Collection of Data

Studying this chapter should enable you to:

• understand the meaning and purpose of data collection;
• distinguish between primary and secondary sources;
• know the mode of collection of data;
• distinguish between Census and Sample Surveys;
• be familiar with the techniques of sampling;
• Know about some important sources of secondary data.

1. What is variable?
It is a quantity used to measure an attribute of something, which can take different values in
different situations. The variables are generally represented by the letters X, Y or Z.
Each value of a variable is an observation. For example, the food grain
production in India varies between 108 million tonnes in 1970–71 to 272
million tonnes in 2019-20. The years are represented by variable X and the
production of food grain in India (in million tonnes) is represented by variable Y.
1. What is Data?
Economic facts, expressed in terms of numbers, are called data.
2. WHAT ARE THE SOURCES OF DATA?
(i) Primary Data:
➢ The researcher may collect the data by conducting an enquiry. Such
data are called Primary Data, as they are based on first-hand information.
➢ Suppose, we want to know about the popularity of a film star among school
students. For this, we will have to enquire from a large number of school
students, by asking questions from them to collect the desired
information.
➢ The data we get is an example of primary data.
(ii) Secondary Data:
➢ If the data have been collected and processed by some other agency, they
are called secondary data.
➢ They can be obtained either from published sources such as government
reports, documents, newspapers, books written by economists or from
any other source, for example, a web site.
➢ Thus the data are primary to the source that collects and processes them
for the first time and secondary for all sources that later use such data.
➢ Use of secondary data saves time and cost.
➢ For example, after collecting the data on the popularity of the film star
among students, you publish a report. If somebody uses the data
collected by you for a similar study, it becomes secondary data.
3. What is a Survey?
Survey is a method of gathering information from individuals.
 4. What are the required precautions while preparing questionnaire?
• While preparing the questionnaire/interview schedule, you should keep in
mind the following points;
(i) The questionnaire should not be too long. The number of questions should be
as minimum as possible.
(ii) The questionnaire should be easy to understand and avoid ambiguous or
difficult words.
(iii) The questions should be arranged in an order such that the person answering
should feel comfortable.
(iv) The series of questions should move from general to specific. The
questionnaire should start from general questions and proceed to more
specific ones. For example:
Poor Q
• Don’t you think smoking should be prohibited?
• Good Q
• Do you think smoking should be prohibited?
(v) The question should not be a leading question, which gives a clue about how
the respondent should answer. For example:
Poor Q
How do you like the flavour of this high- quality tea?
Good Q
How do you like the flavour of this tea?
(vi) The question should not indicate alternatives to the answer. For example:
Poor Q
Would you like to do a job after college or be a housewife?
Good Q
What would you like to do after college?
(vii) The questionnaire may consist of closed-ended (or structured) questions or
open-ended (or unstructured) questions. The above question about what a
student wants do after college is an open-ended question.
Closed-ended or structured questions can either be a two-way question or a
multiple choice question. When there are only two possible answers, ‘yes’ or ‘no’,
it is called a two- way question.
When there is a possibility of more than two options of answers, multiple choice
questions are more appropriate. Example,

Q. Why did you sell your land?

(i) To pay off the debts.
(ii) To finance children’s education.
(iii) To invest in another property.
(iv) Any other (please specify).

(viii) Closed-ended questions are easy to use, score and to codify for analysis, because
all respondents can choose from the given options. But they are difficult to write as the
alternatives should be clearly written to represent both sides of the issue. There is also
a possibility that an individual’s true response is not present among the options given.
For this, the choice of ‘Any Other’ is provided, where the respondent can write a
response, which was not anticipated by the researcher. Moreover, another limitation
of multiple-choice questions is that they tend to restrict the answers by providing
alternatives, without which the respondents may have answered differently.
(ix) Open-ended questions allow for more individualised responses, but they are
difficult to interpret and hard to score, since there are a lot of variations in the
responses. Example,
Q. What is your view about globalisation?

5. What are the various methods of data collection?

There are three basic ways of collecting data: (i) Personal Interviews,
(ii) Mailing (questionnaire) Surveys and (iii) Telephone Interviews.

(i) Personal Interviews.

This method is used when the researcher has access to all the members. The researcher
(or investigator) conducts face-to-face interviews with the respondents.

Merits of the Method:

• Personal contact is made between the respondent and the interviewer.
• The interviewer has the opportunity of explaining the study and answering the
queries of respondents.
• The interviewer can request the respondent to expand on answers that are
particularly important.
• Misinterpretation and misunderstanding can be avoided.
• Watching the reactions of respondents can provide supplementary information.
Demerits:
• It is expensive, as it requires trained interviewers.
• It takes longer time to complete the survey.

• Presence of the researcher may inhibit respondents from saying what they really
think.
(ii) Mailing Questionnaire
When the data in a survey are collected by mail, the questionnaire is sent to
each individual by mail with a request to complete and return it by a given
date. Advantages:
• It is less expensive.
• It allows the researcher to have access to people in remote areas too, who might
be difficult to reach in person or by telephone.
• It does not allow influencing of the respondents by the interviewer.
• It also permits the respondents to take sufficient time to give thoughtful
answers to the questions.
• These days online surveys or surveys through short messaging service, i.e.,
SMS are popular.
Disadvantages
• There is less opportunity to provide assistance in clarifying instructions,
so there is a possibility of misunderstanding the questions.
• Mailing is also likely to produce low response rates due to certain factors,
 such as returning the questionnaire without completing it, not returning the
questionnaire at all, loss of questionnaire in the mail itself, etc.
(iii) Telephone Interviews
In a telephone interview, the investigator asks questions over the telephone.
Advantages
• They are cheaper than personal interviews and can be conducted in a shorter
time.
• They allow the researcher to assist the respondent by clarifying the questions.
• Telephonic interview is better in cases where the respondents are reluctant to
answer certain questions in personal interviews.
Disadvantage
• The disadvantage of this method is access to people, as many people may not
own telephones.
6. What do you mean by Pilot Survey?
Pilot Survey
Once the questionnaire is ready, it is advisable to conduct a try-out with a small
group which is known as Pilot Survey or Pre-testing of the questionnaire.
Importance of Pilot Survey:
• The pilot survey helps in providing a preliminary idea about the survey.
• It helps in pre-testing of the questionnaire, so as to know the shortcomings and
drawbacks of the questions.
• Pilot survey also helps in assessing the suitability of questions, clarity of instructions,
performance of enumerators and the cost and time involved in the actual survey.
7. Explain merits and demerits of various methods.

Personal Interview
• Highest Response Rate • Most expensive
• Allows use of all types of • Possibility of influencing
questions
• Better for using open- respondents
ended
questions • More time-taking.
• Allows clarification of
ambiguous
questions.
Mailed Interview
• Least expensive • Cannot be used by illiterates
• Only method to reach remote • Long response time
areas • Does not allow explanation
of
• No influence on respondents unambiguous questions
• Maintains anonymity of • Reactions cannot be watched.
respondents
• Best for sensitive questions.
Telephonic
Interviews
• Relatively low cost • Limited use
• Relatively less influence on • Reactions cannot be watched
respondents • Possibility of influencing
• Relatively high response rate. respondents.
8. Explain Census and Sample Methods of collecting Data:
1. Census or Complete Enumeration
• A survey, which includes every element of the population, is known as
Census or the Method of Complete Enumeration.
• If certain agencies are interested in studying the total population in
India, they have to obtain information from all the households in
rural and urban India.
• It is carried out every ten years.
• A house-to-house enquiry is carried out, covering all households in
India.
• Demographic data on birth and death rates, literacy, employment,
life expectancy, size and composition of population, etc., are collected
and published by the Registrar General of India.
• The last Census of India was held in 2011.
• According to the Census 2011, population of India was 121.09 crore,
which was 102.87 crore in 2001.
• Census 1901 indicated that the population of the country was 23.83
crore. Since then, in a period of 110 years, the population of the country
has increased by more than 97 crore.
• The average annual growth rate of population which was 2.2 per cent
per year in the decade 1971-81 came down to 1.97 per cent in 1991-
2001 and 1.64 per cent during 2001-2011.

2. Population and Sample

• Population or the Universe in statistics means totality of the items under study.
Thus, the Population or the Universe is a group to which the results of the study
are intended to apply.
• A population is always all the individuals/items who possess certain
characteristics
• according to the purpose of the survey. The first task in selecting a sample is to
identify the population.
• Once the population is identified, the researcher selects a method of
studying it.
• If the researcher finds that survey of the whole population is not possible,
then he/she may decide to select a Representative Sample.
• A sample refers to a group or section of the population from which
information is to be obtained.
• A good sample is generally smaller than the population and is capable of
providing reasonably accurate information about the population at a
much lower cost and shorter time.
• Suppose you want to study the average income of people in a certain region.
 • According to the Census method, you would be required to find out the
income of every individual in the region, add them up and divide by number of
individuals to get the average income of people in the region.
• This method would require huge expenditure, as a large number of
enumerators have to be employed.
• Alternatively, you select a representative sample, of a few individuals,
from the region and find out their income.
• The average income of the selected group of individuals is used as an estimate
of average income of the individuals of the entire region.

Example
• Research problem: To study the economic condition of agricultural labourers in
Churachandpur district of Manipur.
• Population: All agricultural labourers in Churachandpur district.
• Sample: Ten per cent of the agricultural labourers in Churachandpur
district.
Merits of Sample Survey:
• A sample can provide reasonably reliable and accurate information at a lower cost
and shorter time.
• As samples are smaller than population, more detailed information can be
collected by conducting intensive enquiries.
• As we need a smaller team of enumerators, it is easier to train them and
supervise their work more effectively.
9. How do you do the sampling?
There are two main types of sampling, random and non-random The following description
will make their distinction clear.
1. Random Sampling
As the name suggests, random sampling is one where the individual units
from the population (samples) are selected at random. The government
wants to determine the impact of the rise in petrol price on the household
budget of a particular locality. For this, a random sample of 30 households
has to be taken and studied. The names of all 300 households of that area are
written on paper and mixed, and then 30 names to be interviewed are
selected one by one.
In random sampling, every individual has an equal chance of being
selected. In the above example, all 300 sampling units of the population got an
equal chance of being included in the sample of 30 units and hence the sample,
such drawn, is a random sample. This is also called lottery method. Nowadays
computer programmes are used to select random samples.

2. Non-Random Sampling
There may be a situation that you have to select 10 out of 100 households in a
locality. You have to decide which household to select and which to reject. You
may select the households conveniently situated or the households
known to you or your friend. In this case, you are using your judgement (bias) in
 selecting 10 households. This way of selecting 10 out of 100 households is not a
random selection.
In a non-random sampling method all the units of the population do not have an
equal chance of being selected and convenience or judgement of the investigator
plays an important role in selection of the sample.
They are mainly selected on the basis of judgment, purpose, convenience or
quota and are non- random samples.
10. What do you mean by exit Polls?
You must have seen that when an election takes place, the television networks
provide election coverage. They also try to predict the results. This is done
through exit polls, wherein a random sample of voters who exit the polling
booths are asked whom they voted for. From the data of the sample of voters, the
prediction is made. You might have noticed that exit polls do not always predict
correctly.
11. What do you mean by sampling and non-sampling Errors? What type of errors are more serious and
why?
1. Sampling Errors
The difference between the actual value of a parameter of the population and
its estimate from the sample is the sampling error. It is possible to reduce the
magnitude of sampling error by taking a larger sample.
Example
Consider a case of incomes of 5 farmers of Manipur. The variable x (income of
farmers) has measurements 500, 550, 600, 650, 700. We note that the
population average of (5 0 0 + 5 5 0 + 6 0 0 + 6 5 0 + 7 0 0) ÷ 5 = 3000 ÷
5 = 600.
Now, suppose we select a sample of two individuals where x has
measurements of 500 and 600.
The sample average is (500 + 600) ÷ 2= 1100 ÷ 2 = 550.
Here, the sampling error of the estimate
= 600 (true value) – 550 (estimate) = 50

2. Non-Sampling Errors
Non-sampling errors are more serious than sampling errors because a
sampling error can be minimised by taking a larger sample. It is difficult to
minimise non-sampling error, even by taking a large sample. Even a Census
can contain non-sampling errors. Some of the non-sampling errors are:
(i) Sampling Bias
Sampling bias occurs when the sampling plan is such that some
members of the target population could not possibly be included in the
sample.
(ii) Non-Response Errors
Non-response occurs if an interviewer is unable to contact a person listed in
the sample or a person from the sample refuses to respond. In this case, the
 sample observation may not be representative.

(iii) Errors in Data Acquisition

This type of error arises from recording of incorrect responses.
Suppose, the teacher asks the students to measure the length of the
teacher’s table in the classroom. The measurement by the students may
differ. The differences may occur due to differences in measuring tape,
carelessness of the students, etc. Similarly, suppose, we want to collect data
on prices of oranges. We know that prices vary from shop to shop and from
market to market. Prices also vary according to the quality. Therefore, we
can only consider the average prices. Recording mistakes can also take
place as the enumerators or the respondents may commit errors in
recording or trans- scripting the data, for example, he/ she may record 13
instead of 31
12. Name some agencies to collect the data at national and state level.
• There are some agencies both at the national and state level to collect process
and tabulate the statistical data.
• Some of the agencies at the national level are Census of India, National
Sample Survey (NSS), Central Statistics Office (CSO), Registrar General of India
(RGI), Directorate General of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (DGCIS),
Labour Bureau, etc.
13. Write a note on Census of India.
The Census of India provides the most complete and continuous
demographic record of population. The Census is being regularly conducted
every ten years since 1881. The first Census after Independence was
conducted in 1951. The Census officials collect information on various aspects
of population such as the size, density, sex ratio, literacy, migration, rural-urban
distribution, etc. Census data is interpreted and analysed to understand many
economic and social issues in India.

14. Write a note on NSSO.

The NSS was established by the Government of India to conduct nation- wide
surveys on socio-economic issues. The NSS does continuous surveys in successive
rounds. The data collected by NSS are released through reports and its
quarterly journal Sarvekshana. NSS provides periodic estimates of literacy,
school enrolment, utilisation of educational services, employment,
unemployment, manufacturing and service sector enterprises, morbidity,
maternity, child care, utilisation of the public distribution system etc. The
NSS 60th round survey (January–June 2004) was on morbidity and healthcare.
The NSS 68th round survey (2011-12) was on consumer expenditure.
The NSS also collects details of industrial activities and retail prices for various
goods. They are used by Government of India for planning purposes.
RECAPTULATION:
• Data is a tool which helps in reaching a sound conclusion on any
problem.
• Primary data is based on first hand information.
• Survey can be done by personal interviews, mailing questionnaires
and telephone interviews.
• Census covers every individual/unit belonging to the population.
• Sample is a smaller group selected from the population from which the
relevant information would be sought.
• In a random sampling, every individual is given an equal chance of
being selected for providing information.
• Sampling error is due to the difference between the value of the sample
estimate and the value of the corresponding population parameter.
• Non-sampling errors can arise in data acquisition, by non-response or
by bias in selection.
• Census of India and National Sample Survey are two
important agencies at the national level, which collect,
process and tabulate data on many important economic and
social issues.

NCERT SOLUTIONS:
1. Frame at least four appropriate multiple-choice options for following
questions:
(i) Which of the following is the most important when you buy a new dress?
(ii) How often do you use computers?
(iii) Which of the newspapers do you read regularly?
(iv) Rise in the price of petrol is justified.
(v) What is the monthly income of your family?

2. Frame five two-way questions (with ‘Yes’ or ‘No’).

3. State whether the following statements are True or False.
(i) There are many sources of data.
(ii) Telephone survey is the most suitable method of collecting data,
when the population is literate and spread over a large area.
(iii) Data collected by investigator is called the secondary data.
(iv) There is a certain bias involved in the non-random selection of
samples.
(v) Non-sampling errors can be minimised by taking large samples.
4. What do you think about the following questions? Do you find and
problem with these questions? Describe.
(i) How far do you live from the closest market?
(ii) If plastic bags are only 5 per cent of our garbage, should it be banned?
(iii) Wouldn’t you be opposed to increase in price of petrol?
(iv) Do you agree with the use of chemical fertilisers?
(v) Do you use fertilisers in your fields?
(vi) What is the yield per hectare in your field?
 5. You want to do a research on the popularity of Vegetable Atta Noodles
among children. Design a suitable questionnaire for collecting this
information.
6. In a village of 200 farms, a study was conducted to find the cropping
pattern. Out of the 50 farms surveyed, 50% grew only wheat. What is the
population and the sample size?
7. Give two examples each of sample, population and variable.
8. Which of the following methods give better results and why?
(a) Census (b) Sample
9. Which of the following errors is more serious and why?
(a) Sampling error (b) Non-Sampling error
10. Suppose there are 10 students in your class. You want to select three out
of them. How many samples are possible?
11. Discuss how you would use the lottery method to select 3 students out of
10 in your class.
12. Does the lottery method always give you a random sample? Explain.
13. Explain the procedure for selecting a random sample of 3 students out of
10 in your class by using random number tables.
14. Do samples provide better results than surveys? Give reasons for your answer.