CSE 520210
Microprocessor and Assembly Language
Introduction to Microprocessor
REFERENCE BOOKS
WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?
>>Microprocessor is the controlling unit or CPU of a micro-computer, fabricated
on a very small chip capable of performing ALU operations and communicating
with the external devices connected to it.
>>It contains arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), instruction decoder and control
unit, instruction register, program counter (PC), clock circuit (internal or
external), reset circuit (internal or external) and registers.
>>It accepts binary data as input and processes data according to instructions,
and provides result as output.
>>It acts as the brain of the computer system.
FUNCTIONS OF A MICROPROCESSOR
The processor first fetches an instruction from the main memory.
The instruction is then decoded to determine what action is required to be done.
Based on instruction the processor fetches, if required, data from main memory
or I/O module.
The instruction is then executed which may require performing arithmetic or
logical operations on data.
In addition to execution, CPU also supervises and controls/I/O devices. If there
is any request from I/O devices, called interrupt, the CPU suspends execution of
the current programs and transfers control to an interrupt handling program.
Finally, the results of an execution may required transfer of data to memory or
an I/O Module.
WHAT IS A MICROCOMPUTER?
A digital computer, in which one microprocessor has been provided to act as a
CPU, is called Microcomputer. Today’s microcomputers contain one or more
microprocessor to act as CPU. A microcomputer contains:-
>>Input device : Reads information from input media and enters to the computer
in a coded form.
>>CPU :
Memory unit : Stores program and data
Arithmetic Logic unit : Performs arithmetic and logical functions
Control Unit : Interprets program instructions and controls the input and output
devices
>>Output device : Decodes information and presents it to the user
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MICROCOMPUTER
EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSORS
By Generation Based On Word Size
1st Generation 4-bit Microprocessors
2nd Generation 8-bit Microprocessors
3rd Generation 16-bit Microprocessors
4th Generation 32-bit Microprocessors
5th Generation 64-bit Microprocessors
1ST GENERATION (1971-1973)
Designed with PMOS technology. This technology provided:
Low cost
Slow speed
Low output current
Was not compatible with TTL
Generally 4 bit processors
Processed their instructions serially - they fetched the instruction, decoded it
then executed it. When an instruction was completed, the microprocessor
updated the instruction pointer and fetched the next instruction, performing this
sequential drill for each instruction in turn.
Example– Intel 4004, Intel 4040, Intel 8008
2ND GENERATION (1974-1978)
Designed with NMOS technology. This technology provided
Faster speed
Higher packing density than PMOS
TTL compatibility
Generally 8 bit processors
Overlap fetch, decode, and execution steps: while the first instruction is being
processed in the execution time slot, the second instruction is decoded and the
third instruction is fetched.
Examples are Motorola 6800/6809, Intel 8085/8080
3RD GENERATION (1979-1980)
Designed with HMOS technology. Because of this tech:
Speed-power-product of HMOS is four times better than that of NMOS
HMOS can accommodate twice the circuit density compared to NMOS
Incorporated an on-chip cache for the first time.
The depth of the pipeline increased to five or more stages.
Generally 16-bit processors.
Examples are Motorola 68000/68010, Intel 8086/80186/80286.
4TH GENERATION (1981-1995)
Designed with HCMOS technology.
Commercial microprocessors to in-house design.
Designs surpassing a million transistors.
Generally 32 bit processors.
Examples are Motorola MC 68020/68030, Intel 80386/80486/80586
5TH GENERATION (1995-TILL)
Emphasis is on introducing chips that carry on-chip functionalities
Improvements in the speed of memory and I/O devices along with introduction
of 64 –bit microprocessors.
Processors working with up to 3.5GHz speed.
Examples are Pentium Pro, Pentium II – core i7
4-BIT MICROPROCESSORS TMS 1000, Intel 4004
Intel 4004 introduced in 1971 was the first microprocessor by Intel.
Its data bus width is 4-bit and address bus is 12-bit. It has 16 pins.
PMOS Technology.
Its clock speed was 740KHz.
It had 2,250 transistors.
Intel 4004
It could execute around 60,000 instructions per second.
With multiplexed 12-bit address bus it can work with 4KB main memory.
First programmable device which was used in calculators, was not
designed as a general purpose computer.
INTEL 4004
Die Shot
Chip
Intel 8008 Intel 8080
8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel 8085
Motorola 6800/6809
Intel 8008 was introduced in 1972 and was the first 8-bit µP. It was the 8-bit
version of Intel 4004.
Width of data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 14-bit.
It has 18 pins and 3500 transistors Intel 8008
Its clock speed was 200-800 KHz.
Can execute 36,000 to 80,000 instructions per second (little slower than 4004)
Can address 16KB of main memory.
48 instructions (Intel 4004 has 46)
INTEL 8008
Chip Die Shot
Intel 8008 Intel 8080
8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel 8085
Motorola 6800/6809
Intel 8080 is also an 8-bit µP of 2MHz clock speed and was introduced in 1974.
It was 10 times faster than a basic 8008 and has 6000 transistor inside.
Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 16-bit and hence can address a 64KB
main memory.
It has 40 pins and came as DIP. Intel 8080
Could execute up to 5,00,000 instructions per second(IPS)
It is built using NMOS technology.
Drawback was that it needed three power supplies.
Small computers (microcomputers) were designed using 8080 as CPU.
INTEL 8080
Chip Die Shot
Intel 8008 Intel 8080
8-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel 8085
Motorola 6800/6809
Introduced in 1976, Intel 8085 was also 8-bit µP but upgraded version of 8080
Its clock speed was 3-6 MHz and had 6,500 transistor inside.
Its data bus width is 8-bit and address bus is 16-bit and hence work with 64KB
of main memory.
It is also a 40 pins DIP µP chip.
Could execute 7,69,230 instructions per second. Intel 8085
It had 246 instructions.
Use only one +5V power supply.
INTEL 8085
Die Shot
Chip
Intel 8086, 8088,
16-BIT MICROPROCESSORS 80186, 80286
Motorola 68000/68010
Introduced in 1978, Intel 8086 is the first 16-bit µP capable of doing 5-10 MHz
Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit and can address 1MB memory.
It is a 40 pins DIP chip and has 29K nMOS transistors, gradually upgraded to
HMOS and finally CHMOS.
Could execute 0.33 million instructions per second at 5MHz
It had Multiply and Divide instructions.
Intel 8086
INTEL 8086
Die Shot
Chip
Intel 8086, 8088,
16-BIT MICROPROCESSORS 80186, 80286
Motorola 68000/68010
Introduced in 1979, Intel 8088 is a variant of 8086 capable of doing 5-16MHz
It is also a 16-bit µP .
It has 29K transistors. Intel 8088
Its data bus is 8-bit and address bus is 20-bit and can address 1MB main
memory.
It comes as 40 pins DIP and 44 pins PLCC
A 10Mhz 8088 can do 0.75MIPS on an average but can do as much as 5MIPS
for simpler mov or ALU operations.
INTEL 8088
Die Shot
Chip
PLCC
Intel 8086, 8088,
16-BIT MICROPROCESSORS 80186, 80286
Motorola 68000/68010
Introduced in 1982, Intel 80186 is a 16-bit µP capable of 6-25MHz
Just like 8086, its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 20-bit.
It has 68 pins and comes is various packages. (PLCC, LCC, PGA)
It has 55K transistors.
Can address 1 MB of main memory. Intel 80186
Never used in the PC; only used as microcontroller with external memory.
They had additional components like Interrupt Controller, Clock Generator,
Local Bus Controller, Counters, etc. built in for to be used as a microcontroller.
INTEL 80186
Die Shot
Chip
PLCC
LCC PGA
Intel 8086, 8088,
16-BIT MICROPROCESSORS 80186, 80286
Motorola 68000/68010
Introduced in 1982, Intel 80286 is a 16-bit µP capable of 5-25MHz
Its data bus is 16-bit and address bus is 24-bit.
It has 68 pins and comes is various packages. (PLCC, LCC, PGA)
Can address 16 MB of main memory using its 24-bit address bus.
At 25MHz, it can reach 4MIPS.
It has 134K transistors. (1.5μm min. feature size) Intel 80286
In “protected mode” it can address a virtual memory of 4GB
INTEL 80286
Die Shot
Chip
LCC PGA
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Designed by Intel in 1985 and launched in 1986, Intel 80386 or i386 or 386 is
the first 32-bit µP having max clock rate of 12-40MHz
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 32-bit (SX version has 16-bit data and
24-bit address bus.
Can work with 4 GB main memory and 64 TB virtual memory.
It has 132 pins (PGA and PQFP) and 275K transistors.
At 33MHz, it can reach as much as 11.4 MIPS
Latest chips has minimum feature size of 1μm
Intel 80386
Different versions are: 80386 DX, 80386 SX, 80386 SL
INTEL 80386
Die Shot
Chip
PQFP chip
soldered on a
mother board
BQFP PGA
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Introduced in 1989, Intel 80486 (i486 or just 486) is a 32-bit µP of 16-100MHz
It has 3200K transistors and 168 pins (PGA, PQFP, SQFP)
Both data and address bus are 32-bit
Integrated math coprocessor (an enhanced FPU) Intel 80486
8 KB of cache memory was introduced
A 50MHz can execute an average of 40MIPS and can reach its peak of 50MIPS.
Can address 4 GB real and 64 TB virtual memory with 46-bit logical addressing.
It has five different versions:80486DX, 80486SX, 80486DX2, 80486SL,
80486DX4
INTEL 80486
Inside
Chip
PQFP chip
soldered on a
mother board
BQFP PGA
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Introduced in 1993, Intel Pentium (also known as 80586) is a 32-bit µP capable
of 60-300MHz
Its data bus is 64-bit and address bus is 32-bit.
It has up to 4.5 million transistors and has 264 pins.
It can work with 4 GB real memory.
Pentium
Could reach 188MIPS
16KB L1 Cache memory: 8 KB for instructions and 8 KB for data.
It has very high performance FPU
It utilizes superscalar architecture.
INTEL PENTIUM
Die shot
Chip
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Came out in 1995, Pentium Pro is a 32-bit µP of 150-200MHz clock speed.
It had L2 cache of 256 KB (advanced models have 512KB to 1MB L2 cache)
It has 5.5 million transistors and has 387 pins.
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 36-bit. Pentium Pro
It can work with 64 GB main memory.
It could reach 541 MIPS
16KB L1 Cache memory(8 KB for instructions & 8 KB for data)
Three-way superscalar performance, 3 instructions per clock cycle.
Intel launched this processor for server, super computers or advanced desktops.
INTEL PENTIUM PRO
Die shot
Chip
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Introduced in 1997, Intel Pentium II is a less performing µP compared to
Pentium Pro.
It is also a 32-bit µP of 233 MHz to 450 MHz clock speed.
It had 7.5 million transistors a total of 387 pins.
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 36-bit.
64 GB main memory. Pentium II
Could do 333 MIPS
32KB of L1 cache (16KB data, 16KB instruction) and 512KB L2 cache.
Designed specially to process video, audio and graphics efficiently.
INTEL PENTIUM II
Die shot
Chip
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Pentium III was introduced in 1999.
It is also a 32-bit µP capable of 400 MHz to 1.4 GHz clock speed.
It could reach 2054 MIPS only at 600MHz.
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 36-bit.
Maximum of 64 GB main memory.
Pentium III
It had 9.5 million transistors and has 387 pins.
Dual independent Bus(simultaneous L2 and system memory access)
Designed significantly enhance internet experiences.
INTEL PENTIUM III
Die shot
Chip
INTEL PENTIUM III
Die shot
Chip
Back to PGA
Intel 80386, 80486,
32-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Pentium, Pentium Pro,
Pentium II, III, 4
Motorola 68020/68030
Intel introduced Pentium IV in 2000.
It was also 32-bit µP capable of 1.3 GHz to 3.8 GHz of clock speed.
Its data bus is 32-bit and address bus is 36-bit.
Like its predecessors, it can address 64GB of main memory.
1MB/512KB/256KB L2 cache.
It had 42 million to 188 million transistors.
Pentium 4
It has 478 pins.
Capable of 9726MIPS (extreme edition)
Specialized for streaming video, game and DVD applications.
INTEL PENTIUM 4
Die shot
Chip
Intel Dual Core
64-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel Core 2
Intel Core i7, i5, i3
Intel Dual Core is introduced in 2006 and is a 64-bit µP .
It had 1.72 billion transistors.
Its clock speed was 1.3GHz to 3.4GHz
Its data bus is 64-bit and address bus is 40-bit.
It has two cores.
Dual Core
Can be equipped with 1TB of main memory.
Both the cores have there own internal bus and L1 cache, but share the external
bus and L2 cache
Intel Dual Core
64-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel Core 2
Intel Core i7, i5, i3
First introduced in 2006, Intel core 2 is a 64-bit µP.
It has 775 pins and has 410 million transistors.
Its data bus is 64-bit and address bus is 40-bit. Core 2
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core and up to 6 MB of L2 cache.
It has single, double or quad cores.
It is launched in various different versions: Intel Core 2 Solo, Intel Core 2 Duo,
Intel Core 2 Quad, Intel Core 2 Extreme (2 core), Intel Core 2 Extreme (4 core)
Intel Dual Core
64-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel Core 2
Intel Core i7, i5, i3
Introduced in 2008.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 4 to 10 physical cores. Core i7
Its clock speed ranges from 1GHz to 4.3GHz. (5GHz with turbo) depending
upon models.
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core, 256 KB of L2 cache and 25 MB of L3 cache.
Can reach about 221,720MIPS
Intel Dual Core
64-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel Core 2
Intel Core i7, i5, i3
Introduced in 2009.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has double or quad or hexa cores.
Core i5
Its clock speed ranges from 700 MHz to 4.1 GHz (4.8GHz with turbo)
A 2011 quad core processor could reach up to
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core, 256 KB of L2 cache and 12 MB of L3 cache.
Intel Dual Core
64-BIT MICROPROCESSORS Intel Core 2
Intel Core i7, i5, i3
Introduced in 2010.
It is a 64-bit µP.
It has 2 to 4 physical cores.
Core i3
Its clock speed ranges from 1GHz to 4GHz. (4.6GHz with turbo)
It has 64 KB of L1 cache per core, 256 KB of L2 cache and 8 MB of L3 cache.
Moore’s Law
In 1965, Gordon Moore, co-founder of the microprocessor manufacturer Intel,
predicted that the number of transistors per integrated circuit would double
every 18 months. So far his assumption remains reasonably true as
microprocessors saw their number of transistors jump from 2,250 in Intel's 4004
(1971) to 9.89 billion for the AMD Ryzen 9 3900X (2019). There is thus a
doubling every 24 months.
Thank you all
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