Arduino UNO

IoT Physical Devices and Endpoints

Arduino
Arduino board at a block level
USB B Socket
ISCP Pins
Reset Button
USB-TTL Interface Chip
Crystal Oscillator / Ceramic Resonator
Power Path Control
Voltage Regulator
Digital & Analog IO
Status LED and Inbuilt LED
ATMega328P-The Brain
The Sketch
 In the Arduino project, a program is referred to as a
"sketch". A sketch is a file that you write your program
inside.

 It has the .inoextension, and is always stored in a folder of

the same name.

 The folder can include other files, such as a header file, that
can be included in your sketch.
A typical workflow
1. Install your board -this means installing the right "package"
for your board. Without the package, you can simply not use
your board. Installing is done directly in the IDE, and is a quick
and easy operation.

2. Create a new sketch -a sketch is your main program file.

Here we write a set of instructions we want to execute on the
microcontroller.

3. Compile your sketch -the code we write is not exactly how it

looks like when uploaded to our Arduino: compiling code means
that we check it for errors, and convert it into a binary file (1s
and 0s). If something fails, you will get this in the error console.
4. Upload your sketch -once the compilation is successful, the
code can be uploaded to your board. In this step, we connect
the board to the computer physically, and select the right serial
port.

5. Serial Monitor (optional) -for most Arduino projects, it is

important to know what's going on your board. The Serial
Monitor tool available in all IDEs allow for data to be sent
from your board to your computer.
Arduino Language
Comments
Commands
Arduino Code Basics
SETUP
SETUP
LOOP
Declaring a Variable
Using Variables
Using Variables
Conditions
Value Comparisons
IF Condition
IF Example
Input & Output
Serial.begin()

 This starts serial communication, so that the Arduino can

send out commands through the USB connection. The value
9600 is called the 'baud rate' of the connection.
Important Functions
Writing to Console
IF-ELSE Condition
IF-ELSE example
Boolean Operators- AND

 If we want all of the conditions to be true we

need to use ‘AND’ logic (AND Gate).

 We use the symbol &&

Boolean Operators- OR

 If we want either of the conditions to be true

we need to use ‘OR’ logic (OR Gate).

 We use the symbol ||

Boolean Variables
Delay
Infinite Loop
Raspberry Pi

IoT Physical Devices and Endpoints

 Raspberry Pi is the name of a series of single-board
computers made by the Raspberry pi Foundation, a UK
charity that aims to educate people in computing and create
easier access to computing education.

 The Raspberry Pi was launched in 2012 and there have been

several iterations and variations released since then. The
original Pi had a single-core 700 MHz CPU and just 256MB
RAM and the latest has a quad-core 1.4Ghz CPU with 1GB
RAM.

 The main price point for Raspberry Pi has always been $35
and all models have been $35 or less, including the Pi zero ,
which cost just $ 5
What is Raspberry Pi ?
 Credit card size single board computer or a Programmable
PC
 Developed in U.K. by Raspberry - Pi foundation in 2009
 Concept Initiated by Eben Upton who works at Broadcom
 Supported by “University of Cambridge Computer
Laboratory & Broadcom”
 To promote the study of basic computer science in schools
& to develop interest among kids and adults
 Has been a revolution in the market with over 3 million
units sold
Why Raspberry Pi ?
 Very Low Cost ($25 – Rs 1550/- for Model A & $35 – Rs
3000+/- for Model B/B+)
 Great tool for Learning Programming, Computers &
Concepts of Embedded Linux, etc
 Support for all Age Groups (School Children, College
Undergraduates, Professional Developers, Programmers)
 Supports & runs Free and Open-Source Linux OS
 Consumes less than 5W of Power
 Supports Full HD Video Output (1080p), Multiple USB Ports
, etc
 Fun to learn & explore. You are limited by your imagination
Raspberry Pi - Setup
Operating System

 A System Program that controls the execution of Application

Programs and is an interface b/w Applications & Hardware.

 It manages System Memory and Other resources of the

system.

 It makes computer convenient to use and allows system

resources to be used in an efficient manner.
GNU/Linux
 Raspbian is a free operating system based on Debian
optimized for the Raspberry Pi hardware. Debian is one of the
most popular Linux Distribution or Flavour or Distro.

 GNU/Linux – Free, Open Source, UNIX like Operating

System that runs on diverse computing Hardware Platforms. It
has Ample Support for Software development, whether kernel
or applications.

 GNU : Provides the shell, library, compilers

 Linux : Provides the Kernel

 Examples of Major Free Distros : Fedora, Ubuntu, Mandriva,

Suse, etc
Embedded Linux
 Linux running on Embedded Systems. Due to its low cost and
ease of customization, Linux has been shipped in many
consumer devices.

 Even Android is a Linux Based Operating System which is the

leading OS platform in Smartphone, Tablet Market. Other
examples include Set Top Boxes, Wireless Routers, smart
TV’s, Industrial Automation, PDA’s, etc. It has immense scope
and endless opportunities .

 The advantages of embedded Linux are multiple suppliers for

software, development and support; no royalties or licensing
fees; a stable kernel; the ability to read, modify and redistribute
the source code.
Linux Shell
 To interact with the Operating System or Hardware we need to
enter some commands in the “Shell”. Simply put, the shell is a
program that takes your commands from the keyboard and
gives them to the operating system to perform.

 In the old days, it was the only user interface available on a

Unix computer. Nowadays, we have graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) in addition to command line interfaces (CLIs) such as
the shell.

 In GUI, we have "terminal emulators” or “consoles” which are

programs that put a window up and let us interact with the
shell.
Important Commands
1. ls: “ls” command displays the list of files
present in a given directory.

2. cd: “cd” or change directory command allows

the user to traverse through the directories and
file paths.

3. cp: “cp” command is used to copy file(s) from a

source to a destination.

4. mv: Move files from source to destination

Important Commands

5. rm: “rm” command is used to remove file/files.

6. mkdir: “mkdir” command is used to make a new directory

or folder in the current path.

7. rmdir : “rmdir” command is used to remove a directory or

folder in the current path.

8. clear :“clear” command is used to clear the contents on the

terminal window.
Important Commands
9. cat :“cat” command is used to concatenate and output the
contents of the given files.

9. pwd : “pwd” command is used to check the present

working directory.

10. sudo: “sudo” allows users to run programs with the

security privileges of super user or root or administrator.

9. chmod :“chmod” allows users to change access modes on

files.
Remote Login (ssh)
Secure Shell (ssh) is a network protocol which allows remote
control of Raspberry Pi from another computer over the network.

Provides access to the Command Line and not to the Full

Desktop Environment.

You can enable or disable the SSH server on your

Raspberry Pi (it is enabled by default).

To Enable SSH, in the Terminal, enter sudo raspi- config,

enable the ssh, finish and exit the menu.

Use a third-party SSH client software on your Windows

System (like puTTy or TeraTerm) and access Raspberry Pi by
entering it’s I.P. Address, user (pi) and password (raspberry).

To check Raspberry Pi’s I.P. Address, enter ifconfig in

the terminal.
Programming on R.Pi
Raspberry Pi supports several Programming Languages like :
Python, C, C++, JAVA, Perl, HTML5, JavaScript, JQuery, etc.

Python is supported as the principal or main user

programming language.

Extremely powerful and flexible language. Can also be

used to control hardware on the Pi.
GPIO on Raspberry Pi
26 GPIO Header in Model A/B and 40 GPIO Header in
Model B

These pins are a physical interface between the Pi and the

outside world.

Out of 26, 8 are dedicated IO Lines, 2 are for UART, 4 are for
SPI (+1 for Another Chip Select) , and another 2 for the I2C
Interface (Total 17 out of 26)

Rest are Supply Rails.

Model B+ has 9 additional GPIO including a extra SPI (Total

17 + 9 = 26 out of 40)

WiringPi : Easy to use C Library for accessing the GPIO

Lines via Programming (Arduino Style Programming)
Smart and Connected
Cities
Chapter 12
 The world is rapidly urbanizing, and this trend is slated to
continue.

 Most cities started as small urban centers and grew

organically.

 Very few of them were initially designed to immediately

accommodate a very large population.

 Rapid growth typically strains city infrastructure. Roads,

bridges, and sewer systems often reach their maximum
capacity, making access to urban services challenging.
An IoT Strategy for Smarter Cities
 Managing a city bears some resemblance to managing a
corporate enterprise. As the need for efficiency increases, new
tools help increase operational efficiency.

 For cities, just as for businesses, digitization transforms the

perspective on operations. New ideas emerge, bringing
different approaches to solving management issues.
 Scalable solutions utilizing information and communications
technology (ICT) can alleviate many issues urban centers face
today by increasing efficiency, which reduces costs and
enhances quality of life.
 Cities that take this approach are commonly referred to as
smart cities
Vertical IoT Needs for Smarter Cities
 There are many differing approaches and solutions for city
management.

 All these solutions typically start at the street level, with

sensors that capture data on everything from parking space
availability to water purity.

 Data analytics is also used extensively— for example, to

reduce crime or improve traffic flows.

 When enabled through connectivity, these smart solutions can

have a transformative impact on quality of life.
 However, the growth of IoT applications for urban centers
not only delivers unique benefits for each issue it solves but
also enhances a city’s ability to develop efficient services.

 To maximize value, smart cities can combine use cases

through a shared-revenue business model together with
special partners to monetize city location services for retail
and tourism, as well as city planning, parking, and water
management.
 A recent Cisco study, as illustrated in Figure below ,
expects IoT to have the following economic impact over a
10-year period:
 Smart buildings:

 Smart buildings have the potential to save $100 billion by

lowering operating costs by reducing energy consumption
through the efficient integration of heating, ventilation, and air-
conditioning (HVAC) and other building infrastructure systems.

 Note that the financial gain applies to city budgets only when a
building is city owned.

 However, the reduced emissions benefit the city regardless of

who owns the buildings.
 Gas monitoring: Monitoring gas could save $69 billion by
reducing meter-reading costs and increasing the accuracy
of readings for citizens and municipal utility agencies.

 There are also very important advantages in terms of

safety, regardless of who operates the utility.

 In cases of sudden consumption increase, a timely alert

could lead to emergency response teams being dispatched
sooner, thus increasing the safety of the urban environment.
 Smart parking: Smart parking could create $41 billion by
providing real-time visibility into parking space availability
across a city.

 Residents can identify and reserve the closest available space,

traffic wardens can identify noncompliant usage, and
municipalities can introduce demand-based pricing.
 Water management
 Smart water management could save $39 billion by
connecting household water meters over an IP network to
provide remote usage and status information. The benefit is
obvious, with features such as real-time consumption
visibility and leak detection.

 In addition, smart meters can be used to coordinate and

automate private and public lawn watering, initiating the
watering programs at times when water consumption is
lower or in accordance with water restrictions imposed by
civic authorities.
 At a city scale, IoT can be used to manage water supply
equipment and report status (for example, open or closed,
on or off, reservoir level, output speed vs. input).

 A gate or a pump can be opened and closed remotely and

automatically in real time, based on a variety of flow input
and output analytics data.

 Vibrations can be measured to detect and predict

potential equipment failures. Repair teams can be
dispatched proactively before equipment failure occurs. These
efficiency gains directly translate into operational gains.
 Road pricing:
 Cities could create $18 billion in new revenues by
implementing automatic payments as vehicles enter busy
city zones while improving overall traffic conditions.

 Real-time traffic condition data is very valuable and

actionable information that can also be used to proactively
reroute public transportation services or private users.
Global vs. Siloed Strategies
 The main obstacle in implementing smart solutions in today’s
traditional infrastructure is the complexity of how cities are
operated, financed, regulated, and planned.

 This fragmented approach is not scalable, efficient, or

economically viable, and it does not benefit from cross-
functional sharing of data and services.

 For example, in traditional city infrastructure, parking,

lighting, and traffic departments are all administratively
independent and run separately, with their own budgets used
to invest in upgrading their respective infrastructures.
The independent investment model results in
the following problems:
1. Isolation of infrastructure and IT resources

2. No sharing of intelligence and information, such as video

feeds and data from sensors.

3. Waste and duplication in investment and effort

4. Difficulty scaling infrastructure management

 Cities need to begin with a solution that can extend systems
across vendors, technologies, and data types, and they
should approach their infrastructure investment with a
horizontal solution that addresses their issues cohesively.

 A comparison can be made to a highway system: Cities do not

have different road systems for cars, trucks, and emergency
vehicles because it is much more efficient to use a unified road
network.

 This idea can be applied to data flowing over the network:

Multiple networks are less efficient than a single unified
network. A city needs an open IoT solution that allows all
public services (garbage, parking, pollution, and so on) to use a
common network and, possibly, exchange data for cross-
optimization.
 All these requirements pose technological challenges, including
the following:
1. How do you collect the data? What are the various sources of
data, including hardware endpoints and software?
2. How do you make sure that any data collection devices, such as
sensors, can be maintained without high costs?
3. Where do you analyze the data? What data do you carry back to
the cloud, and what data do you analyze locally?
4. What kind of network connectivity is best suited for each type of
data to collect?
5. What kind of power availability and other infrastructure, such as
storage, is required?
6. How do you aggregate data from different sources to create a
unified view?
7. How do you publish the data and make it available for
applications to consume?
Smart City IoT Architecture

 A smart city IoT infrastructure is a four-layered

architecture, as shown in Figure 12-2.

 Data flows from devices at the street layer to the city

network layer and connect to the data center layer, where
the data is aggregated, normalized, and virtualized.

 The data center layer provides information to the services

layer, which consists of the applications that provide
services to the city
Street Layer
 The street layer is composed of devices and sensors that
collect data and take action based on instructions from the
overall solution, as well as the networking components
needed to aggregate and collect data.

 A sensor is a data source that generates data required to

understand the physical world. Sensor devices are able to
detect and measure events in the physical world.

 ICT connectivity solutions rely on sensors to collect the

data from the world around them so that it can be analyzed
and used to operationalize use cases for cities.
 A variety of sensors are used at the street layer for a variety of
smart city use cases
1. A magnetic sensor can detect a parking event by analyzing
changes in the surrounding magnetic field when a heavy metal
object, such as a car or a truck, comes close to it.
2. A lighting controller can dim and brighten a light based on a
combination of time-based and ambient conditions.
3. Video cameras combined with video analytics can detect
vehicles, faces, and traffic conditions for various traffic and
security use cases.
4. An air quality sensor can detect and measure gas and particulate
matter concentrations to give a hyper-localized perspective on
pollution in a given area.
5. Device counters give an estimate of the number of devices in the
area, which provides a rough idea of the number of vehicles
moving or parked in a street or a public parking area
 For each type of data to collect, there are a variety of solutions
and possible approaches. The choice of sensor technology
depends on the exact nature of the problem, the accuracy and
cost trade-offs appropriate for it, and any installation
limitations posed by the physical environment.

 One of the key aspects to consider when choosing a sensing

device is its lifetime maintenance costs. Some sensors are
mounted on city infrastructure, such as light poles.
 These sensors can benefit from the power, and possibly the
network connectivity, of their mounting location. However,
other sensors may be installed in the ground or in other
inaccessible locations.
 Thus, such sensors are normally battery operated and energy
efficient so they have long life expectancy, and they are
ruggedized to avoid maintenance costs.
 Another key aspect to consider when choosing the right
technology for a smart city is edge analytics. The many sensors
and their data must be managed through the network in a way
that securely processes data with minimal delay—and often in
real time.
 For example, a car counting sensor does not need to send an
update for each car detected; it may send only a cumulative
count every minute. Similarly, a pollution sensor may process
chemical sensing all the time but send status reports only at
intervals.
 Event-driven systems allow the city infrastructure to be
contextually intelligent so that only targeted events trigger data
transfer to the cloud. This flexibility allows the infrastructure to
monitor a large number of systems without the risk of
overloading the network with uneventful status update
messages.
 Finally, for sensor characteristics, storage is a key
consideration that depends on the method, location, and
length of time the data has to be archived.

 Data collection and storage also have an important impact

on privacy. A video sensor used to count entities may be
able to read car registration numbers or record the faces of
pedestrians. Legal and privacy considerations play a major
role in choosing a system.
City Layer

 At the city layer, which is above the street layer, network

routers and switches must be deployed to match the size of
city data that needs to be transported.

 This layer aggregates all data collected by sensors and the

end-node network into a single transport network.

 The city layer may appear to be a simple transport layer

between the edge devices and the data center or the Internet.
 However, one key consideration of the city layer is that it
needs to transport multiple types of protocols, for
multiple types of IoT applications.

 Some applications are delay- and jitter-sensitive, and some

other applications require a deterministic approach to frame
delivery. A missed packet may generate an alarm or result
in an invalid status report.

 As a result, the city layer must be built around resiliency, to

ensure that a packet coming from a sensor or a gateway will
always be forwarded successfully to the headend station.
 Data Center Layer
 Ultimately, data collected from the sensors is sent to a data center,
where it can be processed and correlated. Based on this
processing of data, meaningful information and trends can be
derived, and information can be provided back.

 For example, an application in a data center can provide a global

view of the city traffic and help authorities decide on the need
for more or less common transport vehicles.

 At the same time, an automated response can be generated. For

example, the same traffic information can be processed to
automatically regulate and coordinate the street light durations at
the scale of the entire city to limit traffic congestion.
 The key technology in creating any comprehensive smart
solution with services is the cloud.
 With a cloud infrastructure, data is not stored in a data center
owned directly or indirectly by city authorities.
 Instead, data is stored in rented logical containers accessed
through the Internet. Because the containers can be extended or
reduced based on needs, the storage size and computing power
are flexible and can adapt to changing requirements or budget
conditions.
 In addition, multiple contractors can store and process data at
the same time, without the complexity of exclusively owned
space. This proximity and flexibility also facilitate the
exchange of information between smart systems and allow for
the deployment of new applications that can leverage
information from several IoT systems.
Services Layer
 Ultimately, the true value of ICT connectivity comes from the
services that the measured data can provide to different users
operating within a city.

 Smart city applications can provide value to and visibility for a

variety of user types, including city operators, citizens, and law
enforcement.

 The collected data should be visualized according to the

specific needs of each consumer of that data and the particular
user experience requirements and individual use cases.
 For example, parking data indicating which spots are and
aren’t currently occupied can drive a citizen parking app
with a map of available spots, as well as an enforcement
officer’s understanding of the state (utilization and
payment) of the public parking space, while at the same
time helping the city operator’s perspective on parking
problem areas in the city at any given time.
On-Premises vs. Cloud
 Different cities and regions have different data hosting
requirements based on security or legal policies.

 A key consideration in developing ICT connectivity solutions

is whether a city has requirements about where data should be
hosted.

 Data can be hosted on-premises or in the cloud.

 Fog architectures provide an intermediate layer. The data

resulting from fog processing can be sent to the cloud or to a
data center operated locally (on-premises).
 A city could begin with traditional networking designs and
on-premises hosting, with the intent to protect the data, but
then it might quickly conclude that the capabilities of on-
premises data centers lag behind what cloud-hosting data
management can enable for the city.

 In that case, a hybrid hosting approach could be

implemented, whereby some data may be migrated to the
cloud while other data stays on-premises.

 For example, images from individual street cameras may be

stored locally, while the analytics about pedestrian or car
flows and the associated metadata may be hosted in the
cloud.
Smart City Security Architecture

 A serious concern of most smart cities and their citizens is

data security.
 Vast quantities of sensitive information are being shared at
all times in a layered, real-time architecture, and cities have
a duty to protect their citizens’ data from unauthorized
access, collection, and tampering.
 A security architecture for smart cities must utilize security
protocols to fortify each layer of the architecture and protect
city data.
 Figure below shows a reference architecture, with specific
security elements highlighted. Security protocols should
authenticate the various components and protect data
transport throughout.

 For example, hijacking traffic sensors to send false traffic

data to the system regulating the street lights may result in
dramatic congestion issues.

 The security architecture should be able to evolve with the

latest technology and incorporate regional guidelines.
 Starting from the street level, sensors should have their own
security protocols.

 Some industry-standard security features include device/sensor

identification and authorization; device/sensor data encryption;
Trusted Platform Module, which enables self-destruction

 when the sensor is physically handled; and user ID

authentication and authorization.
 Sensor identification and authorization typically requires a pre-
installed factory X.509 certificate and public key infrastructure
(PKI) at the organization level, where a new certificate is
installed through a zero-touch deployment process.
 This additional processing may slow the deployment but
ensures the security of the exchanges.
 Another consideration may be the type of data
that the sensor is able to collect and process.

 For example, a roadside car counter may include

a Bluetooth sensor that uniquely identifies each
driver or pedestrian.

 Security considerations should determine whether

this information should even be collected.
 The city layer transports data between the street layer and
the data center layer. It acts as the network layer. The
following are common industry elements for security on the
network layer:

1. Firewall: A firewall is located at the edge, and it should be

IPsec- and VPN-ready, and include user- and role-based
access control. It should also be integrated with the
architecture to give city operators remote access to the city
data center.

2. VLAN: A VLAN provides end-to-end segmentation of

data transmission, further protecting data from rogue
intervention. Each service/domain has a dedicated VLAN
for data transmission.
3. Encryption: Protecting the traffic from the sensor to the
application is a common requirement to avoid data
tampering and eavesdropping. In most cases, encryption
starts at the sensor level. In some cases, the sensor-to-
gateway link uses one type of encryption, and the
gateway-to-application connection uses another encryption
(for example, a VPN).
Smart City Use-Case Examples
Connected Street Lighting
 Maintenance of street lights is an operational challenge, given
the large number of lights and their vast geographic
distribution.
 Cities commonly look for solutions to help reduce lighting
expenses and at the same time improve operating efficiencies
while minimizing upfront investment.
 The installation of a smart street lighting solution can provide
significant energy savings and can also be leveraged to provide
additional services.
 In this regard, light-emitting diode (LED) technology leads
the transition from traditional street lighting to smart street
lighting
 LEDs require less energy to produce more light than legacy
lights, and they have a much longer life span and a longer
maintenance cycle.

 A leading lighting company estimates that a complete

switch to LED technology can reduce individual light bills
by up to 70%.5.

 LEDs are well suited to smart solution use cases. For

example, LED color or light intensity can be adapted to site
requirements (for example, warmer color and lower
intensity in city centers, sun-like clarity on highways, time-
and weather-adaptive intensity and color).
 Street Lighting Architecture
 Connected lighting uses a light management application to
manage street lights remotely by connecting to the smart city’s
infrastructure.
 This application attaches to LED lights, monitors their
management and maintenance, and allows you to view the
operational status of each light.
 In most cases, a sensor gateway acts as an intermediate system
between the application and the lights (light control nodes).
 The gateway relays instructions from the application to the
lights and stores the local lights’ events for the application’s
consumption.
 The controller and LED lights use the cloud to connect to the
smart city’s infrastructure, as shown in Figure 12-7.
 A human or automated operator can use a cloud application to
perform automated scheduling for lights and even get light
sensors to perform automated dimming or brightening, as
needed.

 The schedule can also impact the light intensity level and
possibly the color, depending on environmental conditions,
weather, time of year, time of day, location within the city, and
so on.
 Many solutions leverage wired connectivity, either by using
the existing city cable infrastructure or by adding a cable
adjacent to the power cable. In cases where cabling is not
practical, wireless technologies may bring interesting
capabilities.
Smart Parking

 Parking is a universal challenge for cities

around the globe.
 Ineffective parking access and administration
make parking in urban areas a constant
struggle and affect cities in many ways.
 Smart Parking Use Cases
 Added traffic congestion is one consequence of drivers
looking for parking space, and it has several consequences:
1. Contributes to pollution: Tons of extra carbon emissions
are released into the city’s environment due to cars driving
around searching for parking spots when they could be
parked.
2. Causes motorist frustration: In most cities, parking spot
scarcity causes drivers to lose patience and waste time,
leading to road rage, inattention, and other stress factors.
3. Increases traffic incidents: Drivers searching for parking
spots cause increased congestion in the streets and that, in
turn, causes increased accidents and other traffic incidents
 Revenue loss is another consequence of drivers looking
unsuccessfully for parking space, and it also has various
negative side effects:
1. Cities often lose revenue: As a result of inadequate
parking meter enforcement and no-parking, no-standing,
and loading-zone violations, cities lose revenue.
2. Parking administration employee productivity suffers:
Employees waste time roaming the streets, attempting to
detect parking rules offenders.
3. Parking availability affects income: Local shops and
businesses lose customers because of the decreased
accessibility caused by parking space shortages.
 One option for solving urban center traffic issues is to
repurpose dense urban space to create additional parking
infrastructure.
 However, such an option is often challenging, primarily
because of the costs, financial and otherwise.
 Instead of resorting to utilizing valuable city real estate to
create more parking spaces, cities often have the option of
optimizing the usage efficiency of existing parking assets to
better manage citizen needs.
 Smart Parking Architecture

 A variety of parking sensors are available on the market,

and they take different approaches to sensing occupancy for
parking spots.
 A variety of parking sensors are available on the market, and they
take different approaches to sensing occupancy for parking spots.
 Examples include in-ground magnetic sensors, which use
embedded sensors to create a magnetic detection field in a parking
spot; video-based sensors, which detect events based on video
computing (vehicle movements or presence); and radar sensors
that sense the presence of vehicles (volumetric detection).
 In high-density environments (for example, indoor parking,
parking decks), one or several gateways per floor may connect to
the parking sensors, using shorter-range protocols such as ZigBee
or Wi-Fi.
 The gateway may then use another protocol (wired or wireless) to
connect to the control station. In larger (for example, outdoor)
environments, a longer-range Low Power Wide Area (LPWA)
protocol is common, as shown in Figure
 Technology innovations are happening all the time, making
the holistic ICT connectivity architecture even more
important. For example, new detection technologies rely on
sensing the radio emissions (Bluetooth and others) coming
from a vehicle.
 The following are some potential user experiences for these
three user types:
■ City operators: These users might want a high-level map of
parking in the city to maintain perspective on the city’s
ongoing parking situation. They would also needinformation
on historical parking data patterns to understand congestion
and pain points in order to be able to effectively influence
urban planning.

■ Parking enforcement officers: These users might require

real-time updates on parking changes in a certain area to be
able to take immediate action on enforcement activities, such
as issuing tickets or sending warnings to citizens whose time is
nearing expiration. Their focus is driving revenue creation for
the city and minimizing wasted time by performing parking
monitoring and enforcement at scale
■ Citizens: These users might want an application with a map
(such as a built-in parking app in their car) showing available
parking spots, reservation capabilities, and online payment.
Their focus would be on minimizing the time to get a parking
spot and avoiding parking tickets. The application could warn
when parking duration limits approach, allowing the driver to
move the vehicle before the timer expires or pay a parking
timer extension fee without having to go back to the vehicle.
Smart Traffic Control

 Traffic is one the most well-understood pain points for any

city. It is the leading cause of accidental death globally,
causes immense frustration, and heavily contributes to
pollution around the globe.

 A smart city traffic solution would combine crowd counts,

transit information, vehicle counts, and so on and send
events regarding incidents on the road so that other
controllers on the street could take action.
Smart Traffic Control Architecture
 In the architecture shown in Figure 12-9, a video analytics
sensor computes traffic events based on a video feed and
only pushes events (the car count, or metadata, not the
individual images) through the network.

 These events go through the architectural layers and reach

the applications that can drive traffic services. These
services include traffic light coordination and also license
plate identification for toll roads.

 Some sensors can also recognize abnormal patterns, such as

vehicles moving in the wrong direction or a reserved lane
 Other types of sensors that are part of traffic control solutions
include Bluetooth vehicle counters, real-time speed and
vehicle counters, and lighting control systems.

 These sensors provide a real-time perspective while also

offering data collection services for historical data trending
and correlation purposes. Communication techniques are as
varied as sensor form factors.

 For example, counters installed in light fixtures or traffic

lights may use a wired or wireless technology and any number
of communication protocols. When a sensor is not coupled
with another IoT urban application, wireless technologies are
typically used.