&
Solution
A solution is homogenious mixture of two or
more substances. The Substance present in a
large
amount is the Solvent ,
while the Substance Present in
a Lesser amount is the solute .
Types of solutions
1 - Based on
Physical State -
solid in Solid (e g. .
AlloysLike brass [Cu + 2n] ,
bronze [Cu + Sn]
solid in Liquid (e .
g
.
Sugar in water ,
salt in water)
solid in gas (e g
. Camphor
.
in nitrogen gas)
Liquid in Solid /e g .
.
Amalgam of mercury with
Sodium)
Liquid in Liquid (e .
.
g Alcohol in water [ethanol + water] ,
Vinegar in water [acetic acid + water]
Liquid in
gas (e
.
.
g Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas)
Gas in solid. (e g . .
Solution of hydrogen in Palladium)
Gas in LiquidCe g .
. Carbonated drinks [C in water I
oxygen in water [dissolvedO2 for aquatic Life]
was in (e g. Air-mixture of Like Oc N2 Ar (O)
gas gases
.
,
, ,
2 Based on Concentration
Dilute Solution : Low Concentration of solute
Le .
. Few
g drops of lemon juice in
water)
Concentrated Solution !
High Concentration of solute
Ceg .
Thick Sugar Syrup]
Saturated Solution : Maximum amount of solute
dissolved at a
given temperature (e g. .
Saltwater
with undissolved salt at the bottom)
Unsaturated Solution : Can dissolve more solute at
a
given temperature (e g. Saltwater .
thatCan
still dissolve more salt)
SupersaturatedSolution : Contains more dissolved
solute than a SaturatedSolution at the same
temperature (e .
g- Sodium acetate solution when
cooled below its Saturation point)
Expressing Concentration of Solutions
↓ Mass Percentage (Ww) % Mass of Solute
-
*100
Mass of Solution
Example : -Log of Nacl in
Loog Solution - 10 %
of
2- Volume Percentage (V/v]y
I-
volume ofsolute ,
Example : -20 mL ethano in 100 mL Solution - 20 %
3-mass/volume Percentage (w/v) %
mple :
ofSolutionXoO
Sma Solution >
-
51
Molarity (M)
= lesofsolutee
4
ter
Example : -LM Nacl Solution Contain 58 .
59 Nach
in 11 water.
# of solute
Molality (m)
5- =
Moles
mass of solvent in
kg
Example : -
1m Nacl solution has I mole NaCl
in water .
1
kg
6- Mole Fraction (X) = Moles of Component
Total moles of all componentI
Example : - For a solution with ! mole Nacl and 4
moles H20 :
XNac =
1/(1 4) + = 0 2 .
7 Parts (ppm)
:Massofsolutea
-
Per Million
Example : -2 mg of .
Fluoride in 1
kg of water - 2 ppm
Each method of Expressing Concentration
of the
Solutions has its own merits and demerits Masst ,
ppm ,
mole Fraction and
molality are independent
of temperature ,
where as
molarity is a function
of temperature . This is because volume depends
on temperature and the mass does .
not
Solubility :
Nature of soluteand Solvent "Like
"
: dissolved like
(e g Nacl
. .
dissolved in water but not in benzene)
Temperature :
Solubility of solid in Liquid usually
increase with temperature /e g dissolved
more
Sugar in
.
.
not tea than Cold tea)
,
while for gases it decrease (e
g Warm Soda
.
.
Fizzes out CO2 Faster Than Cold Soda) .
Pressure :
-Higher Pressure increases the solubility
of gases in Liquid (Henry's Law) (e.g CO2 in Soda
bottle under
high Pressure).
Law
Henry's
-
:
The of
solubility a
gas
in a
Liquid is directly
proportional to the Partial Pressure of the gas
Present above the liquid or the Solution at Constant
temperature
=
.
=
-
-
>
-
-
>
·
Formula :
p =
Kn X ·
function of nature of The the
KH is a
gas . Higher
value of Kn at the lower is
a
given pressure ,
the solubility of the gas in the Liquid.
Example : Scuba divers use oxygen-helium mixtures
insted of to avoid nitrogen
oxygen-Nitrogen narcosis
at
high Pressure .
Raoult's Law
for a solution of volatile Liquids ,
the Partial Vapor
Pressure of a
Component in Solution
a is proportional
to its mole Fraction .
Formula : ·
Pa =* n Y Pr and Pe =
XB* P and
Ptotal =
PA + PB
..
1
p
-
↑ TI
Pr
&
X I X = 0
Mole Fraction
=
, .
X= 0 Xz = /
*2 -
Example: In-
a solution of phenol and aniline ,
the
Vapor Pressure decrease due to dilution of each component .
Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions :
-
Ideal Solution :-
-
Obey Rooult's Law and show no
change in
enthalpy or volume upon
mixing
(e g .
. Benzene & Tolune , n-Hexene & n. Heptane)
* In Pure Components ,
the intermolecular attractive
interaction will be type A-A and B-B ,
whereas
in the binary solutions in addition to these two
interactions ,
A-B type of interactions will also
be present. If the intermolecular attractive
Force between the to
A-A and B-B are
nearly equal
those between A-B , this leads to the formation of
ideal solution .
·
Non-ideal Solutions : Deviate From Raoult's Law
show either positive deviations.
and or
negative
Positive deviation Total vapour pressure in higher
·
:
than expected /e Acetone due to
g Ethanol s
.
.,
weaker intermolecular Forces)
o
Negative deviation : Total vapor pressure is
lower than expected (e Chloroform
.
g,
& Acetone due to
strong hydrogen bonding).
··
-
,-
X
-
xz(b)
The vapour Pressure of two Component System as a
Function of Composition (a) a solution that shows positive
deviation From Raoult's Law and (b) a solution that
shows negative deviation From Raoult's Law.
Colligative Properties
All those properties depend on the number of solute
Particles irrespective of their nature relative to the
total number ofParticles Present in the solution are
Called Colligative Properties.
Relative Lowering of Vapor Pressure : -
#po
=
X
Example : Adding non-volatile solute (e g.
., Nacl in water)
Lower's Vapor pressure .
(a) Pure water (n) Aqueous Solution
The Presence of nonvolatile solute lowers the Vapor Pressure of a Solution
of solution
by impeding the evaporation of solvent molecule.
Elevation of
12.
boiling Point
ATh =
KnX m
Boiling point of
Solvent solution
* ↓
tolbar -.
Ii .
-
E
I
· E
E
u
·
jo Tb
nt-E-
ETh
Temperature/k- >
The Vapour Pressure Curve for Solution lies below the Curve
For Pure water. The shows that ATh denotes the
diagram
elevation of boiling point of a solvent in solution.
.
3 Depression of Freezing Point : -Ate =
KyXm
↑ Solvent
e
Siuid
olution
Fee
- - -D
Temperature/k-
Example : -
Antifreeze (ethylene glycol) Lowers the
Freezing
Point of Car Coolant ·
4 .
Osmotic Pressure (it) - :
i =
nRT/V
name
de
Solution Solvent
Example :· Red blood cells in Saline remain Stable ,
but burst in distilled water due to osmossis .
Reverse Osmosis -
:
The direction of osmosis Can be reversed if a pressure
Larger than the osmotic Pressure is applied to the Solution
side That is
.
,
now the Pure Solvent Flows out
of the solution the Semi permeable
through
membrane .
Example : -
Desalination of sea water
Abnormal Molar Mass & Vanit Hoff Factor -
:
Molar that is either lower than the
mass or
higher
expected or normal value is called as abnormal
Molar mass .
·
Dissociation (i) 1) : Electrolytes Like Nall dissociate
into Nat and C increase the number of
,
Particles:
Association (i < 1) : -Acetic Acid in benzene Forms
dimers
reducing the number
, of Particles.
i =
Normal molar mass/absorbed molar mass
i =
Observed Colligative Property/Calculated Colligative Property
i Total number of
=
moles of particles after association/dissociation
total number of moles
of Particles before association/dissociation
Application of Colligative Properties:-
Anti-Freeze Solution Ethylene glycol
: is used in Car
radiators toPrevent Freezing .
Boiling
Point elevation :
Cooking in
high
altitudes requires
Longer boiling time due to lower atmospheric
Pressure -
Osmotic Pressure measurements :
Determining
·
molar
proteins
masses of and
polymers .
