Auto 2801 – Lecture 1

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

Introduc�on Advantages of Mechanical Joining
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• Ease of Manufacturing: Simple and efficient methods for producing parts.
 Welding is a fabrication process that joins materials, usually
• Ease of Assembly and Transportation: Components can be easily put together and
metals or thermoplastics, by applying heat and/or pressure. moved.
 It is to create a strong, permanent bond between materials. • Ease of Disassembly and Maintenance: Allows for quick repairs and part replacements.
 Commonly involves metals like steel, aluminium, and • Design Flexibility: Facilitates designs that include movable joints (e.g., hinges, sliding
alloys, but can also include plastics. mechanisms).
 Metal joining process can be temporary or permanent • Lower Cost: Often reduces overall manufacturing expenses for the product

Design Considera�ons:
Joining Processes
1. Loading: Consider the type of forces the structure will face.
1. Fusion Welding  Involves mel�ng the base materials to 2. Hole Size and Spacing: Ensure holes are appropriately sized and spaced for
joints.
fuse them together
3. Material Compatibility: The fastener material should match the components
• Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW): Uses a being joined.
consumable electrode coated in the flux to lay the weld.
Mechanical Assembly Defined
• Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW): Also known as MIG
• Purpose: To atach two or more parts using various fastening methods.
welding, it uses a continuous wire feed and an inert gas
• Fasteners: Typically, hardware components (like screws or bolts) are added
to shield the weld. during assembly.
• Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW): Similar t to GMAW but • Alterna�ve Methods: Some�mes, components are shaped or reshaped to join
uses a tubular wire filled with flux. them without separate fasteners.
• Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW): Also known as TIG 2 Major Types of Mechanical
welding, it uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode. 1. Dismantlable Methods: Threaded fasteners (screws and bolts) that can be
2. Other Welding Methods: easily removed.
• Friction Stir Welding: A solid-state process that joins 2. Permanent Methods: Rivets, which create a lasting joint that cannot be easily
materials by the frictional heat generated by rotating undone.
tools.
• Resistance Welding: Involves the application of heat Mechanical assembly can be categorized into methods for easy disassembly and
generated by resistance to electric current. those that form permanent connections.
• Explosion Welding: Uses the energy from an explosive
General Design Guidelines:
charge to bond materials together.
3. Fastening and Bonding: • Cost Efficiency: Use fewer but larger fasteners instead of many small ones.
• Adhesive Bonding: Uses adhesives to bond surfaces • Minimize Fasteners: Aim for the least number of fasteners needed for assembly.
together. • Fit Between Parts: Allow parts to fit loosely to lower costs and simplify assembly.
• Bolted Connections: Mechanical fastening using bolts to • Standard Fasteners: Use standard-size fasteners whenever possible.
join components. • Hole Placement: Ensure holes are not too close to edges to avoid tearing the
• Wave Soldering: A process used primarily in electronics material
manufacturing for soldering components to printed
Type of Mechanical Joining: Threaded Fasteners
circuit boards (PCBs).
• Common Fasteners: Bolts, screws, and nuts are widely used.
Types of Joints:
• Vibra�on Resistance: For joints exposed to vibra�on (like in aircra� and
machinery), specially designed nuts and lock washers are available.
• Temporary Joints: Can be disassembled (easy removal and • Func�on: These components increase fric�onal resistance in the torsional
reassembly), e.g., nuts and bolts, magnetic catches. direc�on, preven�ng loosening due to vibra�ons.

• Permanent Joints: Cannot be easily disassembled (provide

strong, lasting connections), e.g., riveting, soldering,
welding, adhesives.

DFMMA: Design for Manufacturing, Maintenance, and Assembly.

Mechanical Assembly / Joints

1. Threaded Fasteners: Screws and bolts for joining parts.

2. Rivets and Eyelets: Strong, permanent fasteners.
3. Interference Fits: Parts fit tightly together without extra
fasteners.
4. Other Fastening Methods: Various techniques like clamps
and clips.
5. Molding Inserts: Fasteners built into molded parts for added
strength.
Thread Types: There are four different thread types/forms: • Assembly Example: (a) Assembly of a collar to a shaft
SETS CREWS / GRUB SCREWS using a setscrew.
1. ISO Metric Thread • Geometries: Various setscrew geometries include:
 Used for assembly tasks
2. Butress Thread  Headless Slotted
such as fastening collars,  Flat Point
3. Square Thread
gears, and pulleys to  Square Head
4. Acme Thread Hex Socket
sha�s. 
 Cone Point
 Fluted Socket
 Dog Point

 Isometric Thread Parts: SELF – TAPPING SCREWS  Purpose: Designed to form or cut threads in
• Root: The botom of the thread. a pre-existing hole as they are turned.
• Pitch: The distance between threads. Types:
• Flank: The sides of the thread.
Thread Designa�on: (a) Thread-Forming: Creates threads without
• When referencing the thread in drawings, it will be labelled as M5 removing material.
or M6.
(b) Thread-Cu�ng: Removes material to create
• M: Indicates metric measurement (in millimetres).
threads.
• The number reflects the actual size of the finished thread or the
outside diameter. Alterna�ve Name: Also referred to as a tapping
screw.
SCREW THREAD
Definition: Internally threaded plugs or wire coils designed for insertion into an
unthreaded hole to accept an externally threaded fastener.

Purpose: Assembled into weaker materials to provide strong threads.

Screw: An externally threaded fastener typically assembled into
Mechanism: Upon assembly of the screw into the insert, the insert barrel expands
a blind threaded hole.
into the hole to secure the assembly.
Bolt: An externally threaded fastener inserted through holes and
"screwed" into a nut on the opposite side.

Nut: An internally threaded fastener with standard threads that

match bolts of the same diameter, pitch, and thread form.

Bolts can be seen below:

(a) Before Inser�on: The insert is posi�oned to be placed into the hole of the
parent material, which is unthreaded.
(b) A�er Inser�on: Once the screw is turned into the insert:
 The internal threads engage with the screw.
 Insert projec�ons press into the hole, securing the assembly.
Nuts can be seen below: WASHER
Defini�on: A hardware component commonly used with threaded fasteners to
ensure the �ghtness of a mechanical joint.

Simplest Form: A flat ring made of thin sheet metal.

Func�ons:
• Distribute Stresses: Helps to evenly distribute load across the surface.
• Provide Support: Offers support for large clearance holes.
• Protect Part Surfaces: Shields surfaces and seals the joint.
• Increase Spring Tension: Enhances tension in spring applica�ons.
Types of Screws • Resist Inadvertent Unfastening: Helps prevent loosening of fasteners.
• Variety: Screws offer a greater variety than bolts due to their
diverse functions. Washer Types
Examples:
• Machine Screws: A generic type, typically designed for
assembly into tapped holes.
• Cap Screws: Have the same geometry as machine screws but
are made of higher strength metals and designed to closer
tolerances.
 (a) Plain (Flat) Washers: Basic washers used to distribute load and
provide a smooth surface.
(b) Spring Washers: Designed to dampen vibra�on and compensate
for wear, maintaining tension in the assembly.
(c) Lock Washers: Engineered to resist the loosening of bolts or
screws, enhancing the security of the fastening.

BOLT STRENGTH

Measures of Strength:
1. Tensile Strength:
• The maximum tensile stress a bolt can withstand before
fracture.
2. Proof Strength:
• Roughly equivalent to yield strength.
Types of Rivets:
• Represents the maximum tensile stress a bolt can endure
without permanent deforma�on. 1. Solid Rivets (a): Tradi�onal rivets used for strong, permanent joints.
2. Tubular Rivets (b): Hollow rivets that reduce weight and material use.
Over - �ghtening in Bolted Joints
DFFD 3. Split or Bifurcated Rivets (c): Designed for easy installa�on in so� materials.
Poten�al Problem: Can lead to stresses that exceed the strength of 4. Compression Rivets (d): Used to create a �ght joint by compressing the
the fastener (bolt or nut).
materials together
Failure Modes:
1. Stripping of External Threads: Occurs when the threads on the
bolt or nut become damaged.
2. Stripping of Internal Threads: Happens when the internal
threads of the nut or hole are compromised.
3. Bolt Failure:
by excessive tensile stresses across the bolt's cross-sec�onal area.
y lead to tensile failure of the bolt's cross sec�on.

Basic Func�ons of Threaded Fasteners

• To provide relative rotation between external and internal threads

during fastening.
• Torque Application is necessary to secure the assembly effectively. 5 Basic Types of Rivets
• Preload Specification:
• Solid Rivets (a): Conven�onal rivets providing strong, permanent joints.
 Product designers typically specify the required preload to
ensure secure assembly. • Tubular Rivets (b): Hollow structure that reduces weight while maintaining
• Torque Application by Operator: strength.
 Assembly operators must appl y the correct torque to achieve • Semi tubular Rivets (c): Par�ally hollow, facilita�ng easier installa�on and
the specified preload. reduced material use.
• Bifurcated (or Split) Rivets (d): Features split ends for easy inser�on into so�
RIVET materials.
 Defini�on: Unthreaded, headed pins used to join two or more parts by passing the pin
through holes and forming a second head on the opposite side.
• Compression Rivets (e): Designed to compress materials �ghtly together for a
secure joint.
• Usage: Widely used fasteners for achieving a permanently mechanically fastened
joint.
• Clearance Hole: The hole into which the rivet is inserted must be close to the
diameter of the rivet for proper fi�ng.

Type of Mechanical Joining:

• The most common method of permanent or semi-permanent

mechanical joining.
Installation Process:
1. Placing the Rivet: Insert the solid rivet into the hole (usually
punched or drilled).
2. Deforming the Rivet: Upsetting the end of its shank to form a
head.
• This operation can be performed by hand or using mechanized
means, including programmable robots.
 Design Guidelines for Type of Mechanical Joining: Shrink and Press Fits
• Shank Length: a) If the exposed shank is too long, it may lead to  Components can be assembled using shrink fitting and press fitting techniques.
buckling instead of proper upse�ng. Shrink Fitting:
• Placement: b) Rivets should be posi�oned sufficiently far from • Involves cooling one component to achieve a smaller size, allowing it to fit into
edges to avoid stress concentra�ons. another component.
• Joint Design: c) Joined sec�ons should allow ample clearance for • The thermal contraction creates a tight bond when the temperature returns to
normal.
the rive�ng tools.
Press Fitting: Involves physically pressing one component into another to create a
• Sec�on Curvature: d) Curvature should not interfere with the secure connection without relying on heat.
rive�ng process, ensuring proper installa�on.

Metal S�tching and Stapling Interference Fits

 The process of metal stitching and stapling is similar to ordinary  Interference fits involve mechanical interference between two ma�ng parts
paper stapling. during assembly.
Characteristics: Mechanism: The interference, whether occurring during assembly or a�er joining,
• This operation is fast and efficient. secures the parts together.
• It is particularly suitable for joining thin metallic and non-metallic Types of Interference Fit Methods:
materials. 1. Press Fi�ng: Involves forcing one part into another to create a �ght fit.
Types of Joints: 2. Shrink and Expansion Fits: U�lize thermal changes to achieve a secure
1. Standard Loop (a): Commonly used for basic fastening needs. connec�on.
2. Flat Clinch (b): Provides a lower profile, ideal for applications 3. Snap Fits: Allow components to snap together, providing a reliable connec�on
requiring a flush surface. without addi�onal fasteners.
3. Metal Channel (c): Enables secure fastening in a channel format 4. Retaining Rings: Used to hold components in place within a housing or groove.
for enhanced stability.
Type of Mechanical Joining: Seaming FI
 Seaming is based on the principle of folding two thin pieces of Types of Fits
material together.
• Process: Similar to joining two pieces of paper by folding them at Press
the corner.  Press fi�ng involves inser�ng a straight cylindrical pin of a certain diameter
Enhancements: The performance and reliability of seams can be into a hole of a slightly smaller diameter.
Func�ons:
improved by adding:
1. Loca�ng and Locking Components: Augments threaded fasteners by
 Adhesives
maintaining alignment of parts.
 Polymeric coatings
2. Pivot Points: Allows for the rota�on of one component rela�ve to another.
 Seals
3. Shear Pins: Provides a controlled failure point to protect other components in
 Soldering case of overload.
Types of Seams:
1. Bent Edges on Two Parts (1): Simple overlapping for basic joining. Shrink and Expansion Fits
2. One Edge Bent Over the Other (2): Provides more strength and  This method involves assembling two parts (e.g., a sha� in a collar) that have an
stability. interference fit at room temperature.
3. Seam Bent Down and Flattened (3): Offers a secure and flat finish Techniques:
for better aesthetics and functionality. 1. Shrink Fi�ng: The external part is enlarged by hea�ng, allowing the internal part
to be inserted easily.
2. Expansion Fi�ng: The internal part is contracted by cooling and then inserted
into the external part.
Applica�ons: Commonly used to fit gears, pulleys, and sleeves onto solid and hollow
sha�s.

Type of Mechanical Joining: Crimping

 Crimping is a method of joining materials without the use of
tradi�onal fasteners.
Techniques: This process can involve crea�ng beads or dimples on the
materials.
Produc�on Methods: Beads and dimples can be produced through:
• Shrinking: Reducing the material size to create a secure fit.
• Swaging: Deforming the material to achieve the desired shape
and connec�on.
Types of Mechanical Joining: Snap – in – fasteners
STITCHING
 Snap-in fasteners are a type of mechanical joining process u�lizing  U-shaped s�tches are formed from steel wire and driven through parts one at a �me.
various spring or snap designs. Types of S�tches:
• Applica�ons: Widely used in automo�ve bodies and household • Unclinched (a): Basic s�tch without addi�onal securing.
appliances. • Standard Loop (b): A loop that holds parts together securely.
• Advantages: Economical and facilitate easy and rapid assembly. • Bypass Loop (c): Allows for more flexibility in assembly.
• Types of Snap-in Fasteners: • Flat Clinch (d): Creates a flat profile for aesthe�c or func�onal purposes.
1. Rod-and-Clip Fasteners: Securely atach sheet metal components.
2. Push-on Fasteners: Allow for quick atachment by pushing Applications: Used in:
components together.
3. Spring Clips: Provide flexible and secure connec�ons.  Sheet metal assembly
4. Integrated Snap Fasteners: Combine mul�ple func�ons for  Metal hinges
streamlined assembly.  Magazine binding
 Corrugated boxes

STAPLIN
 Preformed U-shaped staples are punched through the two parts to be atached.
Features:
• Supplied in convenient strips for easy handling.
• Typically applied using portable pneuma�c guns for efficiency.
Applica�ons: Common in:
 Furniture and upholstery
 Car seats
 Light-gauge sheet metal assembly
 Plas�c assembly jobs
 Paper documents
SNAP FITS
 Snap fits involve joining two parts where ma�ng elements Molding Inserts and Integral Fasteners
experience temporary interference during assembly. • These are permanent joining methods that involve shaping or reshaping one of
• Mechanism: During assembly, one or both parts elas�cally the components through manufacturing processes.
deform to accommodate the temporary interference, allowing Manufacturing Processes:
them to interlock securely once assembled. • Cas�ng: Pouring material into a mold to form a part.
• Applica�ons: Originally designed for industrial robots, snap fits • Molding: Shaping materials, o�en plas�cs, in a mold.
are also user-friendly, making them easier for manual assembly. • Sheet-Metal Forming: Manipula�ng sheet metal into desired shapes.
Molding Inserts
Before Assembly (1):  Molding inserts involve placing a component into a mold before plas�c molding or metal
The two parts are posi�oned cas�ng, making it a permanent part of the final product.
separately, ready for the Types of Inserts:
assembly process. • Threaded Bushing (a): Features internal threads for fastening applica�ons.
• Threaded Stud (b): Includes external threads, allowing for easy atachment to other
Parts Snapped Together (2): components.
The parts are pushed
together, causing them to
interlock through elas�c
Applica�ons: deforma�on.
• Toys: Commonly used for assembling colourful and modular toy
components. Advantages:
• Small Appliances: U�lized in various household devices for quick • Enhanced Properties: Inserts often have better mechanical properties than
assembly. the molded or cast material.
• Automo�ve: Employed in car parts like lights and trim for efficient • Complex Geometry: When the insert's geometry is too intricate or complex to
manufacturing. be incorporated directly into the mold cavity.
• Electronic Fields: Found in electronic enclosures and components
for secure connec�ons. Examples of Applica�ons:
• Internally Threaded Bushings and Nuts: Provide strong fastening points.
RETAINING RING • Externally Threaded Studs: Facilitate connec�ons to other components.
 A retaining ring is a fastener that snaps into a circumferen�al • Bearings: Enhance performance and durability in mechanical assemblies.
groove on a sha� or tube. • Electrical Contacts: Ensure reliable electrical connec�ons.
• Func�on: Used to locate or restrict the movement of parts on a
sha�, forming a shoulder for components. Integral Fasteners
• Applica�ons: Commonly found in mechanical assemblies to secure  Integral fasteners involve deforming components so they interlock, creating a
components and ensure proper alignment. mechanically fastened joint.
Methods of Integral Fastening:
• Lanced Tabs: Tabs are cut and bent to secure parts together.
• Seaming: Edges of materials are folded over each other to create a secure joint.
• Beading: A raised edge is formed to provide additional strength and alignment.
LANCED TABS
Strength of Brazed
 Lanced tabs are used to atach wires or sha�s to sheet metal.
Func�onality: • If the joint is well-designed and the brazing opera�on is performed correctly, the
solidified joint will be stronger than the filler metal.
• The tabs are cut into the sheet metal and bent to create a
secure interlocking mechanism. Reasons for Strength:
Applica�ons: • Small Part Clearances: Tight clearances allow for better penetration of the
• Commonly used in electrical assemblies, where wires need to molten filler metal.
be securely fastened to a metal bas • Metallurgical Bonding: A strong bond forms between the base metals and the
filler metal at a molecular level.
• Geometric Constrictions: The design of the joint imposes restrictions that
enhance strength and stability.

Brazing Compared to Welding (Advantages of Brazing)

Advantages of Brazing:
1. Versa�lity: Any metals can be joined, including dissimilar metals, expanding
applica�on possibili�es.
2. Speed: Brazing can be performed quickly and consistently, allowing for high
produc�on rates.
3. Simultaneous Joints: Mul�ple joints can be brazed at the same �me, increasing
efficiency.
BRAZING 4. Lower Energy Requirements: Less heat and power are needed compared to
welding, making it more energy-efficient.
• Brazing is a joining process where a filler metal is 5. Access to Complex Areas: Joint areas that are difficult to reach with welding
placed between the surfaces to be joined, and the processes can s�ll be brazed effec�vely due to capillary ac�on, which draws the
molten filler metal into the joint.
temperature is raised to melt the filler metal
without mel�ng the base metals.
Clearance: The gap between the parts being brazed is
crucial for joint strength.

If the clearance is
• Too Small: The molten filler metal may not
penetrate properly.
• Too Large: Insufficient capillary ac�on may prevent
the molten metal from filling the joint. Disadvantages and Limita�ons of Brazing

1. Joint Strength:
• Generally, the strength of a brazed joint is less than that of a welded joint.
• It is also likely to be lower than the strength of the base metals being
joined.
2. High Service Temperatures: Exposure to high temperatures may weaken a
brazed joint over �me.
3. Aesthe�c Considera�ons: The color of the brazing metal may not match the
No mel�ng of the base metals occurs; only the filler metal colour of the base metal parts, which can be a poten�al aesthe�c
melts. disadvantage.
Brazing Applica�ons
Filler Metal Temperature:
Common Industries and Uses:
• The mel�ng temperature (Tm) of the filler metal is 1. Automo�ve: Joining tubes and pipes for various components.
greater than 450°C (840°F). 2. Electrical Equipment: Connec�ng wires and cables to ensure reliable electrical
• It must be lower than the mel�ng temperature of pathways.
the base metal(s) being joined. 3. Cu�ng Tools: Brazing cemented carbide inserts to tool shanks for enhanced
durability.
4. Jewellery: Crea�ng strong, aesthe�cally pleasing connec�ons in metal jewellery.
5. Chemical Process Industry: Used in assembling equipment that handles
corrosive substances.
6. Plumbing and Hea�ng: Joining metal pipes and tubes in residen�al and
commercial systems.
7. Repair and Maintenance Work: Efficiently repairing components in various
applica�ons.

Lap Joints: Overlapping surfaces for increased surface area.

But Joints: Edges of components joined end-to-end.
Tee Joints: One piece is perpendicular to another.
Corner Joints: Connec�ng two surfaces at an angle.
Edge Joints: Joining two edges together.
Brazed Joints Applying Filler Metal in Brazing
Common Types: 1. Step 1 (Before):
1. But Joints: The geometry of but joints is typically modified to • Torch heats the parts.
facilitate brazing. • Filler rod is applied in the clearance (gap) between parts.
2. Lap Joints: More widely used due to their larger interface area 2. Step 2 (After):
between parts, enhancing joint strength • Filler metal melts and flows into the gap.
• Creates a brazed joint holding the parts together.
• Instead of only bonding at the borders, the filler metal in a brazed
lap joint attaches to the base components throughout the
interface area. This thorough bonding encourages increased
toughness and durability.
BUTT Joints for
Types of But Joints and Adapta�ons:
1. Conven�onal But Joint: Basic joint configura�on where two Brazing Fluxes
pieces are aligned end-to-end.
 Fluxes serve a similar role as in welding: they dissolve, combine with, and inhibit
2. Scarf Joint: The edges of the parts are shaped to create a larger
the forma�on of oxides and other unwanted byproducts during the brazing
bonding area, enhancing strength.
process.
3. Stepped But Joint: A step is created in the joint, increasing the
Characteristics of a Good Flux:
surface area for the filler metal.
• Low Melting Temperature: Should melt easily to be effective during the brazing
4. Increased Cross Sec�on: The cross-sec�on of the part at the joint process.
is enlarged to improve the joint's strength and stability. • Low Viscosity: Must be easily displaced by the filler metal, allowing for optimal
flow and bonding.
• Facilitates Wetting: Enhances the ability of the filler metal to spread across the
base metals.
• Protection: Protects the joint from oxidation and contamination until the filler
metal solidifies.

During brazing procedures, brazing flux is frequently to avoid oxida�on and encourage
bonding, par�cularly when the process is not carried out in an inert or reducing
atmosphere (such as in a furnace).
LAP Joints for
Hea�ng Methods in Brazing
Types of Lap Joints and Adapta�ons: • Torch Brazing: A torch directs a flame at the workpieces near the joint,
1. Conven�onal Lap Joint: Basic configura�on where two parts providing localized hea�ng.
overlap, providing a larger bonding area. • Furnace Brazing: Heat is supplied by a furnace, allowing for uniform hea�ng of
2. Cylindrical Parts: Lap joints adapted for cylindrical components the components being brazed.
to enhance connec�on strength. • Induc�on Brazing: U�lizes electrical resistance from high-frequency currents
3. Sandwiched Parts: Mul�ple layers of materials are joined to generate heat directly in the workpieces.
together, increasing the interface area. • Resistance Brazing: Involves hea�ng through electrical resistance in the parts
4. Sleeve: A sleeve can be used to convert a but joint into a lap themselves.
joint, providing addi�onal surface area for bonding. • Dip Brazing: Components are immersed in a molten salt or molten metal bath
for hea�ng.
• Infrared Brazing: Employs high-intensity infrared lamps to heat the surfaces of
the parts.
• Braze Welding: Heats metal parts and then adds a filler metal, like bronze, that
melts at a lower temperature than the metal parts being joined.
TORCH BRAZING
 Torch brazing (TB) u�lizes an oxyfuel gas as the heat source, o�en with a
carburizing flame for effec�ve hea�ng.

Filler Metals for Brazing Process:

1. Hea�ng the Joint: The joint is first heated using the torch to reach the
• Aluminum → Aluminum + Silicon
appropriate temperature for brazing.
• Nickel-copper alloy → Copper
2. Deposi�ng the Filler Material: A�er the joint is sufficiently heated, the brazing
• Copper → Copper + Phosphorous
rod or wire is deposited into the joint to create the bond.
• Steel / Cast iron → Copper + Zinc
FURNACE BRAZING
• Stainless steel → Gold + Silver
 In furnace brazing (FB), parts are first cleaned and preloaded with the brazing
Desirable Characteris�cs of Brazing Filler metal in suitable configura�ons.
• Compatible Melting Point – Filler must melt at a temperature Process:
suitable for the base metal. 1. Prepara�on:
• Good Wettability – Low surface tension in liquid state for proper  The components are cleaned to remove contaminants, ensuring a
spreading. strong bond.
• High Fluidity – Should flow easily to fill gaps and penetrate joints.  They are then assembled with the brazing material in place.
• Strong Joints – Must form joints with enough strength for the 2. Hea�ng: The assembled parts are placed in a furnace, where they are heated
application. uniformly to the brazing temperature.
• No Harmful Reactions – Should not react chemically/physically Furnace Types:
with base metal (e.g., galvanic corrosion). • Batch-Type Furnaces: Suitable for complex shapes and smaller produc�on runs.
� Quick memory �p: C-W-F-S-R • Con�nuous-Type Furnaces: To process several parts for high production rates.
INDUCTION BRAZING Soldering
 In induc�on brazing (IB), heat is generated through induc�on  Soldering is a method to join metal pieces together. A filler metal called solder
hea�ng using high-frequency AC current. with a mel�ng point of less than or equal to 450 °C (840 °F) is melted and spread
Process: between the flaying surfaces of the metal pieces being joined by capillary ac�on.
1. Prepara�on: Parts are preloaded with filler metal, ensuring it is Tradi�onally, solder alloys consist of �n and lead, both of which have low mel�ng
posi�oned correctly for the joint. temperatures (Tₘ).
2. Hea�ng: The components are placed near induc�on coils. The • No Melting of Base Metals: The base metals remain solid, ensuring the integrity
high-frequency AC current generates heat rapidly in the parts, of the components.
bringing them to the brazing temperature. • Filler Metal Combination: The solder wets and combines with the base metal to
DIP BRAZING form a metallurgical bond.
 Dip brazing (DB) involves immersing the assemblies to be brazed • Filler Metal: The material used is referred to as solder.
into a molten filler metal bath or a molten salt bath.
Process: Applications: Soldering is closely associated with electrical assembly, making it
1. Dipping: The assemblies are dipped into the bath, which is essential in the manufacturing of electronic devices.
- Lead Concerns: Lead is toxic, so its percentage is minimized in most solders to
maintained at a temperature just above the mel�ng point of the
enhance safety
filler metal.
- Tin Proper�es:
2. Coa�ng: This process ensures that all component surfaces are
 Tin is chemically ac�ve at soldering temperatures, promo�ng we�ng
uniformly coated with the filler metal, promo�ng effec�ve
ac�on for effec�ve joining.
bonding.
 In soldering, �n interacts with copper and other metals to form
INFRARED BRAZING
intermetallic compounds that strengthen the bond.
 Infrared brazing (IRB) utilizes a high-intensity quartz lamp as the - Other Materials: Silver and an�mony are also used in soldering alloys to improve
heat source. proper�es such as strength and mel�ng point.
Process:
1. Heating: The infrared lamp generates heat that is directed onto Soldering Techniques
the components, warming them quickly. Some soldering techniques share similari�es with brazing methods, including:
2. Application: This method is especially suitable for brazing very 1. Torch Soldering: Uses a torch to heat the joint and melt the solder.
thin components, typically less than 1 mm thick, such as 2. Furnace Soldering: Involves hea�ng components in a furnace to achieve
honeycomb structures. soldering.
DIFFUSION BRAZING 3. Iron Soldering: U�lizes a soldering iron to heat the joint and apply solder.
 Diffusion brazing (DFB) occurs in a furnace with controlled 4. Induc�on Soldering: Employs electromagne�c induc�on to heat the workpieces
temperature and �me. for soldering.
Process: 5. Resistance Soldering: Uses electrical resistance to generate heat at the joint.
1. Hea�ng: Components are heated in the furnace to a specific 6. Dip Soldering: Components are dipped into a molten solder bath.
temperature where the filler metal becomes so� but does not 7. Infrared Soldering: U�lizes infrared radia�on to heat the joint area for soldering.
melt. Solderability in Soldering
2. Diffusion: The filler metal diffuses into the faying surfaces of the  Solderability can be defined similarly to weldability, indica�ng how easily
parts being joined, crea�ng a strong metallurgical bond. different metals can be soldered.
HIGH ENERGY BEAM BRAZING General Guidelines:
 High energy beam brazing u�lizes electron-beam or laser-beam 1. Easy to Solder – Copper, Silver, Gold: These metals have excellent solderability.
hea�ng for specialized and high-precision applica�ons. 2. Moderately Difficult to Solder – Iron, Nickel: These metals present more
Applica�ons: Suited for high-temperature metals and alloys, where challenges when soldering.
precise control over the hea�ng process is essen�al. 3. Difficult to Solder – Aluminium, Stainless Steel: These materials are challenging
to solder due to their thinness and strong oxide films.
BRAZE WELDING
4. Special Techniques – Titanium, Magnesium, Cast Irons, Steels, Ceramics, and
 In braze welding, the joint is prepared similarly to fusion welding. Graphite: These can be soldered by first pla�ng them with suitable metallic
Process:
elements that promote interfacial bonding.
1. Preparation: The joint is set up like in traditional welding
methods. Soldering: Advantages and Disadvantages
2. Heat Source: An oxyacetylene torch with an oxidizing flame is Advantages:
used to heat the materials. 1. Lower Energy Consump�on: Requires less energy compared to brazing or fusion
3. Filler Metal Application: Unlike brazing, where filler metal is welding.
drawn into the joint by capillary action, in braze welding, the 2. Variety of Hea�ng Methods: Mul�ple techniques available, such as torch,
filler metal is deposited directly at the joint. furnace, and induc�on soldering.
3. Good Electrical and Thermal Conduc�vity: Provides effec�ve conduc�vity in the
SOLDERIN soldered joint.
4. Ease of Repair and Rework: Soldered joints can be easily repaired or modified if
• In soldering, the filler metal, known as solder, melts at rela�vely
needed.
low temperatures.
Disadvantages:
Key Characteris�cs:
1. Low Joint Strength: Joints may have low strength unless reinforced mechanically.
1. Low Surface Tension: Allows for beter we�ng and adhesion to
2. Temperature Limita�ons: Joints can weaken or melt at elevated temperatures,
surfaces.
limi�ng their applica�ons.
2. High We�ng Capability: Ensures effec�ve bonding between
components.

Applica�ons: Soldering is extensively used in the electronics industry

for joining components on circuit boards.
Limita�ons: Due to rela�vely low soldering temperatures, soldered
joints have limited-service use at elevated temperatures.
Mechanical Techniques to Secure Joints Soldering Applica�ons and Design Guidelines
Techniques: Common Joint Configurations:
1. Crimped Lead Wire on PC Board: Crimping secures the lead wire 1. Flanged T: A T-shaped joint with flanged edges for added strength.
to the printed circuit (PC) board, providing a stable connec�on. 2. Flush Lap: Overlapping surfaces that create a smooth joint.
2. Plated Through-Hole on PC Board: This method involves a 3. Flanged Corner: A corner joint with flanged edges for enhanced stability.
through-hole that is plated to enhance the solder contact surface, 4. Line Contact: A linear joint where two surfaces meet along a line.
5. Flat Lock Seam: A flat joint that locks two pieces together without overlap.
improving joint reliability.
6. Flanged Bottom: A bottom joint with flanged edges, providing support.
3. Hooked Wire on Flat Terminal: A hooked wire design allows for
7. Gull Wing: A joint resembling a gull wing, commonly used in surface mount
beter mechanical reten�on when soldering to flat terminals. technology.
4. Twisted Wires: Twis�ng wires together before soldering can 8. Through Hole: Components inserted through holes in the PCB and soldered on
enhance the mechanical strength of the joint and ensure beter the other side.
electrical conduc�vity. 9. Crimped: A mechanical connection using crimping to secure wires.

Func�ons of Soldering Fluxes

1. Molten at Soldering Temperatures: Flux should remain in a
molten state to effec�vely perform its func�ons during soldering.
2. Remove Oxide Films and Tarnish: Flux helps clean the base parts
by removing oxide films and tarnish that can inhibit solder
adhesion.
3. Prevent Oxida�on During Hea�ng: It protects the surfaces from
oxida�on as they are heated, ensuring a clean joint. Soldering Methods: Ultrasonic Soldering
4. Promote We�ng of Faying Surfaces: Flux facilitates beter  Ultrasonic Soldering involves the use of a transducer that subjects molten
we�ng of the surfaces, allowing the solder to flow and bond solder to ultrasonic cavita�on.
effec�vely. • Oxide Film Removal: The ultrasonic ac�on effec�vely removes oxide films from
5. Readily Displaced by Molten Solder: As solder melts, it should the surfaces being joined.
easily displace the flux, ensuring a clean joint.
• Elimina�on of Flux: This method can reduce or eliminate the need for flux,
6. Leave Non-Corrosive and Non-Destruc�ve Residue: Ideally, flux
leading to cleaner joints.
should leave a residue that does not corrode or damage the
components.
Note: While flux is not compulsory for soldering, it significantly FUNDAMENTAL OF WELDING
Soldering Methods
 Many soldering methods are similar to those used in brazing, but Welding Processes
they require less heat and lower temperatures.  Welding is a process used to join similar metals through mel�ng and fusion.
Addi�onal Methods: 1. Base Metals: The metals being joined.
1. Hand Soldering: Involves a manually operated soldering gun to join 2. Filler Metal: An addi�onal metal applied to aid in the welding process.
components, commonly used for small-scale or repair work. Characteris�cs:
2. Wave Soldering: A technique used for soldering mul�ple lead • Localized Heat Input: Welding uses pinpointed heat to melt the base and
wires on printed circuit boards (PCBs) in a single pass. filler metals, crea�ng a strong bond.
3. Reflow Soldering: Specifically for surface mount components on • Common Metals: Most welding involves ferrous-based metals, such as steel
printed circuit boards, where solder paste is applied and then and stainless steel.
heated to form connec�ons. Joint Strength: Weld joints are typically stronger than, or as strong as, the base
Wave metals being joined.
 Molten solder is delivered through a narrow slot, crea�ng a wave Welding
of solder that makes contact with the component leads.  Welding is a joining process where two (or more) parts are coalesced at their
Components: The PCB is posi�oned above the wave, allowing the leads contac�ng surfaces through the applica�on of heat and/or pressure.
to be immersed in the solder, ensuring efficient and uniform soldering. 1. Heat Alone: Many welding processes rely solely on heat to achieve coalescence.
2. Combina�on of Heat and Pressure: Some methods u�lize both heat and pressure
for a stronger bond.
3. Pressure Alone: Certain processes can join materials without any external heat,
relying en�rely on pressure.
4. Filler Material: In various welding processes, a filler material may be added to
facilitate coalescence and improve joint strength.
 Limita�ons and Drawbacks of 1. Diffusion Welding (DFW): Coalescence occurs through solid-state fusion
1. Manual Opera�ons: Most welding processes are performed between surfaces held under pressure at elevated temperatures.
manually, leading to higher labor costs. 2. Fric�on Welding (FRW): Coalescence is achieved by the heat generated from
2. High Energy Use: Many welding methods require high energy, fric�on between two surfaces.
which can be hazardous. 3. Ultrasonic Welding (USW): Coalescence takes place through ultrasonic
3. Disassembly Issues: Welded joints do not allow for convenient oscilla�ons applied to contac�ng surfaces under pressure.
disassembly, making repairs or modifica�ons challenging. Principal Applica�ons of Welding
4. Quality Defects: Welded joints may have quality defects that are 1. Construc�on: Used in buildings and bridges for structural integrity.
difficult to detect without specialized tests. 2. Piping: Essen�al for joining pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks.
5. Non-Destruc�ve Tes�ng (NDT): Detec�on of defects o�en requires 3. Shipbuilding: Cri�cal for construc�ng various types of vessels.
Non-Destruc�ve Tes�ng methods, adding to the overall process 4. Aircra� and Aerospace: Employed in the manufacturing of aircra� components
complexity. and structures.
Types of Welding Processes 5. Automo�ve: Widely used in the produc�on of vehicles and their parts.
 There are approximately 50 different types of welding processes 6. Railroad: Important for joining tracks and rail components.
catalogued by the American Welding Society (AWS). Welder And Filter
Major Categories:
Welder: The welder manually controls the path or placement of the welding gun to
1. Fusion Welding: Involves mel�ng the base metals and o�en
ensure precise joining of materials.
adding a filler material to create a strong joint.
Fiter: O�en assists the welder by arranging parts prior to welding, ensuring proper
2. Solid State Welding: Joins materials without mel�ng them, relying
alignment and fit.
on pressure and heat to achieve coalescence.
Welding Fixtures and Posi�oners: Tools used to assist both welders and fiters by
Fusion Welding holding the parts in place and maintaining the correct orienta�on during the welding
 Fusion welding refers to joining processes that melt the base process.
metals to create a solid joint. The Safety Issue
• Filler Metal: In many fusion welding opera�ons, a filler metal is Inherent Dangers of Welding:
added to the molten pool to facilitate the process and enhance the • High Temperatures: The process involves extremely high temperatures from
strength of the welded joint. molten metals, posing burn risks.
• Autogenous Weld: A fusion welding opera�on where no filler • Fire Hazards: In gas welding, flammable fuels (e.g., acetylene) can create fire
metal is added is referred to as an autogenous weld. hazards.
Some Fusion Welding Processes • Electrical Hazards: Many welding processes u�lize electrical power, which
1. Arc Welding (AW): Melting of the metals is accomplished using an presents the risk of electrical shock.
electric arc, which generates the necessary heat. Special Hazards in Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding (RW): Melting occurs through resistance to an
electrical current between the surfaces being joined, generating 1. Ultraviolet (UV) radia�on from welding can hurt the eyes.
heat. • Welders must wear helmets with dark glass.
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW): Melting is achieved by using an • The glass blocks harmful radia�on but makes it hard to see un�l the arc
oxyfuel gas, such as acetylene, to produce a flame that heats the starts.
metals. 2. Sparks and hot metal can cause burns.
Arc Welding • Welding also produces smoke and fumes.
 It is a manual welding process. Welders must wear protec�ve clothing • Good ven�la�on is needed to remove dangerous fumes
and a helmet for safety.
1. Before the Weld: Prepara�on of the base metal and setup of the welding
Automa�on in Welding
equipment.  Due to the risks caused by manual welding, many types of automation and
2. During the Weld: The electric arc melts the base metal, and filler metal is mechanization have been applied to improve output and enhance quality.
added to the molten pool to form a strong joint. Types:
3. Completed Weld: Once the molten pool solidifies, a completed welded • Machine welding → Welding done by a machine but controlled by a human.
joint is formed. • Automatic welding → Machine does the welding without human control.
Components: • Robotic welding → Automatic welding done by industrial robots.
• Electrode: Provides the filler material and conducts electricity. Welding Processes
• Arc: The electrical discharge that generates heat. Direct Current Electrode Negative (DCEN)
• Shielding Gas: Protects the weld from contamina�on.  Produced when the electrode is connected to the nega�ve terminal of the power
Solid State source.
 Solid state welding involves joining processes where coalescence Heat Distribu�on:
occurs through the applica�on of pressure alone or a combina�on  About 70% of the heat is concentrated at the workpiece.
of heat and pressure.  Approximately 30% is at the electrode end.
• Temperature: If heat is used, it remains below the mel�ng point of Electrode: Uses smaller tungsten electrodes that create a narrow-concentrated arc.
the metals being joined, ensuring that the materials do not melt. Weld Characteris�cs: Deep penetra�on suitable for welding most metals.
Materials: Magnesium and aluminium require a refractory oxide coa�ng for effec�ve
• Filler Metal: No filler metal is added during solid state welding; the
welding when using DCSP (Direct Current Straight Polarity).
process relies solely on the base metals.
Some Solid State Welding
Direct Current Electrode Positive (DCEP)
1. Diffusion Welding (DFW): Coalescence occurs through solid-state
 Produced when the electrode is connected to the posi�ve terminal of the
fusion between two surfaces held together under pressure at
welding power source.
elevated temperatures.
Heat Distribu�on:
2. Fric�on Welding (FRW): Coalescence is achieved by the heat
 Approximately 70% of the heat is concentrated at the electrode �p.
generated from fric�on between two surfaces in rela�ve mo�on.
 About 30% is at the workpiece.
3. Ultrasonic Welding (USW): Coalescence happens through
Electrode: Uses larger diameter tungsten to prevent mel�ng and contamina�on.
ultrasonic oscilla�ng mo�on in a direc�on parallel to the
Weld Characteris�cs: The larger electrode results in less concentrated heat at the
contac�ng surfaces of two parts held together under pressure.
Coalescence – the joining or merging of elements to form one mass or whole.
work, leading to a rela�vely wide and shallow weld.
 Fusion Welding PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)
 The process of melting and coalescing materials using heat. • Comparison: Similar to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
• Filler Metals: Metals added to the weld area during welding. (GTAW).
• Autogenous Welds: Fusion welds made without the use of filler • Electrode Posi�oning: The electrode is posi�oned
metals. within the torch body, allowing the plasma arc to be
Types of Fusion Welding separated from the shielding gas envelope.
1. Consumable Electrode:
• Opera�ng Modes: Can produce three opera�ng
• SMAW: Shielded Metal Arc Welding modes based on bore diameter and plasma gas flow
• GMAW: Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG) rate:
• SAW: Submerged Arc Welding
2. Non-Consumable Electrode:
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
• GTAW: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG) • Versa�lity: Can weld all metals, including those with
• PAW: Plasma Arc Welding high thermal conduc�vity.
3. High Energy Beam: • Dissimilar Metals: Effec�ve for welding metals with
• Electron Beam Welding dissimilar mel�ng points.
• Laser Beam Welding • Heat Input: Produces low heat input for the welded
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) parts.
• Consumable Electrode: Uses a • Distor�on: Results in minimal distor�on of the
consumable electrode. workpiece.
• Flux Coated Rod: The electrode • Speed: Offers high welding speed, making it efficient
is coated with flux. for various applica�ons.
• Protec�ve Gas: Flux produces a protec�ve gas around the weld LASER BEAM WELDING
pool. • Heat Input: Produces low heat input, minimizing
• Slag Forma�on: Slag keeps oxygen off the weld bead during thermal effects.
cooling. • Heat Affected Zone: Creates a small heat affected
• General Purpose: Suitable for various applica�ons. zone, reducing poten�al damage to surrounding
• Thickness Range: Effec�ve for materials with thicknesses from 1/8” material.
to 3/4” (3 mm to 19 mm). • Distor�on: Results in a low distor�on rate,
• Portability: Equipment is generally portable. maintaining the integrity of the workpiece.
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW) • Welding Speed: Allows for high welding speed,
enhancing efficiency in produc�on.
• MIG: Stands for Metal Inert Gas.
• Consumable Wire Electrode: Uses
RESISTANCE WELDING
a wire electrode that is fed con�nuously.
• Shielding: Provided by an inert gas, protec�ng the weld pool.  A group of welding processes where metal joining is
• Produc�vity: Offers double the produc�vity of SMAW (Shielded achieved through the heat generated from electrical
Metal Arc Welding). resistance.
• Automa�on: Easily automated for efficiency in welding • Principle: The heat is produced by the electrical current
processes. passing through the workpieces, along with the
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW) applica�on of pressure.
• TIG: Stands for Tungsten Inert Gas. • Components: Involves electrodes that provide the
• Electrode: Uses a non-consumable tungsten electrode. electrical current and apply force to the workpieces
• Filler Metal: Can be performed with or without filler metal. during the welding process.
Adhesive Bonding
• Shielding Gas: Typically uses argon as the shielding gas.
Reasons for Using Adhesive Bonding
• Applica�ons: Ideal for thin sec�ons of aluminium (Al), magnesium
(Mg), and �tanium (Ti). • Dissimilar Materials: Effec�ve for joining different materials, such as plas�c to
metal.
• Cost and Quality: Generally, the most expensive process but
produces the highest quality welds. • Damage Preven�on: Suitable for materials that could be damaged by mechanical
fasteners.
• Shock Absorp�on: Provides shock absorp�on or mechanical dampening
proper�es.
• Laminated Structures: Ideal for crea�ng laminated structures, like skin to
honeycomb configura�ons.
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Adhesive Selec�on Criteria
• Consumable Electrode: U�lizes a consumable wire electrode.  Type of Substrate: Consider the materials being bonded.
• Shielding: Provided by flux granules that cover the weld pool.  Strength Requirements: Assess the strength needed for the applica�on.
• Low UV Radia�on & Fumes: Produces minimal ultraviolet  Type of Loading: Evaluate the types of loads (sta�c, dynamic) the adhesive
radia�on and fumes. will face.
• Flux Func�on: Acts as a thermal insulator to maintain heat.  Impact Requirements: Determine if the bond needs to withstand impact
forces.
• Automa�on: Generally automated and suitable for flat surfaces.
 Temperature Resistance: Consider whether temperature resistance is
• Speed and Quality: Offers high speed and quality, typically 4 to 10 necessary.
�mes that of SMAW. Examples of Adhesives:
• Thickness: Ideal for welding thick plates. • Epoxy • Silicones
• Cyanoacrylates • Pressure Sensi�ve Adhesives (PSAs)
• Anaerobics (for metals)
• Urethanes
Advantages of Adhesive Bonding
• Joining Dissimilar Materials: Effec�vely bonds materials like plas�c
to metal.
• Damage Preven�on: Suitable for materials that may be harmed by
mechanical fasteners.
• Blind Joints: Allows for blind joint configura�ons, where the
adhesive is not visible.
• Shock Absorp�on: Provides shock absorp�on or mechanical
dampening.
• Temporary Alignment: Can facilitate temporary alignment during
assembly.
• Laminated Structures: Ideal for construc�ng laminated structures,
such as skin to honeycomb designs.
• Thin Substrates: Supports the bonding of thin substrates without
compromising structural integrity.
• Stress Distribu�on: Helps distribute stress across a wider area,
reducing the risk of failure.

Limita�ons of Adhesive Bonding

• Work Distribu�on: Adhesives do not provide structural support;
they primarily distribute work.
• Environmental Degrada�on: Suscep�ble to degrada�on from:
 Temperature: Extreme heat or cold can weaken bonds.
 Oxida�on: Exposure to oxygen can affect adhesive
performance.
• Repair Challenges: Difficult to repair once bonded, o�en requiring
complete removal and reapplica�on.
• Curing or Se�ng Time: May require significant �me to cure or set
properly before the bond can be used.
• Surface Prepara�on: Proper surface prepara�on is cri�cal for
effec�ve bonding, which can add to the complexity of the process.