Class Points

Module 8: Kinetics Of Particles

Swagata Bhaumik
Part-1: Kinetics Of A Particle
ntroduction
• Dynamics includes:
- Kinematics: study of the geometry of motion. Kinematics is used to
relate displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time without reference to
the cause of motion.
- Kinetics: study of the relations existing between the forces acting on a
body, the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. Kinetics is used
to predict the motion caused by given forces or to determine the forces
required to produce a given motion.

• Rectilinear motion: position, velocity, and acceleration of a particle as it

moves along a straight line.
We are considering here either
A particle of unchanged mass 𝑚! , (**) or,
A body whose mass 𝑚" , that is not changing and is effectively
centered at a particle point, i.e., at its center of mass (CM).

(**) As per the classical mechanics, elementary particles are

effectively isolated systems, so, their mass do not change.
Kinetics Of A Particle – Inertial Fixed Reference Frame (IFRF)
!
y ap
!
vp

P m
x

z
 Equations Of Motion In Rectangular Co-ordinate System
tion F2
ma
y several forces. Recall that
equation =
(12.2) F1
m m
to the vector ma (Fig. 12.8).† Fig. 12.8 The sum of forces ! applied to a
! dL !
ll use in solving dynamics
Newton's)2nd)Law)provides:)
particle of mass m∑ F=
produces =amvector
a ma in
on’s second law, are the free- the direction of the resultant dt force.
se diagrams will helpResolving*into*components:*
you to
ate equations of [Link] ˆ dLx ˆ dLy dLz
∑ x i + Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ = i+ ĵ + k̂ = m axiˆ + ay ĵ + az k̂
( )
Fig. 12.9 is no different from dt dt dt
nsists of the following∴steps: dL dL
!F = x = ma F = y = ma F = z = ma
dL
x x y y z z
dt dt dt
Kinetic diagramwhere,!Lx = mvx , !Ly = mvy !and!!Lz = mvz .
Kinetics Of A Particle in Inertial Fixed Reference Frame – Radial And Azimuthal System
!
a(t)
y y
!
eθ (t) aθ 2 = 2 r!θ! Fr
!
er (t)
! ! aθ 1 = rθ!! ar1 = !!
r
r = r er P
P ar 2 = −rθ! 2
!
r (t) !
r (t) Fθ
θ x θ x
O O
 Kinetics Of A Particle – Tangential And Normal Force Components
y y dv
! at =
et dt
! v2
an =
en ρ !
v(t)

P P
Fn
Ft
O x x
O
 forces and the acceleration of the particle into components along the
Vector Mechanics
tangent to the pathfor
(in Engineers: Dynamics
the direction of motion) and the normal (toward
Equations
Equationsthe
ofinside
Motion Of path)
of the Motion([Link] Normal
12.10). And Tangential
Substituting into Eq. (12.2), we obtain
Components
the two scalar equations
• Newton of law provides
s second
! !
∑ F = ma
oFt 5 mat oFn 5 man (12.9)
• Solution for particle motion is facilitated
n by resolving
n
vector equation into scalar component equations, e.g.,
ΣFrectangular
for n components, ma n
t t
" " " " " "
( ) ( )
=
∑ Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = m a x i + a y j + a z k ma t
ΣFt
∑ Fx = ma x ∑ Fy = ma y ∑ Fz = ma zm
∑ Fm
x = m!x! ∑ Fy = m!y! ∑ Fz = m!z!
Fig. 12.10 The net force acting on a particle moving in
• For tangential and normal components,
a curvilinear path can be resolved into components Photo 12.3
tangent ∑ toFthe
t = ma
path ∑ Fnormal
t and n = manto the path, producing turn has a l
tangential and normal
dv v 2 of acceleration.
components acceleration
∑Ft = m ∑Fn = m result, the p
dt ρ
Now substituting for at and an from Eqs. (11.39), we have force, which
dv v2 blackouts.
oFt 5 m oFn 5 m (12.99)
dt ρ 12 - 7
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Dynamic Equilibrium
Dynamic Equilibrium (D’Alembert’s Principle)
• Alternate expression of Newton s second law,
! !
∑ F − ma = 0
!
− ma ≡ inertial vector
• With the inclusion of the inertial vector, the system
of forces acting on the particle is equivalent to
zero. The particle is in dynamic equilibrium.
• Methods developed for particles in static
equilibrium may be applied, e.g., coplanar forces
may be represented with a closed vector polygon.
• Inertia vectors are often called inertial forces as
they measure the resistance that particles offer to
changes in motion, i.e., changes in speed or
direction.
• Inertial forces may be conceptually useful but are
not like the contact and gravitational forces found
in statics.
12 - 8
 Relative-Motion Equation About Translating Frame
• Consider a particle A of mass m, whose motion is observed from a set of
axes x → y → z which translate with respect to a fixed reference frame
X → Y → Z. Thus, the x → y → z directions always remain parallel to the
X → Y → Z directions.
• The acceleration of the origin B of x → y → z is ωaB .

• The acceleration of A as observed from or relative to ωarel is ωarel = ωaA/B =

r̈A/B . Therefore,
ωaA = ωaB + ωaA/B
!
ω = mωaA = m(ωaB + ωaA/B )
F

• So, Newton’s second "law does not hold with respect to an accel-
erating system since ω ↑= mωarel , but,
F
𝑑 !
⟹ # 𝑭 + 𝑭!"#$%& = 𝑳'#( ω → mωaB = mωarel
F
𝑑𝑡 The Pseudo-force
The term (→mωaB ) is called the Pseudo-Force. is zero, if 𝑎⃑! = 0.
Problem-2

The 5.4 kg block B starts from rest and slides on the 13.6 kg wedge
A, which is supported by a horizontal surface.
Neglecting friction, determine (a) the acceleration of the wedge,
and (b) the acceleration of the block relative to the wedge.
Free-body diagrams of A and B
3/67 The hollow tube assembly rotates about a vertical Problem 3/
axis with angular velocity " ! !˙ ! 4 rad/s and
˙ ! !¨ ! "2 rad/s2. A small 0.2-kg slider P moves in-
" 3/69 Explain how to utilize the
side the horizontal tube portion under the control of measure the speed of a veh
the string which passes out the bottom of the assem- zontal circular arc of known
bly. If r !0.8 m, ṙ ! "2 m/s, and r̈ ! 4 m/s2, deter-
mine the tension T in the string and the horizontal
force F! exerted on the slider by the tube.
O

ω
θ

P
Problem 3/

T
force F! exerted on the slider by the tube. force F! exerted on the slider by the tube.
O

l
ω ω
θ
m
r r

T = mar
P P
Problem 3/69

N maθ
T T

Here,%we%have:
Problem 3/67 Problem 3/67
r − rθ! 2 )!!and!!N = maθ = m(rθ!! + 2 r!θ! )
T = mar = m(!!
disk, which rotates about a vertical axis through
point O. The slider is free to move slightly along the
slot before one of the wires becomes taut. If the disk
starts from rest at time t " 0 and has a constant
clockwise angular acceleration of 0.5 rad/s2, plot the
tensions in wires 1 and 2 and the magnitude N of
the force normal to the slot as functions of time t for
the interval 0 ! t ! 5 s.

··
θ
2

1 100 mm
45°
O
·· N T2 ··
θ θ
2 2
mrθ!!
1 100 mm1 100 mm
mrθ! 2
T1 45° 45°
O
= O

Here, the block is stationary w.r.t. the rotating disk.

Problem 3/71 Problem 3/71
θ!! = Const. = C!(say) ⇒ θ! = Ct + C2 = Ct!(As!C2 =0)
 clockwise angular acceleration of 0.5 rad/s2, plot the
tensions in wires 1 and 2 and the magnitude N of
the force normal to the slot as functions of time t for
Suppose the
thebody was free
interval 0 ! to
t !move
5 s. along the slot, what would
have been the procedure to solve it?

··
θ
2

1 100 mm
45°
O
·· N Fs ·· 2mx!θ! m!!
x
θ θ
2 2
mrθ!!
1 100 mm1 100 mm
x mrθ! 2
45° 45°
O
= O

Therefore, we have to incorporate Coriolis Force and the

acceleration of the block inside the slider.
Problem 3/71 Problem 3/71
 with constant from its horizontal position at A onto the parabolic
ng has a stiff- path, which lies in a vertical plane. Neglect friction
when " ! 0. and show that the cart maintains contact with the
kg. Determine path for all values of k.
erts on A and
des of the slot A
h. Neglect the x

y = kx 2
θ

Problem 3/96
d normal force N which the cam exerts on A and
ot the force R exerted onA A by the sides of the slot A
een " ! 45!. All surfaces are smooth. Neglect the x x
all diameter of the roller.
N
B

mg
A cos
θ θ
θ
y = kx 2 = man y = kx 2

mat
mg mgsin θ
y y
O
Therefore,(we(have:(
Problem 3/96 Problem 3/96

v2 dv
mg cosθ − N = man = m (((and(((mgsin θ = mat = m
0.1 0.1
ρ dt
m m 3/2
#$1+ y"2 %& dy d 2
y
Problem 3/94
Where,(( tan θ = y"; ((ρ = ; (y" = ((and(y"" = 2 (
ymall collar of mass m is given an initial velocity y"" dx dx
 ds dv dv ds dv d ! v 2 $
Note%that,%%v = .!Therefore,! = =v = # &
dt dt ds dt ds ds " 2 %
dy dy
Also%note%that,%% tan θ = y' = .!!Therefore,! sin θ =
dx ds
as,$$ds = ( )
1+ y'2 dx!

dv dy d ! v2 $
mgsin θ = mat = m ⇒ mg = m # & ⇒ v = 2gy
dt ds ds " 2 %
! $
! v2 $ # g 2gyy'' &
Now show that N = m # g cosθ − & = m # − 3&
≥0
ρ% 2
" # 1+ y'
" ( )
1+ y'2 &
%

The last part can also be obtained from conservation of energy,

which would be discussed later.
Problem-6
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Sample Problem 12.7
• Integrate the radial equation to find an
expression for the radial velocity.
dv dv dr dv
!r! = v!r = r = r = vr r
dt dr dt dr
dv dv dr dv
!r! = v!r = r = r = vr r
dt dr dt dr
vr dvr = rθ! 2 dr = rθ!02 dr
SOLUTION: vr r
2
• Write the radial and transverse ∫ vr dvr = θ!0 ∫ r dr
equations of motion for the block. 0 r0

∑ Fr = m ar : 0 = m(!r! − rθ )
!2 (
vr2 = θ 02 r 2 − r02 )
∑ F θ = m aθ : F = m(rθ!! + 2r!θ! ) • Substitute known information into the
transverse equation to find an expression
for the force on the block.
2 12
F = 2mθ 02 (r 2
− r0 )
12 - 27
 Part-2:
Moment and Angular Momentum Of A Particle
 Kinetics Of A Particle – Angular Momentum And Moment
About Inertial Fixed Reference Frame (IFRF)
y !
ap
!
vp
! P
rp m

O
x

𝑂
 Kinetics Of A Particle – Angular Momentum And Moment
About Inertial Fixed Reference Frame (IFRF)

𝑂
𝑂

𝑂 𝑂
𝑂
 $
• The above relationship of 𝑴# = 𝑯# is obtained for a
$%
fixed reference frame.

• This relationship when extended to system of particles, rigid

or non-rigid, provides one of the powerful tool in dynamics.

• Remember, this is not a Law. Rather this is derived from the

Newton’s 2nd law.

• The above relation also holds for a translating Frame, if it is

moving at a Constant Velocity.
 city v of the particle by its mass m. The moment
Kinetics Of A Particle – Angular Momentum And Moment
mv is called the moment of momentum, or the
About Inertial Fixed Reference Frame (IFRF)
f the particle about O at that instant and is denoted
nition of the moment of a vector (Sec. 3.1E) and y
tor of P by r. Then we have
HO mv

HO 5 r 3 mv (12.13) f

P
or perpendicular to the plane containing r and mv r
O x

HO 5 rmv sin f (12.14)

z
etween r and mv (Fig. 12.12). We can determine
Fig. 12.12 The angular momentum vector of
the sense of mv by applying the right-hand rule. a particle is the vector product of the
omentum is obtained by multiplying the units of position vector r and the linear momentum
mentum (Sec. 12.1C). In SI units, we have vector mv.

(m)(kg?m/s) 5 kg?m2/s
s, we have
 Conservation Of Angular Momentum Of A ParticleMotion
12.2B Under a Centra
y
and Conservation of An
Momentum
P When the only force acting on a particle P is a force
or away from a fixed point O, the particle is said to b
F central force, and the point O is referred to as th
(Fig. 12.14). Since the line of action of F passes throug
O
12.2 Angular Momentum and Orbital Motion
x 765 oMO 5 0 at any given instant. Substituting into Eq. (1
.
mv HO 5 0
z
central force for all values of t and, integrating in t,
Fig. 12.14 The central force Fφacts towards
the center of force O. P HO 5 constant
of a particle
r mv 0

φ0
(12.22) O r0 P0

e perpendicular
bee87342_ch12_718-[Link] 764
force moves in Fig. 12.15 Angular momentum of a particle
fixed plane are moving in a fixed plane under the action of a
 Angular Momentum in Radial And Azimuthal System
!
y a(t)
y
! aθ 2 = 2 r!θ! Fr
eθ (t) !
er (t)
! ! aθ 1 = rθ!!
r = r er ar1 = !!
r
P P
! ar 2 = −rθ! 2
r (t)
! Fθ
θ r (t)
x θ x
O O
Angular Momentum And Moment About Non-Inertial Reference Frame (NRF)
translating (TRF)

(1)

𝑭!"#$%& = −𝑚𝑎⃑)!

TRF

(2)
Angular Momentum And Moment About Translating Reference Frame

(3)

TRF

(3),
TRF
TRF
Part-3: Work-Energy Theorem For A Particle
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Work of a Force
!
• Differential vector dr is the particle displacement.

• Work of the force is

! !
dU = F • dr
= F ds cos α
= Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz

• Work is a scalar quantity, i.e., it has magnitude and

sign but not direction.

• Dimensions of work are length × force. Units are

1 J ( joule) = (1 N )(1 m)

We are only considering, a fixed inertial frame of reference.

13 - 4
 Work of a Force
• Work of a force during a finite displacement,
A2 !
!
U1→2 = ∫ F • dr
A1
s2 s2
= ∫ (F cos α )ds = ∫ Ft ds
s1 s1
A2
(
= ∫ Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz )
A1

• Work is represented by the area under the

curve of Ft plotted against s.

In general, the work done is a Path Function. But for certain cases, it also
becomes the Point Function. The latter is called the Conservative
13 -Field.
5
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Work of a Force
• Work of a constant force in rectilinear motion,
U1→2 = (F cos α ) Δx

• Work of the force of gravity,

dU = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz
= −W dy
y2
U1→2 = − ∫ W dy
y1
= −W ( y 2 − y1 ) = −W Δy

• Work of the weight is equal to product of

weight W and vertical displacement Δy.

• Work of the weight is positive when Δy < 0,

i.e., when the weight moves down.
13 - 6
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Work of a Force
• Magnitude of the force exerted by a spring is
proportional to deflection,
F = kx
k = spring constant (N/m or lb/in.)
• Work of the force exerted by spring,
dU = − F dx = − kx dx
x2
U1→2 = − ∫ kx dx = 12 kx12 − 12 kx22
x1

• Work of the force exerted by spring is positive

when x2 < x1, i.e., when the spring is returning to
its undeformed position.

• Work of the force exerted by the spring is equal to

negative of area under curve of F plotted against x,
U1→2 = − 12 (F1 + F2 ) Δx

13 - 7
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Work of a Force

Work of a gravitational force (assume particle M

occupies fixed position O while particle m follows path
shown),
Mm
dU = − Fdr = −G 2 dr
r
r2
Mm Mm Mm
U1→2 = − ∫ G dr = G −G
r1 r2 r2 r1

13 - 8
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Work of a Force

Forces which do not do work (ds = 0 or cos α = 0):

• reaction at frictionless pin supporting rotating body,

• reaction at frictionless surface when body in contact

moves along surface,

• reaction at a roller moving along its track, and

• weight of a body when its center of gravity moves

horizontally.

13 - 9
 ! B
Work-Energy Theorem: A dr

! A2
F
A1
 Applications of the Principle of Work an
Applications of the Principle of Work and Energy:

• Wish to determine ve
at A2. Consider work
!
• Force P acts normal
work.
T1 + U1→2 = T2
The pendulum starts from rest (v1 = 0). Now 1W
0 + Wl =
#1 2 1 2&
WP1→2 + Ww1→2 = % mv 2 − mv1 ( 2
$2 2 '
! v2 = 2
where WP1→2 and Ww1→2 are work dome by the force P and the
!
weight W = mg, respectively. Force P acts normal •to Velocity
path and found witho
expression for accele
does no work. Also, Ww1→2 = mgl. As, v1 = 0, we get: v2 = 2gl
Sample Problem: Sample Problem 13.1
SOLUTION:
• Evaluate the change
• Determine the dista
work to equal the ki

An automobile Anweighing 17793weighing

automobile N is driven17793
down Na 5isdegree
incline at a speed of 96 km/hr when the brakes are applied
driven down a 5o incline at a speed of
causing a constant total breaking force of 6672 N.
96 km/hr when the brakes are applied
Determine the distance traveled by the automobile as it comes
to a stop. causing a constant total breaking force
of 6672 N.
Determine the distance traveled by the
Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Sample Problem 13.1
SOLUTION:
• Evaluate the change in kinetic energy.

T1 = 12 mv12 = 1
2
(17793 / 9.81)(26.7)2 = 646506.2 N ⋅ m
m

v2 = 0 T2 = 0
• Determine the distance required for the work
to equal the kinetic energy change.

U 1→2 = −6672x + (17793 sin5°) x = -5121.2x

T1 + U 1→2 = T2

646506.2 − 5121.26 = 0
x = 126.2 m
13 - 15
 Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Concept Of Potential Energy
Potential Energy
!
curved path • Work of the force of gravity W,
(Fig. 13.4). U1→2 = W y1 − W y2
f gravity W
A2 • Work is independent of path followed; depends
W
(13.4) only on the initial and final values of Wy.
V g = Wy
value of the
dy
rom its value A = potential energy of the body with respect
ndent of the y2 to force of gravity.
nal values of A1 U1→2 = (Vg ) − (Vg )
y 1 2
of the body
We have y1
• Choice of datum from which the elevation y is
measured is arbitrary.
Fig. 13.4 (repeated)
• UnitsFunction.
In general, the work done is a Path of work and potential
But forenergy are thecases,
certain same: it also
(13.16)
becomes the Point Function. The latter
Vg =isWycalled
= N ⋅ m the
= J Conservative Field.
the potential 13 - 28
 rk of W is
l energy Vg Concept Of Potential •Energy:
PreviousGravitational
expression for potential
Force energy of a
body with respect to gravity is only valid when
y its weight the weight of the body can be assumed constant.
al value of
or datum, A2 • For a space vehicle, the variation of the force of
ily. Finally, gravity with distance from the center of the earth
should be considered.
ork, i.e., in
mary units. dr A'
• Work of a gravitational force,
respect to r2 m GMm GMm
of the body r A
U1→2 =
rr2
−
rr12
(
= Vg1 −Vg2 )
y are small 1
dθ
hicle, how- • Potential energy Vg when the variation in the
F force of gravity can not be neglected,
e of gravity
–F A1
on obtained GMm WR 2
r1 Vg = − =−
g. 13.6) θ r r
M 13 - 29
O
(13.7)
Fig. 13.6 (repeated)
 Concept Of Potential Energy: Elastic Spring Force

A2 (x2 , y2 )

FS2

FS1

A1 (x1, y1 )

Work done by an elastic spring force is also independent of the path

and only depends on the initial and final location of the body.
 F

Undeformed length
Concept Of PotentialF =Energy:
kx
Elastic
O Spring Force1 2
(Ve)1 = k x1
2
1
(Ve)2 = k x22
2

Vector Mechanics
x for Engineers:
–U Dynamics
2 1 2

Potential Energy
x 1
x
x1
•13.2Work
Conservation of Energy
of the 829
x 2 force exerted by a spring depends
A1 A2
F
only on the initial and final deflections of the
(a) (b)
spring,
med length F = kx 1 2 1 2
Fig. 13.10 (a) The equation for potential energy of a springU1→force
2 = is kx1 −if2the
2 valid
kx2spring
1 2
stretches when rotated about a fixed end; = the
(Ve)1 (b) k x1 work of the elastic force depends only
2
on the initial and final deflections of the spring.
1 2
(Ve)2 = k x2
• The potential energy of the body
2
y with respect
–U1 A 2(x2 , y2 , z 2 )
x2
*13.2B Conservative
2
Forces to the elastic force,
F
1 2
As indicated in the preceding section, a force F actingVon kx
e =a 2particle A is
x
said to be conservative
x1 if its work U1y2 is independent U1→2of= the
(Ve )path
− (Ve )2
followed by the particle A as it moves from A to A (Fig. 13.11a). 1 We A(x, y, z)
x2 1 2
A2
then have A 1(x1, y1, z 1)
(b) • Note that the preceding expression
O for V is
 Vector
g force is valid if the spring
Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics
Concept Of Potential Energy
Conservative Forces
the elastic force depends only

y
• Concept of potential energy can be applied if the
A 2(x2 , y2 , z 2 )
work of the force is independent of the path
F
followed by its point of application.
n a particle A is
U1→2 = V (x1 , y1 , z1 ) − V (x2 , y2 , z 2 )
ent of the path
Fig. 13.11a). We A(x, y, z) Such forces are described as conservative forces.
A 1(x1, y1, z 1) • For any conservative force applied on a closed path,
O x ! !
x2, y2, z2) (13.19) ∫ F • dr = 0
(a)
z
• Elementary work corresponding to displacement
y between two neighboring points,
F
(13.199) dU = V (x, y, z ) − V (x + dx, y + dy, z + dz )
tential function, = −dV (x, y, z )
A(x, y, z)
' ∂V ∂V ∂V $
is, if the particle Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz = −% dx + dy + dz "
and the work is A 1(x1, y1, z 1) & ∂x ∂y ∂z #
O
!" F! = −# '%∂V
x
∂V ∂V ∂V $ & V
+ ∂V+ ∂V
" = − grad
(b) F = − % & ∂xiˆ +∂y ĵ∂+z # k̂ ( = −grad (V ) = −∇V
(13.20) z $ ∂x ∂y ∂z '
13 - 31
Principal Of Conservation Of Mechanical Energy For A Particle:
Constant-Velocity, Nonrotating
Systems (Page-246)
 Problem-1

A 1-lb collar is attached to a spring and slides without friction along a circular rod in a
vertical plane. The spring has an undeformed length of 5 in. and a constant k=10 lb/ft.
Knowing that the collar is released from being held at A, determine the speed of the collar
and the normal force between the collar and the rod as the collar passes through B.
 N

Fs

W v

Here,%Fs %and%W %are%conservative%forces.%

The%normal%reaction%N %does%not%do%any%work.%
So,%total%mechanical%energy%is%conserved.%
1 1 2
⇒ % k(x − x0 ) + Wy + mv = Const.
2

2 2
 N

Fs
an
W
= W at

To#find#the#normal#reaction,#one#needs#to#do#force#balance
dv v2
Now,# at = #and##an =
dt R
Motion of a body under central force: Planetary
Motion
 Conservation Of Angular Momentum Under Central Force: Constancy Of Areal Velocity
.
2
rθ5h (12.25)
r dq P’
ting geometric interpretation. Note from
r OP sweeps across an infinitesimal area dA
h an angle dθ. Then, defining the areal P
dq
F
quotient dA/dt, we see that the left-hand r
wice the areal velocity of the particle. We
q
O
r a central force, its areal velocity is Fig. 12.16 When a particle move
central force, its areal velocity is c
Conservation Of Angular Momentum And Planetary Motion:
Kepler’s law
M1M 2
Fr = G 2
r
Planet

Orbit of the planet

Sun

Planetary motion where angular momentum is conserved.

Since Fθ = 0, H 0 = mr 2θ! = Const. or r 2θ! = Const.

( )
dA 1 2 !
As the Areal Velocity = r θ = Const.
dt 2
 Motion of a Single Body
Under Gravitational Force

2 Motion of a body under a central force

• Consider a particle of mass m, moving under the action of the central gravitational attraction
ω = →(Gmm0 /r2 )êr , where m0 is the mass of the attracting body, which is assumed to be fixed,
F
G is the universal gravitational constant, and r is the distance between the centers of the masses.
mm0
m(r̈ → rε̇2 ) = →G · · · (1)
r2
m(2ṙε̇ + rε̈) = 0 · · · (2)
r2 ε̇ = h = Constant · · · (3)

• Substitute
• Substitute
1 1 u̇ du
r= ↑ ṙ = → 2 u̇ = →r2 u̇ ↑ ṙ = →h = →h · · · (4)
u u ε̇ dε
! " ! " ! "
d du d du d2 u h 2
2 2d u
↭ r̈ = →h = →h ε̇ = →h 2 = →h u · · · (5)
dt dε dε dε dε r2 dε2

• Therefore, from Eqs. (1,4,5) we get,

2
2 2d u 1 2 4 2
→h u → h u = →Gm0 u · · · (6)
dε2 u
d2 u Gm0
↑ + u = · · · (7)
dε2 h2

• This is 2nd -order inhomogeneous ODE. The general solution is given as

1 Gm0 Gm0
u(ε) = = + C 1 sin ε + C 2 cos ε = + C cos(ε + ϑ) · · · (8)
r h2 h2
where C and ϑ are the constant of integration. The phase angle ϑ may be eliminated by choosing
the x-axis so that r is minimum when ε = 0. So, following that axis-system

1 Gm0
= + C cos ε · · · (9)
r h2
Conic Sections !<1

1
=
!
1
! !>

Directrix
2.1 Conic Section
• Let us consider the equations for conic sections. We recall that a conic section is formed by the
locus of a point which moves so that the ratio e (called eccentricity of its distance from a point
(focus) to a line (directrix) is constant.

• For Ellipse: e < 1; For Parabola: e = 1; and For Hyperbola: e > 1. Let, d be the distance of the
directrix from the focus; r be the distance of the point from the focus; and ω be the azimuthal
angle. Then the parametric equation is given as
r 1 1 1
e= ↑ = + cos ω · · · (10)
d → r cos ω r ed d
 Comparing with the previous equation, we note

1 Gm0 1 Ch2
= and =C ↑ e= · · · (11)
ed h2 d Gm0

• At ω = 0; r = r0 , v = v0 , ṙ = 0, εv0 ↓ εr0 and h = r0 v0 . So, from Eq. (9)

! "2
1 Gm0 h2 v02 v0
C= → 2 ↑ e= → 1 = r0 →1=2 →1 · · · (12)
r0 h r0 Gm0 Gm0 vcrit
#
2Gm0
where, vcrit = · · · (13)
ro

• Total Energy of the system is conserved.

– The Kinetic Energy T per m: T /m = 12 v 2 = 12 (ṙ2 + r2 ω̇2 )
– Potential Energy V per m: V /m = → Gm
r
0

– Total Energy E per m: E/m = (T + V )/m = (ṙ2 + r2 ω̇2 )/2 → Gm0 /r = v02 /2 → Gm0 /r0
1 2
↭ E/m = (v0 → vcrit
2
) · · · (14)
2
 2
• The path of the body is
– Elliptic if, e < 1 ↑ (Ch2 /Gm0 ) < 1 ↑ v0 < vcrit and E < 0;
– Parabolic if, e = 1 ↑ (Ch2 /Gm0 ) = 1 ↑ v0 = vcrit and E = 0
– Hyperbolic if, e > 1 ↑ (Ch2 /Gm0 ) > 1 ↑ v0 > vcrit and E > 0.
$ $
• Alternative way: Noting that r = x + y and cos ω = y/ x2 + y 2 , the motion equation of
2 2

the body in (x, y)-system is given as

! "2
2 Gm0
(1 → Cy) = (x2 + y 2 ) ↑ ϑ2 x2 + (ϑ2 → C 2 )y 2 + 2Cy → 1 = 0
h2

where ϑ = Gm0 /h2 > 0. The discriminant ! = b2 → 4ac = →ϑ2 (ϑ2 → C 2 ). The above equation
is
– Elliptic if, ! < 0 ↑ (Ch2 /Gm0 ) < 1;
– Parabolic if, ! = 0 ↑ (Ch2 /Gm0 ) = 1 and
– Hyperbolic if, ! > 0 ↑ (Ch2 /Gm0 ) > 1.
2.2 Case-1 Ellipse
Case-1: Ellipse (𝑒 < 1)
→
• The semi-major axis is a = (rmin + rmax )/2, semi-minor axis b = a 1 ↑ e2 , where r = rmin for
ω = 0 and r = rmax for ω = ε. Therefore,
ed ed ed ed
rmin = ; rmax = ; a= and b = → · · · (15)
1+e 1↑e 1 ↑ e2 1 ↑ e2
↭ rmin = a(1 ↑ e) and rmax = a(1 + e) · · · (16)
→ rmin rmax → → → h
↭ b = rmin rmax and = ed ↓ b = a ed = a → · · · (17)
a Gm0

as, from Eq. (11), 1/(ed) = Gm0 /h2 .

• The area of the ellipse is

3/2
→ 3/2 h
A = εab = εa ed = εa → · · · (18)
Gm0

• For the planetary motion the Areal Velocity Ȧ = h/2 = Constant. Therefore, the Time
period ϑ to complete one full orbital motion is proportional to a3/2 i.e., ϑ ↔ a3/2 , as
 A = εab = εa ed = εa → · · · (18)
Gm0
Case-1: Ellipse (𝑒 < 1)
• For the planetary motion the Areal Velocity Ȧ = h/2 = Constant. Therefore, the Time
period ϑ to complete one full orbital motion is proportional to a3/2 i.e., ϑ ↔ a3/2 , as

A A 2ε
ϑ= = = → a3/2 · · · (19)
Ȧ h/2 Gm0
Kepler’s Law And Law’s Of Orbital Motion

Portrait of Kepler by an unknown artist, 1610. Source

Wikipedia. Kepler was a German mathematician and
astronomer and a key figure in 17th century scientific
revolution. Kepler’s laws were postulated before
Newton’s law of gravitation was theorized.
 Sample Problem 12.8
SOLUTION:
• Since the sa
central force
is constant.
momentum a
the velocity

A satellite is launched in a direction parallel to the surface of the

earth withAa satellite
velocity of is
30155 km/h from
launched in an altitude of 385 km.
a direction
Determineparallel
the velocity
to ofthe
the surface
satellite asofit reaches
the earthit maximum
altitude of 3749 km. The radius of the earth is 6345 km.
with a velocity of 30155 km/h from
Problems on Kinetics (Part-1)
Problems On Conservation Of Energy And
Work-Energy Principle
Conservation Of Mechanical Energy