PROJECT REPORT

TRANSFORMERS

PROJECT REPORT

TRANSFORMERS

Submitted by: [Your Name] Class: XII (Science) Roll No: [Your Roll Number] Subject:
Physics Submitted to: [Teacher's Name] Session: 2025-26 Date: September 12, 2025

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Physics teacher, [Teacher's Name], for
their guidance and encouragement during the preparation of this project on "Transformers".
I am also thankful to my parents and classmates for their support and suggestions. Their
assistance helped me in completing this project successfully.

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that ____________________________ (Name of the student) of Class XII

(Science) has completed the project titled "Transformers" under my supervision during the
academic session 2025-26. The project has been prepared as per the guidelines provided by
the school and is an original work.

Signature of Guide/Teacher: ____________________ Date: ________________

Name: ______________________ Designation: __________________________

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CONTENTS / INDEX

1. List of Topics ..................................... Page 5 2. Introduction

...................................... Page 6-7 3. Definition of Transformer
........................ Page 8 4. Principle of Transformer ..........................
Page 8-9 5. Construction of Transformer ....................... Page 10-11 6. Working of
Transformer ............................ Page 12-13 7. Types of Transformers
............................. Page 14-15 8. Ideal Transformer & Assumptions
................... Page 16 9. Transformer Equations ............................. Page 17
10. Efficiency & Tests ................................ Page 18 11. Losses in Transformer
............................ Page 19 12. Methods to Reduce Losses ........................
Page 20 13. Applications of Transformers ..................... Page 21 14. Advantages &
Limitations ........................ Page 22 15. Future of Transformers
.......................... Page 23 16. Conclusion .......................................
Page 24 17. Bibliography ..................................... Page 25

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LIST OF TOPICS (Presented before Introduction)

- Definition of Transformer - Principle of Transformer (Faraday's Law) - Construction of a

Transformer (Core, Windings, Insulation) - Working of a Transformer - Types of
Transformers (Step-up, Step-down, Power, Distribution, Instrument) - Ideal Transformer and
Assumptions - Transformer Equations (Turns ratio, EMF equation) - Efficiency of
Transformer and Performance Tests - Losses in Transformer (Copper, Iron, Hysteresis, Eddy
Currents) - Methods to Reduce Losses - Applications of Transformers - Advantages &
Limitations - Future Trends in Transformer Technology

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INTRODUCTION (Part 1)

A transformer is an essential static electrical device that transfers alternating current

(AC) electrical energy from one circuit to another without any change in frequency. It is
widely used to step up (increase) or step down (decrease) voltage levels in power systems,
enabling efficient transmission and safe utilization of electrical energy. The operation
of a transformer is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction, first observed by
Michael Faraday. When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding, it
produces a time-varying magnetic flux in the magnetic core which links to the secondary
winding and induces an emf there.

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INTRODUCTION (Part 2)

Transformers form the backbone of modern power systems. Electrical energy is generated at
power stations, then stepped up to high voltages for efficient long-distance transmission,
and later stepped down for distribution and use in homes, schools, and industries.
Transformers are also used in electronic circuits, measuring instruments, and many
specialised devices (e.g., X-ray machines). In this report, we will study the
construction, working principle, types, efficiency, losses, tests, applications, and
future trends of transformers. Diagrams and simple examples are included to help
understand the concepts clearly.

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DEFINITION OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical power between two or more circuits
through electromagnetic induction, without any physical connection between the circuits.
It changes the voltage and current levels but not the frequency of the supply.

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER (Overview)

The transformer works on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction: Whenever the magnetic
flux linked with a coil changes, an emf is induced in the coil proportional to the rate of
change of flux linkage. If alternating current flows through the primary winding, it
produces a time-varying magnetic flux in the core which links the secondary winding and
induces an emf in it.

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PRINCIPLE (Continued) & MATHEMATICAL FORMULATION

Faraday's law in formula form: E = -N (dΦ/dt) Where: - E is the induced emf, - N is the
number of turns, - Φ is the magnetic flux (weber).

For sinusoidal flux, the RMS value of induced emf per turn is related to maximum flux Φm
and frequency f by: E (rms) = 4.44 f N Φm This equation is used to design transformer
windings and core sizes for required voltages at a given frequency.

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CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER (Part 1)

Main parts of a transformer: 1. Magnetic Core - The core provides a low reluctance path
for the magnetic flux. - Made from silicon steel laminations stacked together to reduce
eddy current losses. - Core shapes: Core-type and Shell-type (two common designs).

2. Primary Winding - Connected to the input AC source. - Usually wound with copper
or aluminium conductor. - Insulated turn-to-turn and to the core.

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CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER (Part 2)

3. Secondary Winding - Connected to the load; receives the induced emf. - May have
more or fewer turns than the primary depending on whether step-up or step-down action is
required.

4. Insulation and Taps - Proper insulation between turns and between windings and core
is essential. - Tapping arrangements (taps) on windings allow voltage regulation (on-
load tap changers on power transformers).

5. Cooling and Tank (for large transformers) - Oil-immersed transformers use insulating
oil for cooling and insulation. - Radiators and fans are used to dissipate heat.

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WORKING OF A TRANSFORMER (Part 1)

Step-by-step working: 1. When an alternating voltage Vp is applied across the primary

winding, an alternating current flows through it. 2. This current produces a time-varying
magnetic flux Φ in the core. 3. The flux links both primary and secondary windings
(ideally all flux links both). 4. By mutual electromagnetic induction, an emf Es is
induced in the secondary winding equal to (Ns/Np)*Vp under ideal conditions. 5. If the
secondary is connected to a load, current flows and power is transferred from primary to
secondary.

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WORKING (Continued) & SIMPLE EXAMPLE

The turns ratio determines voltage transformation: Vs/Vp = Ns/Np Is/Ip = Np/Ns (for ideal
transformer, neglecting losses)

Example: If Np = 2000 turns and Ns = 1000 turns, the turns ratio Ns/Np = 0.5. For Vp = 230
V (primary), Vs = 0.5 × 230 V = 115 V (secondary).

This shows the device acts as a step-down transformer in the example above.

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TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS (Part 1)

A. Based on voltage transformation: - Step-up Transformer: Ns > Np, increases voltage

(used at generation end). - Step-down Transformer: Ns < Np, decreases voltage (used near
consumer end).

B. Based on construction / usage: - Core-type Transformer - Shell-type Transformer -

Surface-mount / small electronic transformers (in devices)

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TYPES OF TRANSFORMERS (Part 2) - Instrument Transformers

1. Current Transformer (CT): - Used to step down high currents to a measurable value
for meters and protective relays. - Typically the primary has few turns (sometimes a
single turn) and the secondary provides the measured current proportional to the primary.

2. Potential Transformer (PT) or Voltage Transformer (VT): - Steps down voltage to a

safe level for measurement instruments and protective relays. - Designed for accurate
voltage transformation with minimal phase shift.

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IDEAL TRANSFORMER & ASSUMPTIONS

An ideal transformer is a theoretical model used to simplify analysis. Assumptions: - No

energy losses (100% efficiency). - Zero resistance of windings. - Perfect magnetic
coupling (all flux links both windings). - No leakage flux, core has infinite permeability
(so magnetizing current is zero). Under these assumptions: Vp Ip = Vs Is and Vs/Vp =
Ns/Np.

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TRANSFORMER EQUATIONS (DETAILED)

Key relations for practical design: - Emf induced (rms) in a winding: E = 4.44 f N Φm (for
sinusoidal flux) - Turns ratio: a = Np/Ns - Voltage relation (ideal): Vs = (Ns/Np) × Vp -
Current relation (ideal): Is = (Np/Ns) × Ip

Designers use these equations to choose N, core area (which determines Φm), and frequency
to meet required voltage ratings.

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EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER & PERFORMANCE TESTS

Efficiency (η) = (Output Power / Input Power) × 100%

Transformers are highly efficient (common values: 95%–99%). Efficiency varies with load
because some losses are load-dependent (copper losses) and some are constant (iron
losses).

Common tests: 1. Open-circuit test (to determine core/iron losses and magnetizing
current). 2. Short-circuit test (to determine copper losses and equivalent impedance).
These tests allow calculation of efficiency and regulation values without loading the
actual transformer.

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LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER

1. Copper Loss (I²R loss) - Loss due to resistance of primary and secondary windings.
Varies with load (proportional to I²).

2. Iron Loss (Core Loss) - Hysteresis Loss: due to repeated magnetization and
demagnetization of the core material (proportional to frequency and depends on material).
- Eddy Current Loss: caused by induced currents in the core; reduced by laminating the
core.

3. Stray Losses - Leakage flux, stray eddy currents in structural parts, dielectric
losses in insulation, etc.

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METHODS TO REDUCE LOSSES

- Use low-resistance conductors (high-purity copper) for windings to reduce copper loss. -
Use silicon steel and laminated cores with thin sheets insulated from each other to reduce
eddy currents. - Use grain-oriented electrical steel to reduce hysteresis loss. - Apply
efficient cooling (oil, forced air, radiators) to keep temperature down and maintain
conductor resistance low. - Proper design to minimize leakage flux and use of insulation
materials with low dielectric loss.

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APPLICATIONS OF TRANSFORMERS

- Electric power generation and transmission: step-up at generation, step-down at

distribution. - Distribution to residential, commercial, and industrial consumers. -
Instrumentation: CTs and PTs for metering and protection. - Electronic devices: small
transformers in adapters, chargers, and power supplies. - Special equipment: X-ray
machines, induction furnaces (specialized high-voltage transformers), audio transformers,
and isolating transformers for safety.

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ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS

Advantages: - High efficiency over a wide range of loads. - Simple and reliable with long
service life. - No moving parts — low maintenance. - Essential for voltage transformation
in power systems.

Limitations: - Operates only with alternating current (AC). - Size and weight increase
with power rating (especially oil-filled power transformers). - Generates audible noise
(magnetostriction effects cause humming). - Safety hazards if not properly maintained (oil
spills, hot surfaces, high voltage).

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FUTURE OF TRANSFORMERS (TRENDS)

- Superconducting Transformers: promise very low losses and compact size (requires
cryogenics). - Solid-State Transformers: use power electronics for voltage conversion with
added control features (high-frequency operation). - Smart Transformers: integration with
smart grids for active voltage regulation, monitoring, and two-way power flows (important
for renewable energy integration). - Eco-friendly insulating oils and designs to minimise
environmental impact. - Advanced core materials and nanotechnology for lighter, more
efficient cores.

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CONCLUSION & PRACTICAL NOTES

Conclusion: Transformers are crucial components of modern electrical networks. They enable
efficient long-distance power transmission and safe distribution to end-users.
Understanding construction, working, losses, tests, and methods to improve performance is
essential for electrical engineering and physics students.

Practical demonstration tips: - Small laminated-core transformer kits or mains isolation

transformers can demonstrate the working safely. - Always follow safety: use proper
insulation, fuses, and keep clear of mains voltage unless supervised. - Use a variac or a
low-voltage AC source for classroom experiments where possible.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCES

1. NCERT Physics Textbook, Class XII, Part II (Chapter: Alternating Current and
Electromagnetic Induction) 2. H. C. Verma, "Concepts of Physics", Vol. II 3. Resnick,
Halliday & Walker, "Fundamentals of Physics" 4. B. L. Theraja, "A Textbook of Electrical
Technology" (Relevant sections on transformers) 5. Online resources: Electrical
engineering educational sites (e.g., electrical4u.com), IEEE articles for advanced topics
6. Manufacturer datasheets and transformer handbooks for practical design notes

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