
3 MP
buckling is classified as  [GATE, 2013]
2m
(A) plastic section
(B) compact section
(C) semi-compact section 8. The semi-compact section of a laterally unsupported
(D) shear section steel beam has an elastic section modulus, plastic sec-
5. Match the information given in List I with those in tion modulus and design bending compressive stress
List II. [GATE, 2014] of 500 cm3, 650 cm3 and 200 MPa, respectively. The
design flexural capacity (expressed in kN-m) of the
List I List II
section is ______. [GATE, 2016]
P. Factor to decrease ultimate 1. Upper bound on
strength to design strength ultimate load 9. A rigid member ACB is shown in the figure. The
Q. Factor to increase working 2. Lower bound on member is supported at A and B by pinned and guided
load to ultimate load for ultimate load roller supports, respectively. A force P acts at C as
design shown. Let RAh and RBh be the horizontal reactions at
R. Statical method of ultimate 3. Material partial supports A and B, respectively, and RAv be the vertical
load analysis safety factor reaction at support A. Self-weight of the member may
S. Kinematical mechanism 4. Load factor be ignored. [GATE, 2016]
method of ultimate load
analysis
B
P
(A) P - 1; Q - 2; R - 3; S - 4 2m

(B) P - 2; Q - 1; R - 4; S - 3 C
(C) P - 3; Q - 4; R - 2; S - 1
(D) P - 4; Q - 3; R - 2; S - 1
6m
6. The ultimate collapse load (P) in terms of plastic
moment Mp by kinematic approach for a propped
cantilever of length L with P acting at its mid-span as
shown in the figure, would be [GATE, 2014] A
P
1.5 m 1.5 m
X Y
L L Which one of the following sets gives the correct
2 2 magnitudes of RAv, RBh and RAh?

2M p 1 2
(A) R=
Av = 0; RBh =P ; and RAh P
(A) P = 3 3
L
4M p 2 1
=
(B) R Av = 0; RBh = P; and RAh P
(B) P = 3 3
L
6M p 3 1.5
(C) R=
Av = P; RBh =P; and RAh P
(C) P = 8 8
L
8M p RAv = P; RBh 1=
(D) = .5
P; and RAh
1.5
P
(D) P = 8 8
L

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10. A propped cantilever of span L carries a vertical con- P

centrated load at the mid-span. If the plastic moment 2L
capacity of the section is Mp, the magnitude of the 3
collapse load is [GATE, 2016]
MP
6M p 2MP
(A) 8 M p (B)
L L L
L
2M p
(C) 4 M p (D)
L L The minimum value of load (P) at which the beam
11. A fixed-end beam is subjected to a concentrated load would collapse (ultimate load) is
(P) as shown in the figure. The beam has two different (A) 7.5Mp/L (B) 5.0Mp/L
segments having different plastic moment capacities (C) 4.5Mp/L (D) 2.5Mp/L
(Mp, 2Mp) as shown. [GATE, 2016]

Answer Keys

Exercises
1. C 2. D 3. D 4. C 5. C 6. D 7. C 8. B 9. A 10. B
11. B 12. A 13. D 14. B 15. C 16. D 17. C 18. D 19. A 20. C
21. C 22. B 23. D

Previous Years’ Questions

1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. C 6. C 7. 0.09 to 0.10 8. 90.91
9. D 10. B 11. A

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