RQFLEVEL

RQF LEVEL5 5

CSAPS501
COMPUTER SYSTEM
AND ARCHITECTURE

Computer
Power System
Development
TRAINEE'S MANUAL
October, 2024
COMPUTER POWER SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

2024
AUTHOR’S NOTE PAGE (COPYRIGHT)

The competent development body of this manual is Rwanda TVET Board ©, reproduce with
permission.

All rights reserved.

● This work has been produced initially with the Rwanda TVET Board with the support
from KOICA through TQUM Project
● This work has copyright, but permission is given to all the Administrative and Academic
Staff of the RTB and TVET Schools to make copies by photocopying or other duplicating
processes for use at their own workplaces.
● This permission does not extend to making of copies for use outside the immediate
environment for which they are made, nor making copies for hire or resale to third
parties.
● The views expressed in this version of the work do not necessarily represent the views
of RTB. The competent body does not give warranty nor accept any liability
● RTB owns the copyright to the trainee and trainer’s manuals. Training providers may
reproduce these training manuals in part or in full for training purposes only.
Acknowledgment of RTB copyright must be included on any reproductions. Any other
use of the manuals must be referred to the RTB.

© Rwanda TVET Board

Copies available from:
o HQs: Rwanda TVET Board-RTB
o Web: [Link]
o KIGALI-RWANDA
Original published version: October 2024

iii | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The publisher would like to thank the following for their assistance in the elaboration of this
training manual:

Rwanda TVET Board (RTB) extends its appreciation to all parties who contributed to the
development of the trainer’s and trainee’s manuals for the TVET Certificate V in Computer
System and Architecture, specifically for the module "CSAPS501: Computer Power System
Development".

We extend our gratitude to KOICA Rwanda for its contribution to the development of these
training manuals and for its ongoing support of the TVET system in Rwanda.

We extend our gratitude to the TQUM Project for its financial and technical support in the
development of these training manuals.

We would also like to acknowledge the valuable contributions of all TVET trainers and industry
practitioners in the development of this training manual.

The management of Rwanda TVET Board extends its appreciation to both its staff and the
staff of the TQUM Project for their efforts in coordinating these activities.

iv | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 This training manual was developed:

Under Rwanda TVET Board (RTB) guiding policies and directives

Under Financial and Technical support of

v|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

 COORDINATION TEAM
RWAMASIRABO Aimable
MARIA Bernadette M. Ramos
MUTIJIMA Asher Emmanuel

Production Team
Authoring and Review
MBABAZI Olivier
MINANI Anastase
MISAGO John Fredy
Validation
BIZIMANA Mathias
TWIZEYIMANA Jean de Dieu

Conception, Adaptation and Editorial works

HATEGEKIMANA Olivier
GANZA Jean Francois Regis
HARELIMANA Wilson
NZABIRINDA Aimable
DUKUZIMANA Therese
NIYONKURU Sylvestre
KWIZERA INGABIRE Diane

Formatting, Graphics, Illustrations, and infographics

YEONWOO Choe
SUA Lim
SAEM Lee
SOYEON Kim
WONYEONG Jeong
MANIRAKORA Alexis

Financial and Technical support

KOICA through TQUM Project

vi | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
TABLE OF CONTENT

AUTHOR’S NOTE PAGE (COPYRIGHT)----------------------------------------------------------------------- iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
TABLE OF CONTENT ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- vii
ACRONYMS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ix
INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
MODULE CODE AND TITLE: CSAPS501 COMPUTER POWER SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT ---------- 2
Learning Outcome 1: Prepare the Working Environment --------------------------------------------- 3
Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 1: Prepare the working environment ------------- 4
Indicative content 1.1: Introduction to computer power system -------------------------------- 6
Indicative content 1.2: Analysing computer power system requirement ---------------------- 17
Indicative content 1.3: Calculation of System Power consumption ----------------------------- 34
Indicative content 1.4: Selection of tools, materials and equipment --------------------------- 39
Learning outcome 1 end assessment ------------------------------------------------------------------ 45
References---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 48
Learning Outcome 2: Implement power electronic converters ------------------------------------- 49
Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 2: Implement power electronic converters ----- 50
Indicative content 2.1: Design power electronic converters -------------------------------------- 52
Indicative content 2.2: Assembling power electronic converter components ---------------- 84
Indicative content 2.3: Testing power electronic converters ------------------------------------- 87
Learning outcome 2 end assessment ------------------------------------------------------------------ 91
References---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 93
Learning Outcome 3: Implement a Power Supply Unit (PSU) of computer system------------- 94
Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 3: Implement a Power Supply Unit (PSU) of a
computer system ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 95
Indicative content 3.1: Designing computer power distribution system ----------------------- 98
Indicative content 3.2: Assembling power supply unit ------------------------------------------- 104
Indicative content 3.3: Testing computer power supply unit ----------------------------------- 139
Learning outcome 3 end assessment ---------------------------------------------------------------- 163
References-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
Learning Outcome 4: Implement power management system ----------------------------------- 168

vii | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 4: Implement power management system --- 169
Indicative content 4.1: Designing computer power management system architecture -- 172
Indicative content 4.2: Integration of power backup system components ------------------ 219
Indicative content 4.3: Integration of power backup system components ------------------ 247
Indicative content 4.4: Maintaining power backup ----------------------------------------------- 261
Indicative content 4.5: Estimation of power system cost --------------------------------------- 267
Learning outcome 4 end assessment ---------------------------------------------------------------- 278
References-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 283

viii | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e
Manual
ACRONYMS

AC: Alternating current

ACPI: Advanced Configuration and Power Interface

ANSI: American National Standards Institute

API: Application Programming Interface

ASIC: Application-Specific Integrated Circuit

ATS: Automatic Transfer Switch

ATX: Advanced Technology Extended

AVFS: Adaptive Voltage and Frequency Scaling

AVR: Automatic Voltage Regulator

BMS: Battery Management System

CPU: Central Processing Unit

DC: Direct current

DVFS: Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling

ESD: Electro-Static Discharge

GPU: Graphical Processing Unit

IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IoT: Internet of Things

KPI: Key Performance Indicator

Li-ion: Lithium-ion (batteries)

PC: Personal Computer

PCB: Printed Circuit Board

PFC: Power Factor Correction

PSU: Power Supply Unit

PWM: Pulse Width Modulation

RAM: Random Access Memory

ix | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
RGB: Read Green Blue

RMS: Root Mean Square

ROM: Read Only Memory

RTB: Rwanda TVET Board

SFX: Small Form Factor

SMD: Surface Mount Device

SMPS: Switched Mode Power Supply

SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol

SOC: State of Charge

SOF: State of Function

SOH: State of Health

TFX: Thin Form Factor Extended

TIA: Telecommunications Industry Association

TQUM Project: TVET Quality Management Project

UPS: Uninterruptible Power Supply

VCC: Voltage Common Collector (used in the context of power supply)

VRM: Voltage Regulator Module

x|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

INTRODUCTION

This trainee's manual includes all the knowledge and skills required in Computer System and
Architecture specifically for the module of "Computer Power System Development".
Trainees enrolled in this module will engage in practical activities designed to develop and
enhance their competencies.

The development of this training manual followed the Competency-Based Training and
Assessment (CBT/A) approach, offering ample practical opportunities that mirror real-life
situations.

The trainee's manual is organized into Learning Outcomes, which is broken down into
indicative content that includes both theoretical and practical activities. It provides detailed
information on the key competencies required for each learning outcome, along with the
objectives to be achieved.

As a trainee, you will start by addressing questions related to the activities, which are
designed to foster critical thinking and guide you towards practical applications in the labor
market. The manual also provides essential information, including learning hours, required
materials, and key tasks to complete throughout the learning process.

All activities included in this training manual are designed to facilitate both individual and
group work. After completing the activities, you will conduct a formative assessment, referred
to as the end learning outcome assessment. Ensure that you thoroughly review the key
readings and the 'Points to Remember' section.

1|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

MODULE CODE AND TITLE: CSAPS501 COMPUTER POWER SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENT

Learning Outcome 1: Prepare the working environment.

Learning Outcome 2: Implement power electronic converters.
Learning Outcome 3: Implement a power supply unit (PSU) of a computer system.
Learning Outcome 4: Implement computer power management.

2|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

Learning Outcome 1: Prepare the Working Environment

3|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

 Indicative contents

1.1 Introduction to computer power system

1.2 Analysing computer system power requirement

1.3 Calculation of system power Consumption

1.4 Selection of tools, materials and equipment

Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 1: Prepare the Working Environment

Knowledge Skills Attitudes

• Definition of key concepts • Drawing a computer • Having attention to

• Description of computer power system details.
power system
architecture. • Being rapid.
• Description of computer
system parts ‘power • Analysing power supply • Having team work
consumption unit features spirit.
• Identification of tools,
• Calculating computer
materials and equipment
used in computer power power system
system. requirements.
• Selecting tools,
materials and
equipment.

4|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

Duration: 15 hrs

Learning outcome 1 objectives:

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
1. Define correctly key concepts related to computer power system.
2. Describe clearly computer power system according to their types.
3. Draw correctly computer power system architecture according to standards.
4. Calculate accurately computer power consumption according to components power
rating.
5. Select properly tools, materials and equipment according to work to be done.

Resources

Equipment Tools Materials

• PPEs • Universal plier • Isopropyl alcohol and

• Oscilloscope • Tweezers cotton swabs
• Multi-meter • Flashlight or headlamp • Electrical tapes and zip
• Function generator • Cable testers ties
• SMD rework station • ESD Tools applicator • Spare screws
• ESD workstation • Wire cutter/striper Pliers • Labelling materials
• Soldering iron • Connectors
• Di-soldering pump • Foam cleaner
• Glue gun • Battery/cells
• Jumper wires
• Breadboard
• PCB
• Power cables
• Glue stick
• Drawing materials
(papers and pencils)

5|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

 Indicative content 1.1: Introduction to Computer Power System

Duration: 3 hrs

Theoretical Activity 1.1.1: Description of computer power system concepts

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of computer power system

concepts.
i. What do you understand by the following terms?

a) Uninterruptable Power Supply

b) Power management

c) Ripple voltage and Current

d) Harmonic Distortion

e) Battery Management System (BMS)

f) Power converter

ii. What are the types of computer power supply?

iii. Identify the features of computer power supply.

iv. Give the advantages and disadvantages of computer power supply.

v. Discuss on the working principle of computer power system

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 1.1.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

6|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

 Key readings 1.1.1.:
Description of computer power system
1. Definition of key concepts
a) A computer power system is a broader term that encompasses all the components
involved in delivering electrical power to a computer. This includes:
• Power Supply: The primary component that converts AC power from the
wall outlet to DC power suitable for the computer's internal components.
• Cables: Connect the power supply to the motherboard and other
components.
• Circuitry: The internal circuitry within the computer that distributes power
to various components.
• Power Management: The system's ability to regulate power consumption
and efficiency
b) Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): A UPS provides a continuous, uninterrupted
power supply to critical loads during power outages or voltage fluctuations. It
typically consists of a battery bank and an inverter.
c) Power Management: This refers to the efficient and effective use of electrical
power. It involves techniques like power saving modes, dynamic frequency scaling,
and voltage scaling to reduce energy consumption.
d) Efficiency: The efficiency of a power system is the ratio of output power to input
power. A higher efficiency means less energy is wasted as heat.
e) Ripple Voltage and Current: These are variations in the voltage or current levels of
a power supply. Excessive ripple can cause instability and damage to sensitive
components.
f) Harmonic Distortion: This occurs when non-sinusoidal currents or voltages are
introduced into a power system. Harmonics can cause overheating, reduced
efficiency, and interference with other equipment.
g) Battery Management System (BMS): A BMS monitors and controls the battery
bank in a UPS or other battery-powered system. It ensures safe and efficient
operation by balancing cells, preventing overcharging or over-discharging, and
detecting faults.
h) Power Converter: A power converter is a device that changes the voltage, current,
or frequency of electrical power. They are essential components in power systems,
allowing for compatibility between different devices and power sources.
2. Types of computer power supply
Computer power supplies can be classified based on several factors, including their form
factor, efficiency rating, output wattage, and type of power regulation. Here's a
breakdown of the different classifications:
a) Form Factor

7|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

• ATX (Advanced Technology Extended): The most common form factor for desktop
computers. Standard size and mounting specifications.
• SFX (Small Form Factor): A smaller version of ATX, used in compact builds or mini-
ATX systems.
• TFX (Thin Form Factor): Used in slim desktop cases, often in home theater PCs.
• Flex ATX: Used in ultra-compact systems where space is critical.
• Server PSUs: Custom power supplies designed for server cases, often much larger or
built to fit specific server enclosures.
b) Efficiency Rating (80 PLUS Certification)
Power supplies are rated based on their efficiency under typical load conditions. The
higher the certification, the less power is wasted as heat.
• 80 PLUS: Standard efficiency certification.
• 80 PLUS Bronze: 82% efficiency at 50% load.
• 80 PLUS Silver: 85% efficiency at 50% load.
• 80 PLUS Gold: 87% efficiency at 50% load.
• 80 PLUS Platinum: 90% efficiency at 50% load.
• 80 PLUS Titanium: 94% efficiency at 50% load.
c) Wattage Output
• Power supplies are classified based on their maximum wattage output, which
determines how much power they can provide to the computer components.
o Low Wattage (300-500W): Suitable for basic or office desktops with
integrated graphics and low power requirements.
o Mid-Range Wattage (500-750W): Ideal for standard desktop PCs with mid-
range graphics cards and multiple peripherals.
o High Wattage (750-1200W): Needed for gaming PCs, workstations, or
systems with multiple GPUs.
o Extreme Wattage (1200W and above): Required for extreme gaming setups,
server racks, or heavily overclocked systems.
d) Power Regulation (Design)
• Non-Modular: All cables are permanently attached to the power supply unit.
• Semi-Modular: Some cables are permanently attached, while others can be
connected as needed.
• Fully Modular: All cables are detachable, allowing for better cable management and
airflow.
e) Cooling Method
• Fan-Cooled: Uses a fan to dissipate heat, common in most power supplies.
• Fanless (Passive Cooling): Designed for silent operation, suitable for low-power
systems that don’t generate much heat.
f) Specialized Features

8|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

• Redundant Power Supplies: Often used in servers where continuous uptime is
critical. These PSUs have a backup module that takes over if the main one fails.
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): A device that provides battery backup to
protect against power outages.
3. Block diagram
A Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) block diagram typically consists of several key
components that work together to convert electrical power efficiently. The diagram
starts with an AC input from the mains or DC input from a battery, followed by an EMI
filter to reduce electromagnetic interference. The input is then passed through a rectifier
and filter circuit, which converts the AC input to DC. This DC voltage is supplied to a high-
frequency switching transistor or MOSFET, controlled by a PWM controller that regulates
the switching frequency. The transistor chops the DC voltage into a high-frequency AC
signal, which is passed through a transformer to step up or step down the voltage as
required. The output from the transformer is rectified again using diodes and filtered
with capacitors to produce a stable DC output. Additionally, a feedback circuit monitors
the output voltage and sends signals back to the PWM controller to adjust the switching
duty cycle, ensuring accurate voltage regulation. An isolator may also be included for
safety and noise reduction, separating the input and output stages.

A Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) block diagram typically consists of several key
components that work together to convert electrical power efficiently. The diagram
starts with an AC input from the mains or DC input from a battery, followed by an EMI
filter to reduce electromagnetic interference. The input is then passed through a rectifier
and filter circuit, which converts the AC input to DC. This DC voltage is supplied to a high-
frequency switching transistor or MOSFET, controlled by a PWM controller that regulates
the switching frequency. The transistor chops the DC voltage into a high-frequency AC

9|Computer Power System Development – Trainee Manual

 signal, which is passed through a transformer to step up or step down the voltage as
required. The output from the transformer is rectified again using diodes and filtered
with capacitors to produce a stable DC output. Additionally, a feedback circuit monitors
the output voltage and sends signals back to the PWM controller to adjust the switching
duty cycle, ensuring accurate voltage regulation. An isolator may also be included for
safety and noise reduction, separating the input and output stages.
4. Features of computer power supply.
Here are the main features of a computer power supply:
a) Wattage (Power Output)
• Wattage Rating: Indicates the total power the PSU can supply to the
components. Common wattages range from 300W to 1200W or more,
depending on the needs of the system.
b) Efficiency Rating
• 80 PLUS Certification: A PSU's efficiency is how much of the AC power it
converts to usable DC power. An 80 PLUS certification guarantees a
minimum efficiency of 80%, with higher levels (Bronze, Silver, Gold,
Platinum, Titanium) offering even better efficiency.
c) Form Factor
• ATX, SFX, TFX, etc.: Specifies the physical dimensions and mounting
configurations of the PSU, such as ATX (the most common for desktop PCs),
SFX for smaller builds, and TFX for compact designs.
d) Connectors
• 24-Pin ATX Connector: Powers the motherboard.
• 4+4 Pin CPU Connector: Powers the CPU.
• PCIe Connectors (6-pin/8-pin): Powers high-end graphics cards.
• SATA Connectors: Powers storage devices like SSDs and HDDs.
• Molex Connectors: Older standard used for powering fans, optical drives,
etc.
e) Modular Design
• Non-Modular: All cables are permanently attached to the PSU.
• Semi-Modular: Some cables are attached, while others can be
added/removed.
• Fully Modular: All cables can be attached or detached based on the system's
needs, offering better cable management.
f) Cooling System
• Fan Size and Type: Most PSUs come with a fan to dissipate heat. The fan size
can vary (e.g., 120mm, 140mm), with larger fans generally being quieter.
• Fanless Design: Some PSUs are fanless for silent operation, typically found
in lower wattage or highly efficient models.
g) Protection Features

10 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 • Overvoltage Protection (OVP): Prevents too much voltage from damaging
components.
• Overcurrent Protection (OCP): Prevents excessive current from damaging
components.
• Short Circuit Protection (SCP): Protects the PSU and other components if a
short circuit occurs.
• Over Power Protection (OPP): Shuts down the PSU if too much power is
drawn.
• Over Temperature Protection (OTP): Shuts down the PSU if it overheats.
h) Input Voltage Range
• Universal Input: Many PSUs can automatically adjust to different input
voltages (100V-240V), making them suitable for use in different regions
without requiring manual adjustment.
i) Active Power Factor Correction (PFC)
• PFC improves the efficiency of the power supply by reducing wasted energy
and minimizing interference with other electronic devices.
j) RGB Lighting
• Some modern PSUs feature RGB lighting, which can be controlled for
aesthetic purposes, especially in gaming PCs.
k) Expansion and upgrade
• Expansion and upgrades to a computer power system typically involve
increasing its capacity or capabilities to meet growing demands or
accommodate new hardware.
l) Compatibility
• Compatibility in a computer power system refers to the ability of the power
supply unit (PSU) to work effectively with the other components in the
system.
m) Environmental impact
• The environmental impact of a computer power supply includes energy
inefficiency, leading to increased electricity consumption and carbon
emissions, along with resource-intensive manufacturing and hazardous e-
waste disposal. Inefficient models generate excess heat, requiring more
cooling and energy. Opting for energy-efficient and recyclable power
supplies helps mitigate these effects.
n) Safety margin
• The safety margin of a computer power supply refers to the extra capacity
built into the unit to handle peak power demands without overloading. It
ensures reliable performance, preventing overheating, voltage fluctuations,
and hardware damage. Choosing a power supply with an adequate safety
margin enhances system stability and longevity.

11 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 o) Budget and cost consideration
• When considering the budget and cost of a computer power supply, it's
important to balance price with efficiency and reliability. Cheaper power
supplies may lack durability and energy-saving features, leading to higher
long-term electricity costs and potential hardware damage. Investing in a
quality, energy-efficient model can save money in the long run through
reduced energy consumption and extended system lifespan.
Each of these features can vary depending on the specific PSU model and its intended
use (e.g., for basic desktop systems, gaming rigs, or servers).

4. Advantages and disadvantages of computer power supply.

a) Advantages of computer power supply

1. Reliable Power Conversion

• A PSU efficiently converts high-voltage AC from the wall socket to low-voltage DC

power, which is safe for the computer's internal components (CPU, GPU,
motherboard, etc.).

2. Component Protection

o Many PSUs come with safety features like Overvoltage Protection (OVP),
Overcurrent Protection (OCP), Short Circuit Protection (SCP), and Over
Temperature Protection (OTP) to safeguard the components from damage due
to power surges, overheating, or short circuits.

3. Modular Cabling (for modular and semi-modular PSUs)

o Modular PSUs allow users to only connect the cables they need, improving airflow
and reducing cable clutter. This feature is especially useful in custom PC builds
where neat cable management is desired.

4. High Efficiency

o Modern PSUs, especially those with 80 PLUS certification, are highly efficient,
meaning they waste less power as heat and deliver more energy to the system,
lowering electricity costs and reducing environmental impact.

5. Wide Range of Wattage

o PSUs come in various wattage options, from 300W to over 1200W, ensuring
that systems with different power needs (from basic office PCs to high-end
gaming rigs) can be adequately powered.

6. Customizability

12 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 o Some high-end PSUs offer RGB lighting and are compatible with software
controls for gaming setups, adding aesthetic value to custom PC builds.

7. Universal Voltage Support

o Many PSUs feature Active PFC (Power Factor Correction) and can automatically
adjust to different input voltages (100V-240V), making them versatile for use
worldwide without manual switching.

b) Disadvantages of computer power supply

1. Cost (for higher-end models)

o High-efficiency PSUs, especially those with 80 PLUS Gold, Platinum, or Titanium

certifications, tend to be more expensive. Similarly, modular and RGB models
typically cost more than non-modular and basic units.

2. Size and Form Factor Limitations

o Larger, higher-wattage PSUs (like ATX models) may not fit in smaller PC cases.
Specialized builds (e.g., compact or mini PCs) may require SFX or other small form
factor PSUs, limiting options and potentially increasing cost.

3. Efficiency Variability

o Lower-end or non-certified PSUs may have poor energy efficiency, wasting more
electricity as heat, which not only increases energy costs but also increases system
heat, requiring better cooling.

4. Potential for Noise

o Some PSUs, particularly those with smaller fans or cheaper designs, can generate
significant noise, especially under heavy loads. This can be bothersome in quiet
environments.

5. Complexity of Selection

o Selecting the correct PSU for a system can be challenging, especially for new
builders. Choosing a PSU with inadequate wattage or missing connectors can lead
to system instability or even component failure.

6. Limited Upgradability

o If a PSU has insufficient wattage or connectors, upgrading components (like

adding more powerful GPUs or additional hard drives) may require a PSU
replacement, adding to the overall cost.

7. Energy Loss at Low Loads

13 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 o Some PSUs are not very efficient at low loads, leading to wasted energy and heat
production when the computer is not fully utilizing the PSU's capacity.

8. Cable Clutter (for non-modular PSUs)

o Non-modular PSUs come with all cables permanently attached, which can result
in unused cables cluttering the inside of the case, reducing airflow and making
cable management difficult.

5. Working principle of computer power system

A computer power system, often referred to as a Power Supply Unit (PSU), is responsible
for converting the incoming AC (alternating current) power from the electrical outlet into
the DC (direct current) voltages required by various components within the computer.

a) Power conversion
• Transformer: This component reduces the high voltage from the electrical
outlet to a lower voltage suitable for the computer's components.
• Rectifier: Converts the AC voltage into a DC voltage. This is typically done using
diodes.
• Filter: Smooths out the pulsating DC voltage produced by the rectifier, creating
a more stable DC output.
• Voltage Regulators: These circuits ensure that the output voltage remains
constant, even as the load (demand for power) changes. This is crucial to
prevent damage to computer components.
b) Power distribution
• Multiple Output Voltages: A PSU typically provides multiple DC voltages, each
tailored to the specific requirements of different components. These voltages
might include:
o +3.3V: Used for low-power components like memory and input/output devices.
o +5V: Used for various components, including the motherboard and some
peripherals.
o +12V: Used for high-power components like the CPU and graphics card.
o -12V: Used for specific components, such as serial ports.

Points to Remember

• An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is a device that provides backup power to

a system when the primary power source fails or experiences significant voltage
fluctuations.

14 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 • Power management refers to the techniques and technologies used to optimize the
use of electrical power in systems and devices.
• Efficiency in electrical and power systems is the ratio of useful power output to the
total power input.
• Ripple voltage is the residual periodic variation of the DC voltage within a power
supply.
• Ripple current is the alternating component of current in a DC power supply or
circuit, often caused by the same factors.
• Harmonic distortion refers to the deviation of a voltage or current waveform from
its ideal sinusoidal shape due to the presence of harmonics
• A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic system that manages a
rechargeable battery.
• A Power Converter is a device that converts electrical energy from one form to
another.
• Types of computer power supply
Computer power supplies can be classified based on several factors, including their
form factor, efficiency rating, output wattage, and type of power regulation.
• Features of computer power supply are:
✓ Wattage
✓ Efficiency ratings
✓ Form factor
✓ Cooling system
✓ Modular design
✓ Protection features
✓ Power factor correction
✓ Input voltage range
✓ RGB lighting
• Advantages of computer power supply are:
✓ Reliable Power Conversion
✓ Component Protection
✓ Modular Cabling (for modular and semi-modular PSUs)
✓ High Efficiency
✓ Wide Range of Wattage
✓ Customizability
✓ Universal Voltage Support
• Disadvantages of computer power supply are:
✓ Cost (for higher-end models)
✓ Size and Form Factor Limitations
✓ Efficiency Variability
✓ Potential for Noise
✓ Complexity of Selection
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 ✓ Limited Upgradability
✓ Energy Loss at Low Loads
✓ Cable Clutter (for non-modular PSUs)
• Working principle of computer power system
A computer power system, often referred to as a Power Supply Unit (PSU), is
responsible for converting the incoming AC (alternating current) power from the
electrical outlet into the DC (direct current) voltages required and distribute it to
various components within the computer.

Application of learning 1.1.

A friend needs a new gaming PC for his children at home because the older one is
consuming too much power and lately it produced smoke, the friend asked for the
considerations for a new power supply replacement. As the technician, advise your friend
about the features of a good computer power supply.

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 Indicative content 1.2: Analysing Computer Power System Requirement

Duration: 5 hrs

Theoretical Activity 1.2.1: Identification of computer system parts’ power

consumption
Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of computer power system.

i. Identify computer system parts power consumption
ii. Discuss the following computer power system mode:
a) Idle mode.
b) Sleep mode.
c) Maximum load power rating mode
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.
3: Present your findings to the class.
4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 1.2.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 1.2.1:

Analysing computer system power requirement
1. Identification of computer system parts’ power consumption
a) Computer system parts
Understanding the power consumption of individual computer components
is crucial for optimizing energy efficiency and system performance. Here's a
breakdown of common parts:
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
• Motherboard
• RAM
• Storage
• Power Supply
• Cooling System
b) Computer system parts' power consumption under idle mode
Power consumption of different computer system parts in idle mode involves
monitoring each component's power usage when the system is not under load.
Here's how you can estimate the power consumption of key parts under idle
conditions:

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 1. CPU (Central Processing Unit): The CPU typically consumes less power when
idle due to power-saving features such as reducing clock speed and voltage.
• Identification:
o Use tools like HWMonitor, CoreTemp, or Intel Power Gadget to monitor
CPU power consumption.
o Check the idle power rating in the CPU’s datasheet. Modern CPUs
typically consume between 5W to 20W in idle mode.
2. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit): A dedicated GPU also lowers its power
consumption significantly when idle, often turning off most of its power-hungry
cores.
• Identification:
o Use tools like GPU-Z or MSI Afterburner to monitor GPU power
consumption in real-time.
o Idle power consumption for high-end GPUs can range from 10W to 30W,
while low-power integrated GPUs (iGPUs) can consume less than 5W.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory): RAM modules consume a constant amount
of power, even when idle. The power consumption is primarily related to keeping
data accessible.
• Identification:
o Most RAM modules consume around 2W to 5W per module under idle
conditions.
o You can estimate this based on the number of RAM sticks and their
voltage (e.g., 1.35V or 1.5V) from their technical specifications.
4. Motherboard and Chipset: The motherboard, along with its chipset, voltage
regulators, and various controllers, consumes power continuously even when
idle.
• Identification:
o The power consumption of a motherboard and chipset is usually
estimated to be around 20W to 40W, depending on the complexity and
features.
o Some monitoring software like HWMonitor may give an overall estimate
of motherboard power.
5. Storage Devices (HDD/SSD): Hard drives and SSDs typically have low power
consumption when idle, especially SSDs due to the lack of moving parts.
• Identification:
o SSDs typically consume between 0.5W to 2W when idle.
o HDDs consume more, typically around 4W to 6W due to motor activity
even in idle states.
o Use tools like CrystalDiskInfo to monitor storage device power status.

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 6. Power Supply Unit (PSU): The PSU itself consumes a small amount of power
(around 1-5W) in idle mode due to inefficiencies, even if the system is not
drawing much power.
• Identification:
o You can measure the total system power draw from the wall using a
power meter (such as a Kill-A-Watt device) and subtract the power usage
of other components to estimate PSU overhead during idle.
7. Fans and Cooling System: Case fans, CPU coolers, and other cooling
components typically run at reduced speeds when the system is idle, lowering
their power consumption.
• Identification:
o Fans generally consume between 1W to 5W each depending on their size
and speed.
o Use motherboard monitoring software (such as Fan Xpert or the BIOS
settings) to check fan speed and voltage to estimate power draw.
8. Peripherals and External Devices: Devices like keyboards, mice, and external
USB devices consume power, but typically a minimal amount when idle.
• Identification:
o USB devices may draw between 0.5W to 2W.
o The total power consumption of peripherals can be observed by using a
power meter connected to the entire system.

c) Identification of computer system parts' power consumption under

sleep mode
Power consumption of different parts of a computer system while in sleep mode
involves understanding how each component behaves during low-power states.
Here’s an estimation of power consumption for the main parts of a system in
sleep mode:
Steps to Identify Power Consumption in Sleep Mode:
1. Motherboard: Supplies minimal power to maintain essential processes, like
monitoring the power button and enabling wake-up events (keyboard/mouse
inputs).
• Power Consumption: Typically consumes between 1-5 watts.
2. CPU (Central Processing Unit: The CPU enters a low-power state (C-states),
where it reduces or halts execution. The lowest states consume minimal power
while maintaining memory integrity.
• Power Consumption: Typically, <1 watt in deep sleep modes.
3. RAM (Random Access Memory): The RAM stays partially powered to retain
data, especially in S3 sleep states (Suspend-to-RAM).

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 • Power Consumption: Varies depending on the RAM type and capacity. Typically
consumes around 1-3 watts.
4. Power Supply Unit (PSU): Supplies minimal power to components like the
motherboard, RAM, and USB devices. The PSU’s efficiency also affects overall
power draw in low-power states.
• Power Consumption: PSUs consume 1-10 watts, depending on efficiency and the
components still drawing power.
5. Storage Devices (HDD/SSD): Hard drives (HDDs) spin down, and solid-state
drives (SSDs) enter a low-power state, reducing power draw significantly.
• Power Consumption:
o HDDs: Typically consume 0.5-2 watts.
o SSDs: Typically consume less than 1 watt.
6. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): The GPU enters a low-power state and stops
processing visual tasks.
• Power Consumption: Modern GPUs use very little power, often <1 watt in sleep
mode.
7. USB and Peripherals: Certain peripherals, like USB devices, may still draw
power to allow the system to wake from USB inputs.
• Power Consumption: USB devices may consume 0.5-2 watts depending on the
device.
8. Display Monitor: Monitors usually enter standby mode, using very little power
or turning off entirely.
• Power Consumption: Generally, 0.5-2 watts in standby mode.

Summary of Typical Power Consumption in Sleep Mode:

Component Power Consumption (Watts)
Motherboard 1-5 watts
CPU <1 watt
RAM 1-3 watts
PSU (overhead) 1-10 watts
HDD/SSD 0.5-2 watts (HDD) / <1 watt (SSD)
GPU <1 watt
USB Devices/Peripherals 0.5-2 watts (varies)
Monitor 0.5-2 watts (standby)

d) computer system parts' power consumption under maximum power

rating mode
Computer system's power consumption under maximum power rating mode,
it’s important to understand how each component contributes to the overall
power draw, especially under full load.

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 Below is an outline of key parts and their typical power consumption when
operating at maximum capacity.
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is one of the most power-hungry
components, especially under heavy workloads like gaming, video editing, or
scientific simulations.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o Mainstream desktop CPUs consume 65–150 watts under maximum load.
o High-end or overclocked CPUs can draw 150–300 watts, particularly in
enthusiast or workstation systems.
2. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): The GPU is often the single largest power
consumer in a system, particularly during gaming, 3D rendering, or machine
learning tasks.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o Entry-level GPUs may consume 50–150 watts.
o Mid-range GPUs consume 150–250 watts under full load.
o High-end GPUs like NVIDIA's RTX 4080 or AMD's RX 7900 XTX can draw
250–450 watts or more under extreme conditions.
3. Motherboard: The motherboard itself consumes some power to support its
chipset, ports (USB, Ethernet, etc.), and other integrated components.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o Most motherboards consume around 30–80 watts depending on the
chipset and the number of connected peripherals.
4. Memory (RAM): RAM power consumption increases with both the amount
and the speed (frequency) of the memory modules.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o A single stick of DDR4 or DDR5 memory typically consumes 3–5 watts.
o In systems with multiple memory modules (e.g., 32 GB or 64 GB setups),
total power consumption could reach 20–40 watts.
5. Storage Devices: Power consumption of storage devices depends on the type
(SSD vs. HDD) and the number of devices installed.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o HDDs (3.5”): Consume around 6–10 watts during read/write operations.
o SSDs (2.5" SATA): Use 2–5 watts under load, making them more power-
efficient.
o NVMe SSDs: Typically consume 4–7 watts under full load.
6. Power Supply Unit (PSU): The PSU itself draws some power to operate and
loses some energy due to inefficiency (heat generation). The 80 PLUS efficiency
rating gives a general indication of how efficiently the PSU converts AC to DC
power.

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 • Typical Power Consumption:
o A 500-watt system could draw 10–20% more from the wall depending on
PSU efficiency (e.g., drawing 550–600 watts for a 500W output at 80%
efficiency).
7. Cooling Fans and Liquid Coolers: Cooling systems, including case fans and
CPU/GPU coolers, use power proportional to their size, speed, and number.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o Standard case fans consume about 2–6 watts each.
o All-in-one (AIO) liquid coolers with pumps and multiple fans can consume
10–20 watts.
8. Peripherals (Monitors, USB Devices): External devices connected via USB
ports, like keyboards, mice, external hard drives, or RGB lighting, also draw power
from the system.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o USB peripherals (keyboard, mouse) consume about 1–5 watts each.
o External hard drives consume 5–10 watts.
o RGB lighting and USB-powered gadgets can add 2–10 watts depending
on their usage.
9. Optical Drives (If Present): Optical drives (DVD, Blu-ray) are less common
today, but they consume power during read/write operations.
• Typical Power Consumption:
o Optical drives typically use 15–25 watts during operation, though idle
consumption is lower.

Practical Activity 1.2.2: Drawing a computer power system architecture

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 1.2.2 you are requested to perform the following task:

As technician in computer system architecture, using drawing material you are requested
to draw computer power system architecture block diagram.

2: Present the work done to trainer.

3: Ask question if any for clarification.

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 Key readings 1.2.2
Drawing a computer power system architecture

1. Understand power flow

In a computer power system, the power flow generally follows a hierarchical structure,
starting from the AC power source and ending at the individual components. Here's a
breakdown:

i. AC Power Input:
The system starts with AC power from a wall outlet. This power is typically 110-120V
or 220-240V, depending on the region.
ii. Power Supply Unit (PSU)
The PSU is the primary component responsible for converting AC power to DC
power.
iii. Distribution:
The PSU distributes the DC power to various components within the computer using
cables and connectors. These connectors are typically modular, allowing for
flexibility in connecting components.
2. Draw lines to components

In a computer power system architecture, drawing lines to components refers to the

process of visually representing the connections and power flow between various
elements within the system. This is crucial for understanding how electrical energy is
distributed from the power source through different components, ensuring that each
part receives the appropriate voltage and current necessary for operation.

Steps to Draw Power Flow and Lines to Components in Computer Power System:

Step 1: Gather Required Tools: Use drawing materials pen and paper.

Step 2: Identify Key Components, these includes:

a) Power Source: This could be an AC mains supply or a battery.

b) Power Supply Unit (PSU): Converts AC to DC and regulates voltage levels.

c) Motherboard: The main circuit board that distributes power.

d) Central Processing Unit (CPU): The primary processor that requires power.

e) Random Access Memory (RAM): Temporary storage that also needs power.

f) Peripheral Devices: Such as hard drives (HDD/SSD), graphics cards (GPU), and
other add-ons.

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 Step 3: Understand Power Flow.

a) The power source provides electrical energy.

b) The PSU receives this energy, converting it from AC to DC while regulating voltage
levels suitable for various components (+3.3V, +5V, +12V).
c) The PSU distributes the converted power through connectors on the
motherboard.
Step 4: Create a Basic Layout

Start with a rectangle labelled “Power Source” at the top of your diagram.

Below it, draw another rectangle labelled “Power Supply Unit (PSU)” connected by an
arrow indicating the flow of electricity.

Step 5: Add the Motherboard

Draw a rectangle for the “Motherboard” below the PSU.

Connect the PSU to the motherboard with an arrow indicating power distribution.

Step 6: Include Major Components Connected to Motherboard

From the motherboard, draw arrows leading to:

A rectangle for “CPU”

A rectangle for “RAM”

A rectangle for “GPU”

A rectangle for “HDD/SSD”

Step 7: Draw Lines to Components

When drawing this architecture diagrammatically:

a) Start with a rectangle representing the Power Source, labeled accordingly.

b) Draw an arrow from the Power Source to another rectangle representing

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 the Power Supply Unit (PSU) indicating the flow of electricity.

c) From the PSU, draw multiple arrows leading to:

• A rectangle for the Motherboard, indicating that it distributes power

further.

• Additional rectangles for each type of peripheral device (like HDDs, SSDs,
GPUs) connected via lines showing their respective connections.

Each line should be labelled with its function (e.g., “12V”, “5V”, “3.3V”) to indicate what
type of voltage is being supplied.

Step 8: Label Your Diagram

Next to each line connecting components, label them with their respective voltage
levels:

For example, label lines from PSU to CPU as “+12V”, from PSU to RAM as “+5V”, etc.

Ensure all components are clearly labelled and that arrows indicate directionality of
power flow.

The following is a block diagram of a computer power system

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 Theoretical Activity 1.2.3: Description of features for analysing PSU

Tasks:

1: Describe the following features applied in analysis of power supply unit

i. Efficiency consideration
ii. Expansion and upgrades
iii. compatibility
iv. Form factor
v. Environmental impact
vi. Safety margins
vii. Budget and cost considerations

2: Write a detailed report for the above analysis.

3: Present the report to trainer.

4: Read the key reading 1.2.3 from trainee’s manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 1.2.3

Analysis of Power Supply Unit (PSU) features

1. Efficiency consideration
Its efficiency directly impacts energy consumption, heat generation, and overall
system performance.

Factors Affecting PSU Efficiency:

✓ Efficiency Rating:
o Expressed as a percentage, it indicates how much of the input power is converted
into usable output power.
o Higher ratings (e.g., 80+ Bronze, 80+ Silver, 80+ Gold) denote better efficiency.
✓ Load:
The PSU's efficiency can vary depending on the load it's handling.
Many PSUs achieve their peak efficiency at around 50% load.
✓ Internal Components:
The quality of components like capacitors, transformers, and rectifiers significantly
impacts efficiency.
Higher-quality components often lead to better efficiency.
✓ Design and Topology:
The PSU's design and topology (e.g., single-rail vs. multi-rail) can influence efficiency.

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 ✓ Cooling:
Adequate cooling helps prevent overheating, which can reduce efficiency and
lifespan.
✓ Age:
Over time, components can degrade, leading to reduced efficiency.
2. Expansion and upgrade
When considering upgrading or expanding your computer system, the power supply
unit (PSU) is often an overlooked but crucial component. An underpowered PSU can
limit your system's performance, cause instability, and even damage components.

Reasons for Upgrading or Expanding a PSU:

✓ Adding Components: If you plan to add components such as a high-end

graphics card, multiple hard drives, or a liquid cooling system, you'll need a
PSU that can deliver enough power to support the increased demand.
✓ Overclocking: Overclocking components requires more power, so a PSU with
a higher wattage rating is essential.
✓ Future-Proofing: A more powerful PSU can provide a buffer for potential
future upgrades, allowing you to add components without having to replace
the PSU immediately.
✓ Improving Efficiency: Upgrading to a more efficient PSU can reduce energy
consumption and heat generation.
3. Verify compatibility
When selecting a power supply unit (PSU) for your computer, compatibility is crucial
to ensure proper functionality and prevent damage. Here are the key factors to
consider:
• Wattage Rating:
✓ System Requirements: Determine the total power consumption of your
components (CPU, GPU, motherboard, storage devices, etc.).
✓ PSU Wattage: Ensure the PSU's wattage rating is significantly higher than
your system's total power consumption to allow for headroom and future
upgrades.
• Connectors:
✓ Required Connections: Verify that the PSU has the necessary connectors
(ATX 24-pin, CPU power, PCIe power, SATA power, etc.) to power your
components.
✓ Cable Length: Ensure the cables are long enough to reach your
components within the case.
4. Form factor
• Case Compatibility: Check if the PSU's form factor (ATX, Micro-ATX, Mini-ITX)
matches your computer case's dimensions and mounting points.

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 5. Environmental impact
Computer power supply units (PSUs) play a crucial role in powering our electronic
devices, but they also have environmental implications. Here's a breakdown of the
primary environmental impacts:
• Electronic Waste:
✓ Disposal: When PSUs reach the end of their lifespan, they become
electronic waste, which can contribute to pollution if not disposed of
properly.
✓ Hazardous Materials: Some PSUs contain hazardous materials like lead
and mercury, which can contaminate the environment if not recycled
responsibly
• Heat Generation:
✓ Energy Loss: Inefficient PSUs can generate excessive heat, which can
lead to energy loss and increased cooling requirements.
✓ Climate Change: Increased cooling demands can contribute to higher
energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.
• Mitigating Environmental Impacts:
✓ Energy-Efficient Models: Choose PSUs with high efficiency ratings (e.g.,
80+ Gold, 80+ Platinum) to reduce energy consumption.
✓ Proper Disposal: Recycle old PSUs responsibly to minimize electronic
waste and prevent hazardous materials from entering the environment.
✓ Standby Mode: Turn off or unplug devices when not in use to reduce
standby power consumption.
✓ Energy-Efficient Cooling: Use efficient cooling solutions to minimize
energy consumption for cooling purposes.
✓ Support Sustainable Manufacturing: Choose brands that prioritize
sustainable manufacturing practices and minimize environmental
impacts.
6. Safety margin
A power supply unit (PSU) is a critical component in a computer system, responsible for
delivering power to all internal components. Ensuring a sufficient safety margin in a PSU
is essential to prevent system instability, component damage, and potential safety
hazards.

Factors Affecting Safety Margins:

• Wattage Rating:
o Overload Protection: A PSU with a higher wattage rating than your system's
total power consumption provides a safety margin to handle unexpected
spikes or future upgrades.

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 o Overcurrent Protection: Built-in overcurrent protection circuits within the
PSU help prevent damage to the PSU and connected components in case of
excessive current draw.
• Efficiency Rating:
o Heat Generation: A higher efficiency rating (e.g., 80+ Gold, 80+ Platinum)
reduces heat generation, which can improve reliability and safety.
o Power Conversion: Efficient PSUs convert more input power into usable
output power, reducing the risk of power fluctuations or voltage drops.
• Certification:
o Safety Standards: Certifications like 80+ Platinum and ATX12V ensure
compliance with industry safety standards, providing additional assurance of
safety.
• Protection Features:
o Overvoltage Protection: This feature prevents excessive voltage from
reaching connected components, protecting them from damage.
o Short-Circuit Protection: This feature automatically shuts down the PSU if a
short circuit occurs, preventing electrical damage.
o Over temperature Protection: This feature shuts down the PSU if it reaches
excessive temperatures, preventing overheating and potential fires.
• Quality Components:
o Reliability: Using high-quality components can improve the PSU's overall
reliability and reduce the risk of failures.
• Cable Management:
o Heat Dissipation: Proper cable management helps improve airflow within
the case, preventing overheating and improving safety.
7. Budget and cost considerations
When developing a computer power supply unit (PSU), budget and cost are important
factors to consider. The price of a PSU can vary widely depending on its wattage,
efficiency rating, features, and brand. Here's a breakdown of the key factors
influencing PSU costs:
• Wattage:
o Power Requirements: Higher wattage PSUs generally cost more as they are
designed to handle more demanding components.
o Future Upgrades: Consider your future upgrade plans to avoid having to
replace the PSU later.
• Efficiency Rating:
o Energy Savings: PSUs with higher efficiency ratings (e.g., 80+ Gold, 80+
Platinum) tend to be more expensive but can save you money on electricity
bills in the long run.

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 o Environmental Impact: Higher efficiency ratings also contribute to a smaller
carbon footprint.
• Features:
o Modular Cables: Modular cables can add to the cost, but they offer more
flexibility and can improve airflow within your case.
o Additional Features: Features like active PFC, Japanese capacitors, or RGB
lighting can also increase the price.
• Brand:
o Reputation: Well-known brands often command higher prices due to their
reputation for quality and reliability.
o Warranty: Consider the warranty length and coverage offered by different
brands.

Points to Remember

• The parts of a computer that consume power include the following components:

✓ Central Processing Unit (CPU)

✓ Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
✓ Motherboard
✓ Power Supply Unit (PSU)
✓ Memory (RAM)
✓ Storage Devices (HDDs and SSDs)
✓ Cooling Systems (Fans, Liquid Cooling)
✓ Optical Drives (CD/DVD/Blu-ray)
✓ Peripherals Connected via USB
✓ Network Interface Cards (NICs)
✓ Monitors (External)

• Computer power modes:

✓ Idle mode in a computer refers to a state where the system is powered on but is
not actively performing any significant tasks or running resource-intensive
programs. In this mode, the computer's components (CPU, GPU, RAM, etc.)

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 operate at minimal activity levels, conserving power while remaining ready to
quickly resume full operation when needed.

✓ Sleep mode in a computer is a low-power state that allows the system to

conserve energy while still maintaining its operational state. In sleep mode, the
computer stops most of its activity, but it stores the current state (open
applications, files, and settings) in RAM so that the user can quickly resume
where they left off without rebooting the system.

✓ Maximum load power rating in a computer refers to the highest amount of

electrical power that the system or a specific component can safely consume or
draw from the power supply under full workload conditions. It indicates the total
power requirement that a computer can demand when all components (such as
the CPU, GPU, storage, and peripherals) are running at or near their maximum
capacity.

• Steps to Draw Power Flow and Lines to Components in Computer Power System:
Step 1: Gather Required Tools.
Step 2: Identify Key Components of computer power system.
Step 3: Understand Power Flow.
Step 4: Create a Basic Layout.
Step 5: Add the Motherboard.
Step 6: Include Major Components Connected to Motherboard.
Step 7: Draw Lines to Components.
Step 8: Label Your Diagram.

• Key features to consider during analysis of power supply unit:

✓ Efficiency consideration

Efficiency directly impacts energy consumption, heat generation, and overall computer
system performance.

✓ Expansion and upgrade

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When considering upgrading or expanding your computer system, the power supply unit
(PSU) is often an overlooked but crucial component. An underpowered PSU can limit your
system's performance, cause instability, and even damage components.

✓ Compatibility

When selecting a power supply unit (PSU) for your computer, compatibility is crucial to
ensure proper functionality and prevent damage. Here are the key factors to consider:

✓ Form factor

Case Compatibility: Check if the PSU's form factor (ATX, Micro-ATX, Mini-ITX) matches your
computer case's dimensions and mounting points.

✓ Environmental impact

Computer power supply units (PSUs) play a crucial role in powering our electronic devices,
but they also have environmental implications. Here's a breakdown of the primary
environmental impacts: electronic waste, heat generation, power consummation.

✓ Safety margin

Power supply unit (PSU) is a critical component in a computer system, responsible for
delivering power to all internal components. Ensuring a sufficient safety margin in a PSU is
essential to prevent system instability, component damage, and potential safety hazards.

✓ Budget and cost considerations

When developing a computer power supply unit (PSU), budget and cost are important
factors to consider. The price of a PSU can vary widely depending on its wattage, efficiency
rating, features, and brand. Here's a breakdown of the key factors influencing PSU costs.

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 Application of learning 1.2.

Your school recently purchased a high-performance desktop computer for the technical
lab, designed to support heavy computational tasks such as 3D rendering, machine
learning simulations, and gaming development. However, after a few days of use, the
computer starts shutting down randomly when running resource-intensive software.

Task:

You need to analyse the computer's power requirements and determine whether the
current Power Supply Unit (PSU) is sufficient to support all the components.

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 Indicative content 1.3: Calculation of System Power Consumption

Duration: 5 hrs

Practical Activity 1.3.1: Calculating System Power consumption

Task:

1: You are requested to perform the following task:

As technician in computer system architecture, you are requested to go in computer lab

and pick any computer to calculate its components power consumption, efficiency, total
harmonic distortion and power fluctuations.

2: Present the work done to trainer.

3: Ask question if any for clarification.

4: Read the key reading 1.3.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 1.3.1.:

Calculating System Power consumption
To calculate system power consumption and related factors such as component power
consumption, efficiency, total harmonic distortion (THD), and power fluctuations, here’s
a structured approach:

1. Components Power Consumption:

Each component in the system consumes power. The total power consumption of the
system is the sum of the individual power consumptions of each component.
Formula:
P =V×I
Where:
Pcomponent = Power consumption of the component (Watts)
V=Voltage across the component (Volts)
I= Current flowing through the component (Amps)

Steps:
Identify the voltage (V) and current (I) for each component.
Multiply voltage and current to get the power consumption of each component.

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 Sum the power consumption of all components to get the total system power
consumption.

Example:
If you have a CPU that consumes 12V and draws 5A, and a GPU that consumes 12V and
draws 7A:
PCPU=12V×5A=60WP
PGPU=12V×7A=84W
PTotal=60W+84W=144W

2. System Efficiency:
Efficiency is the ratio of useful power output to total power input, expressed as a
percentage.
Formula:

Where:
η = Efficiency (%)
Poutput= Power delivered to the load (Watts)
Pinput = Power consumed from the power source (Watts)

Steps:
Measure or calculate the power output to the load and the power consumed
from the source.
Divide the output power by the input power and multiply by 100 to get efficiency.
Example:
If a power supply provides 144W output and consumes 160W from the mains:

3. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD):

THD is a measure of how much harmonic distortion is present in a signal. In power
systems, it typically refers to distortion in the voltage or current waveform.
Formula for Voltage THD:

Where:
V1 = Fundamental voltage (first harmonic)
V2,V3,…,Vn= Harmonic voltages

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 Formula for Current THD:

Where:
I1 = Fundamental current
I2,I3,…,In = Harmonic currents

Steps:
Use an oscilloscope or power quality analyzer to measure the harmonic voltages
or currents.
Apply the THD formula to calculate the percentage distortion.

Example:
If the fundamental current (I1) is 10A, and the second and third harmonic currents are
1A and 0.5A respectively:

4. Power Fluctuations:
Power fluctuations refer to variations in power delivered to the system over time. These
fluctuations can arise due to changes in voltage, current, or load conditions.

Formula:
Power fluctuation can be measured by observing the variance or range in power
consumption over time.
Pfluctuation = Pmax − Pmin
Where:
Pmax = Maximum power recorded
Pmin = Minimum power recorded

Steps:
Use a power meter or energy analyzer to monitor power consumption over time.
Identify the maximum and minimum power values and subtract to find the
fluctuation.

Example:
If the power supply fluctuates between 140W and 160W:
P(fluctuation)=160W−140W=20W

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 Points to Remember

• Power Consumption: The amount of electrical energy used by a device or system

over a certain period, typically measured in watts (W) or kilowatt-hours (kWh).
• Power Efficiency: The ratio of useful power output to the total power input,
expressed as a percentage. High efficiency means less energy is wasted.
• Total Harmonic Distortion (THD): A measure of the distortion in an electrical signal
caused by harmonics (undesired frequencies). Lower THD indicates a cleaner and
more stable signal, important for ensuring high-quality power and minimizing
interference.
• Power Fluctuation: Variations in voltage, current, or frequency in an electrical
system, which can affect device performance and longevity if they occur frequently
or are severe.

Steps to go through while calculating total system power consumption of a computer:

i. List the Power Ratings of Components

ii. Use the Power Consumption Formula

iii. Sum the Power Consumption

Pt=P1+P2+….+Pn

iv. Power Supply Efficiency Factor

v. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)

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 Application of learning 1.3.

As technician you are given a small DC power supply system designed to run multiple
components, such as an LED light, a cooling fan, and a small motor. The system is
powered by a DC source, and each component has a power rating. The system is supplied
of 12V and current of 0.1A, 0.5A and 1A flow through the system respectively, also it is
connected to a multi-meter and an oscilloscope to measure current, voltage, and any
distortions in the waveform.

a) You are asked to calculate the power consumption for each component.

b) If the power supply provides 25W, and the total power consumed by the components
is 19.2W, calculate the system efficiency.

38 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 Indicative content 1.4: Selection of Tools, Materials and Equipment

Duration: 2 hrs

Theoretical Activity 1.4.1: Description of tools, material and equipment

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of computer power system.

i. What do you understand by the following terms?

a) Tool

b) Material

c) Equipment

ii. Give at least four examples for each term

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 1.4.1 from your manual to get more clarifications .

Key readings 1.4.1

Selecting tools, materials and equipment
Developing a computer power system involves a variety of tools, materials, and
equipment. Here's a categorized list of what you might need:
1) Tools
A tool is a handheld or mechanical device used to carry out a specific function or task,
typically aiding in the construction, maintenance, or repair of systems or products. Tools
are often portable and designed to make manual work easier.
These are handheld or software tools used to assemble, test, or manage the system.
The following are some examples of tools:
a) Assembly and Maintenance Tools:
o Soldering Iron and Solder
o Wire Strippers and Cutters
o Screwdrivers
o Pliers and Tweezers
o Cable Ties and Organizers
b) Testing and Debugging Tools:

39 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 o Multimeter
o Oscilloscope
o Power Analyzers
o Test Load
o Thermal Cameras
c) Software Tools:
o Power Management Software
o Simulation Tools (MATLAB, LTSpice, Proteus)
2) Materials
A material is a substance or component that is used in the production, construction, or
manufacturing of goods. It is typically consumed or used up in the process and forms
part of the final product.
These are consumable or physical components used in the building or operation of the
system.
The following are some examples of materials used in computer power system:
a) Power Supply Components:
o Power Supply Unit (PSU)
o Voltage Regulators (e.g., LM317, LM7805)
o Capacitors
o Inductors
o Diodes (e.g., Bridge Rectifiers)
o Heat Sinks
o Transformers
o Fuses and Circuit Breakers
b) Control and Monitoring Components:
o Relays
o Power Transistors
c) Energy Storage:
o Batteries (e.g., Li-ion, Lead Acid)
o Supercapacitors
d) Cables and Connectors:
o Power Cables
o Connectors (Molex, ATX, SATA)
o Breadboard and Jumper Wires
e) Protection and Insulating Materials:
o Surge Protectors
o Grounding Equipment
o ESD (Electrostatic Discharge) Protection
o Insulating Materials
3) Equipment

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 Equipment refers to larger, more complex machines, devices, or installations used for
performing specific functions or tasks, often in industrial or professional settings.
Equipment is typically not portable and involves machinery or electronic devices that
assist in completing tasks.
These are larger, more permanent devices or machines that assist in the creation or
operation of the system.

The following are examples of some equipment used computer power system
development:
a) Power Supply Components:
o Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
b) Testing Equipment:
o Circuit Testers
o Power Analyzers
This classification helps distinguish between the various roles and functions of each item
in the development of a computer power system.

Practical Activity 1.4.2: Selecting tools, material and equipment

Task:

1: Referring to key reading 1.4.2 you are requested to go into workshop and perform
the following activities:
2: Select tools, materials and equipment from work place needed for computer power
system development.
3: Prepare a written report of tools, materials and equipment needed for computer
power supply development.
4: Present the work done to trainer.

Key readings 1.4.2

Selecting tools, materials and equipment
Below are the steps involved in selecting tools, materials, and equipment:
Step1. Define the Project Requirements: Start by identifying the specific goals of the
project and the tasks that need to be performed. This will help in determining the types
of tools, materials, and equipment required. Determine the scale and complexity of the
project (e.g., small-scale installation vs. large industrial project). This will influence the
type and capacity of the tools and equipment.

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 Example: For a solar water pumping system, the main objective is to ensure efficient
water pumping using solar energy.

Step2. Identify Key Specifications: Define the technical requirements for the materials,
tools, and equipment (e.g., voltage, capacity, efficiency).and also ensure that the
selected items meet industry standards and certifications (e.g., CE, ISO, or IEC for
electrical components).

Step3. Research Available Options: Investigate available options by consulting

manufacturers, suppliers, or technical manuals to see what tools, materials, and
equipment are available.
Look for customer reviews, product feedback, or testimonials that can give insights into
the reliability and performance of specific items.

Step4. Determine Compatibility: Ensure that the tools, materials, and equipment are
compatible with each other and with existing infrastructure or systems and opt for
equipment and materials that adhere to common standards, allowing easier integration
and future upgrades.

Step5. Evaluate Cost and Budget Constraints: Establish a budget for the tools, materials,
and equipment based on the project's financial plan and perform a cost-benefit analysis
to ensure the selected items offer the best value for the money, balancing cost with
performance, durability, and longevity.

Step6. Prioritize Safety and Compliance: Choose tools and equipment that meet
relevant safety regulations to ensure safe operation during and after installation and
prioritize tools and equipment that reduce the risk of injury or accidents during use.

Step7. Assess Durability and Longevity: Select materials that can withstand the
environmental conditions in which they will be used (e.g., UV exposure, water contact,
temperature fluctuations) and choose tools and equipment that are low-maintenance or
come with easily available spare parts for long-term reliability.

Step8. Final Selection: Based on the evaluation of cost, safety, durability, and
performance, make the final selection of tools, materials, and equipment.

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 Points to Remember
• A tool is a handheld or mechanical device used to carry out a specific function or task,
typically aiding in the construction, maintenance, or repair of systems or products. Tools
are often portable and designed to make manual work easier.
Examples: Screwdriver, hammer, soldering iron, pliers, wire cutters.

• A material is a substance or component that is used in the production, construction, or

manufacturing of goods. It is typically consumed or used up in the process and forms part
of the final product.
Examples: Copper wire, steel, plastic, diodes, resistors, capacitors, solder.

• Equipment refers to larger, more complex machines, devices, or installations used for
performing specific functions or tasks, often in industrial or professional settings.
Equipment is typically not portable and involves machinery or electronic devices that
assist in completing tasks.
Examples: Oscilloscopes, power supplies, computers, CNC machines, 3D printers.

The steps involved in selecting tools, materials, and equipment:

Step1. Start by identifying the specific goals of the project and the tasks that need to be
performed.
Step2. Define the technical requirements for the materials, tools, and equipment (e.g.,
voltage, capacity, efficiency).
Step3. Investigate available options by consulting manufacturers, suppliers, or technical
manuals to see what tools, materials, and equipment are available.
Step4. Ensure that the tools, materials, and equipment are compatible with each other.
Step5. Establish a budget for the tools, materials, and equipment based on the project's
financial plan.
Step6. Choose tools and equipment that meet relevant safety regulations to ensure safe
operation during.
Step7. Select materials that can withstand the environmental conditions in which they will
be used.

Step8. Make the final selection of tools, materials, and equipment based on the evaluation
of cost, safety, durability, and performance,

43 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 Application of learning 1.4.

A computer refurbishment company need to set up a working environment for computer

power system development.

As a skilled computer technician you are required to select and setup tools, material and
equipment to accomplish tasks in this company.

44 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 Learning outcome 1 end assessment

Theoretical assessment

A. Multiple choice questions: Encircle the letter with the correct answer.

1. What is the main purpose of power management in computers?

A. To increase the processing power of the CPU

B. To enhance the computer’s graphics performance

C. To reduce energy consumption when the system is idle

D. To permanently shut down the computer when not in use.

2. Which of the following is a common feature of power management in modern

operating systems?

A. Overclocking the CPU

B. Sleep and Hibernate modes

C. Increasing monitor brightness at night

D. Preventing the system from shutting down automatically

3. Which of the following power supplies provides battery backup to protect against power
outages?

A. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)

B. Switching Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

C. Direct Current (DC) power supply

D. External Power Adapter

4. Which factor determines the total amount of power a power supply can deliver to a
computer's components?

A. Form factor

B. Wattage rating

C. Connector type

D. Cooling system

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5. What is the significance of the 80 PLUS certification for power supplies?

A. It guarantees the power supply has over 80 connectors

B. It ensures the power supply has a minimum efficiency of 80% under typical loads

C. It signifies the power supply can operate at 80°C without overheating

D. It ensures the power supply supports multiple form factors

6. Which type of connector is typically used to power modern motherboards?

A. Molex connector

B. SATA connector

C. 24-pin ATX connector

D. 6-pin PCIe connector

7. Which of the following best describes the "ATX" feature of a power supply?

A. It refers to the wattage of the power supply

B. It indicates the form factor and physical dimensions of the power supply

C. It describes the cooling system used by the power supply

D. It specifies the efficiency rating of the power supply

8. What is the purpose of having a cooling system, such as a fan, in a computer power
supply?

A. To improve the power efficiency

B. To cool the processor directly

C. To prevent the power supply from overheating and damaging internal

components

D. To reduce the noise generated by the power supply

9. What is the primary function of a computer power supply's power conversion process?

A. To convert DC voltage to AC voltage for internal components.

B. To regulate the speed of data transmission between components.

C. To convert incoming AC voltage to DC voltage for computer components.

D. To store power for backup during a power outage.

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10. How is power distributed to various computer components from the power supply unit
(PSU)?

A. Through multiple voltage rails that deliver different voltages to specific

components

B. Using a single high-voltage rail that powers all components equally

C. By converting DC power back to AC for each individual component

D. Through an external transformer that distributes power directly to the

motherboard

B. Match each term in Column A with the correct description from Column B.

Column A Column B

1. Wattage A. Converts AC power from the outlet to DC power for internal

components.

2. Efficiency Rating (80 B. Ensures efficient power usage with a minimum of 80%
PLUS) under typical loads.

3. Power Conversion C. The total amount of power the PSU can deliver to a
system's components.

4. Power Distribution D. A 24-pin connector that supplies power to the

motherboard.

5. Power fluctuation E. Standardized size and shape of the PSU to fit into most PC
cases.

6. ATX Form Factor

Practical assessment

You are an IT technician tasked with building a custom desktop computer for a client who
needs it for high-performance tasks such as gaming, video editing, and 3D rendering. The
client has provided you with a list of components, and you must ensure that the power
supply you choose can adequately handle the total power consumption of the system
while leaving some headroom for future upgrades. You also need to consider the
efficiency of the power supply to avoid energy waste.

47 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 References

Books:

Hart, D. W. (2010). Power Electronics. McGraw-Hill Education.

Kazimierczuk, M. K. (2016). Pulse-Width Modulated DC-DC Power Converters (2nd ed.).
Wiley.
Keith B. Taylor M. (2011). Switch Mode Power Supply (3rd edition). Mc Graw Hill.
Mohan, N., Undeland, T. M., & Robbins, W. P. (2003). Power electronics: Converters,
applications, and design (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Rashid, M. H. (2013). Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices & Applications (4th ed.). Pearson.
Web Links:
Cooler Master. (2013). Power supplies catalog. Cooler Master. Retrieved from
[Link]
MathWorks. (n.d.). Power Converters. Retrieved from
[Link]
MDPI. (n.d.). Power Converters in Power Electronics. Retrieved from
[Link]
Sea Sonic Electronics Co., Ltd. (2009). Power supplies. Sea Sonic Electronics Co., Ltd.
Retrieved from [Link]
Tameson. (n.d.). Power Converters and Their Many Uses. Retrieved from
[Link]

END

48 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
Learning Outcome 2: Implement Power Electronic Converters

49 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 Indicative contents

2.1 Design power electronic converters

2.2 Assembling power electronic converter components

2.3 Testing power electronic converters

Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 2: Implement Power Electronic

Converters

Knowledge Skills Attitudes

• Description of power • Installing of simulation • Willing to explore new
semiconductor devices software ideas
• Description of power • Drawing of power • Taking responsibility
electronics converter electronics converters • Having attention to
circuit diagrams details
• Simulating the power • Being organized
converter • Being patient
• Generating power • Being a time manager
converter PCB design
• Assembling power
electronic converter
components
• Testing power
electronic converters

Duration: 35 hrs
Learning outcome 2 objectives:

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
1. Describe clearly power semiconductor devices based on their types and application.
2. Describe correctly power electronics converters based on their types and application.
3. Install properly simulation software for designing power converters in computer.
4. Draw correctly power electronic converters using simulation software.
5. Simulate correctly power electronic converters using simulation software.
6. Generate properly power converter PCB using simulation software.

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 7. Assemble properly power electronic converter components according to their types.
8. Test accurately power electronic converters of computer power system according to
testing methodology.

Resources

Equipment Tools Materials

• Personal Computer • Screwdrivers • Power Semiconductor

• PPEs • Needle-nose pliers devices
• Oscilloscope • Universal plier • Soldering materials
• Multi-meter • Tweezers • Power cables
• Function generator • Flashlight or headlamp • Glue stick
• SMD rework station • Cable testers • Drawing materials
• Drawing table • Wire cutter/striper (papers and pencil)
• DC Power supply Pliers • Electronic Passive
• ESD workstation • Soldering iron Components
• • Office UPS • De-soldering pump • Isopropyl alcohol and
• Glue gun cotton swabs
• Circuit Simulation and • Electrical tapes and zip
drawing software (NI ties
Multisim, Proteus, • Spare screws
Autodesk Eagle, Easy • Labelling materials
EDA, matlab, CAD) • Connectors
• Drawing accessories • Foam cleaner
• Battery/cells
• Jumper wires
• Breadboard
• PCB

51 | C o m p u t e r P o w e r S y s t e m D e v e l o p m e n t – T r a i n e e M a n u a l
 Indicative content 2.1: Design Power Electronic Converters

Duration: 20 hrs

Theoretical Activity 2.1.1: Description of power semiconductor devices

Tasks:

1: You are requested to answer the following questions related to description of power
semiconductor devices.
i. What do you understand by power semiconductor devices?
ii. Identify the symbols of power semiconductor components?
iii. Describe the working principles of power semiconductor devices.
iv. Identify the power rating of semiconductor devices.
v. Identify the applications of power semiconductor devices.
2: Write your findings/answers on papers or flipchart.
3: Present your findings to the class.
4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 2.1.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 2.1.1.:

Description of power semiconductor devices
1. Definition
A power semiconductor device is a type of semiconductor device designed to handle and
control high levels of electrical power. These devices function as switches or rectifiers,
efficiently converting and managing electrical energy in power systems.
Power semiconductor devices are specifically engineered for high voltage and current
applications, making them essential in power conversion and power supply systems.
2. Symbols of power semiconductor components
Power diode

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistor (MOSFET)

Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

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 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)

Triode for Alternating Current (TRIAC)

3. Working principles
Power semiconductor devices are essential for controlling and converting electrical energy
in various power electronics systems. Their working principle primarily revolves around
their ability to act as switches or amplifiers, enabling the efficient control of high voltages
and currents.
Below is a detailed explanation of the working principles of key power semiconductor
devices:
3.1 Power Diodes
• Working Principle: A power diode allows current to flow in one direction (forward-
biased) and blocks current in the reverse direction (reverse-biased).When diode is
Forward Bias the anode is more positive than the cathode, the diode conducts. The
electric field at the p-n junction decreases, allowing charge carriers (electrons and
holes) to flow, resulting in current conduction. When diode is in Reverse Bias the
cathode is more positive than the anode, the depletion region widens, preventing
current flow. A small reverse leakage current may flow, but the diode essentially
blocks current.

3.2 Thyristors (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers - SCR)

• Working Principle: A thyristor is a four-layer, three-terminal device (anode, cathode,
gate) that functions as a switch, allowing current to flow between the anode and
cathode when triggered by a gate pulse. Once triggered, it latches into the conducting
state, continuing to allow current flow even after the gate pulse is removed, as long
as the current remains above the holding threshold. The thyristor turns off only when
the current drops below this level, such as when the AC cycle crosses zero. Triggering
occurs when a small current applied to the gate forward-biases the inner junction,
initiating conduction.

3.3 Power MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor)

• Working Principle: A power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device used for high-
speed switching. It operates by applying a voltage to the gate, which creates an

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 electric field that either forms (enhancement mode) or depletes (depletion mode)
a conductive channel between the source and drain, allowing or stopping current
flow. Its low gate capacitance enables rapid switching, making it suitable for high-
frequency applications.

3.4 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)

• Working Principle: An Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) combines the high-
speed switching and high efficiency of a MOSFET with the high-current handling and
low on-state voltage drop of a bipolar junction transistor (BJT). It is voltage-
controlled, where a small gate voltage regulates a larger current flow between the
collector and emitter, similar to how a MOSFET operates. When turned on, the IGBT
exhibits low conduction losses, making it well-suited for high-power applications
due to its efficiency in managing large currents with minimal power dissipation.

3.5 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

• Working Principle: A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled device
with three terminals: base, collector, and emitter. It operates by using a small base
current to control a much larger current flow between the collector and emitter,
making it effective for amplifying input signals. In addition to amplification, BJTs can
function as switches—when in saturation mode, they allow current to flow freely
between the collector and emitter, while in cut-off mode, no current flows,
effectively turning the switch off.

3.6 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)

• Working Principle: A Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO) is similar to a conventional
thyristor but with the added ability to be turned off by applying a negative gate
current. It operates by using a small positive gate pulse to trigger conduction,
allowing current to flow between the anode and cathode. Unlike regular thyristors,
which require external circuitry to turn off, the GTO can be turned off by applying a
negative gate pulse, which extracts charge carriers and interrupts the conductive
state. This feature makes it more versatile in controlling high-power circuits.

3.7 Triac
• Working Principle: A Triac is a bidirectional device that operates similarly to a
thyristor but can conduct current in both directions, making it suitable for
controlling AC power. It allows switching of AC loads by conducting during both the
positive and negative half-cycles of an AC signal. A small gate current triggers the
Triac, and once it is activated, it remains on until the current flowing through it drops
below a certain holding value, enabling efficient control of AC power in applications
like dimming lights or speed control in motors.

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 4. Power rating
The power rating of power semiconductor devices is a critical parameter that defines the
maximum amount of electrical power the device can safely handle without failure. It is
influenced by factors such as voltage, current, and heat dissipation capabilities. Here’s a
breakdown of power ratings for different semiconductor devices:

4.1 Diodes:
• Power Rating: Typically ranges from a few watts (for small signal diodes) to several
kilowatts (for high-power rectifiers).
• Key Factors: Forward current, reverse voltage, and junction temperature.

4.2 Transistors (BJTs, MOSFETs, IGBTs):

• Power Rating:
o BJT: From milliwatts to several hundred watts.
o MOSFET: Can range from less than a watt for small MOSFETs to tens or hundreds
of kilowatts for power MOSFETs.
o IGBT: Used in high-power applications, with ratings up to several megawatts.
• Key Factors: Collector-emitter voltage, collector current, junction temperature, and
thermal resistance.

4.3 Thyristors (SCRs, Triacs):

• Power Rating: Can handle up to hundreds of kilowatts, commonly used in high-
power AC and DC systems.
• Key Factors: Forward current, reverse blocking voltage, and thermal characteristics.

4.4 IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors):

• Power Rating: Commonly used in high-power switching applications with power
ratings from kilowatts to megawatts.
• Key Factors: Gate voltage, switching frequency, current handling capacity, and
thermal management.

4.5 Power Modules (combinations of diodes, IGBTs, MOSFETs):

• Power Rating: Designed for industrial applications, these can handle from several
kilowatts to megawatts.
• Key Factors: System voltage, current, and temperature control mechanisms.

5. Applications of power semiconductor devices

Power semiconductor devices are widely used in applications that involve switching,
controlling, and converting electrical energy at high efficiency. Below are the primary
applications of power semiconductor devices:

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 • Rectifiers (AC-DC Converters): Used in power supplies to convert alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC) for powering various electronic equipment like computers,
TVs, and industrial systems.

• Inverters (DC-AC Converters): Power semiconductor devices are used to convert DC

power (from batteries or renewable energy sources) to AC for powering AC loads or for
grid integration.

• DC-DC Converters: Widely used in portable electronics devices, electric vehicles, and
renewable energy systems to step up or step down DC voltage levels.

Theoretical Activity 2.1.2: Description of power electronic converter

Tasks:

1: You are requested to describe by defining and identifying components of each of the
following types of power converters:
i. AC to DC converter
ii. DC to AC converter
iii. DC to DC converter
iv. AC to AC converter
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.
3: Present your findings to the class.
4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 2.1.2 from your manual to get more clarifications.

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 Key readings 2.1.2.:
Description of power converter
1. AC to DC converter
Definition: An AC to DC converter, also known as a rectifier, is an electrical device used
to convert alternating current (AC), into direct current (DC). These converters are
commonly used in power supplies for electronic devices, battery charging systems, and
any application that requires stable DC power from an AC source.

Main Components of an AC to DC Converter:

i. Transformer: Used to step up or step down the AC voltage to a desired level
before conversion.
ii. Rectifier: This is the primary component responsible for converting AC to DC. It
uses diodes to allow current to flow in only one direction.

There are different types of rectifiers:

o Half-Wave Rectifier: Uses a single diode to convert one half of the AC

waveform into DC.
o Full-Wave Rectifier: Uses multiple diodes to convert both halves of the
AC waveform into DC.
o Bridge Rectifier: A more efficient type of full-wave rectifier using four
diodes to allow full utilization of the AC waveform.

iii. Filter (Capacitors or Inductors): After rectification, the output is typically a

pulsating DC. A filter is used to smooth the pulsations and provide a more stable
DC output by reducing ripple.
iv. Voltage Regulator: This component stabilizes the DC output voltage to a constant
level, which is necessary for sensitive electronic devices.

2. DC to AC converter
A DC to AC converter, commonly known as an inverter, is a device that converts direct
current (DC), into alternating current (AC). Inverters are widely used in applications
where devices need to operate on AC power, but the available power source is DC, such
as in solar power systems, battery-powered devices, and uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS).

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 Components of a DC to AC Converter:
i. DC Input: The input source is typically a DC power supply, such as a battery, solar
panel, or other DC sources.

ii. Oscillator: The oscillator generates a high-frequency switching signal, which is

necessary to convert the DC input into a form suitable for AC generation. The
switching frequency depends on the type of inverter and the application.

iii. Switching Devices: Transistors, MOSFETs, or IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar

Transistors) are used to control the switching of the DC input. These devices
rapidly switch the DC input on and off to simulate the alternating waveform.

iv. Transformer: In some designs, a transformer is used to step up the output voltage
to the required AC voltage level (e.g., from 12V DC to 220V or 110V AC).

v. Filtering Circuit: Capacitors and inductors are used to smooth out the sharp pulses
generated during the switching process, resulting in a more refined and pure AC
output.

vi. Output: The output is an alternating current that can be used to power AC devices.
Depending on the design, the output can be either a modified sine wave, pure
sine wave, or square wave.
3. DC to DC converter
A DC to DC converter is an electronic device that changes the level of direct current (DC)
voltage. It consists of several key components that work together to regulate or change
the voltage efficiently:

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 Main Components of a DC to DC Converter:
i. Switching Element (Transistor): A transistor (e.g., MOSFET or IGBT) is used to
rapidly switch the input DC voltage on and off, which helps in regulating the output
voltage. This switching is controlled by a pulse-width modulation (PWM) signal.
ii. Inductor: The inductor stores energy when the switch is on and releases it when
the switch is off, helping in voltage conversion. It smooths out the current and
minimizes voltage ripples.

iii. Diode: The diode provides a path for current when the switching element is off,
allowing the stored energy in the inductor to be delivered to the load. It ensures
unidirectional current flow.

iv. Capacitor: Capacitors filter and smooth out the voltage at the output, reducing
any fluctuations and providing a stable DC voltage.

v. Control Circuit: The control circuit (often using a PWM controller) regulates the
switching element, adjusting the duty cycle to maintain a constant output voltage
regardless of input variations or load changes.
These components allow the converter to step up (boost), step down (buck), or invert
the DC voltage efficiently.

Types of DC to DC converters are:

• Buck converter is a type of DC-DC power converter that steps down (reduces) the
input voltage to a lower output voltage while maintaining efficient energy
transfer.
• Boost converter is a type of DC-DC power converter that steps up (increases) the
input voltage to a higher output voltage. It is commonly used when the available
supply voltage is lower than what is required for a specific application or load.
4. AC to AC converter

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 An AC to AC converter is an electronic device that changes the voltage level or frequency
of alternating current (AC) without converting it to direct current (DC). Here are the main
components commonly found in AC to AC converters:

Main Components of an AC to AC Converter:

1. Transformer:
✓ Function: Used to step up (increase) or step down (decrease) the AC voltage. It
consists of primary and secondary coils.

✓ Operation: Based on electromagnetic induction, where alternating current in one

coil induces a voltage in another coil.

2. Switching Devices:
✓ Types: Includes thyristors, triacs, or IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors).
✓ Function: Control the flow of AC power by turning it on and off at specific points
in the AC waveform to regulate voltage or frequency.

3. Control Circuit:
✓ Function: Monitors and adjusts the operation of the switching devices to achieve
the desired output voltage or frequency.
✓ Components: May include microcontrollers, feedback loops, and phase-locked
loops (PLLs) for precise control.

4. Output Filter:
✓ Function: Reduces harmonics and smooths the output waveform, ensuring a
cleaner AC signal is delivered to the load.
✓ Components: Typically consists of capacitors and inductors arranged to filter out
unwanted frequencies.

5. Rectification Components (if applicable):

✓ In some AC to AC converters, rectification components may be used to convert
AC to DC momentarily before converting it back to AC at a different frequency.
These components work together to effectively manage AC power conversion, allowing
for voltage adjustment and frequency changes as needed for various applications.

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 Practical Activity 2.1.3: Installing simulation software

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 2.1.3 you are requested to perform the following task:

As technician in computer system architecture, you are requested to go in computer lab

to install simulation software in computers.

2: Present the work done to trainer.

3: Ask question if any for clarification.

Key readings 2.1.3

Installation of simulation software

Several simulation software tools are commonly used for designing, analysing, and
optimizing computer power systems and power electronics. These tools help engineers
model circuits, simulate behaviours, and test designs for various power systems, including
power supplies, converters, and distribution systems.

Here are some of the popular ones:

o Easy EDA,
o Proteus,
o Autodesk Eagle,
o NI Multisim,
o Matlab,
o CAD

The installation process for simulation software can vary depending on the specific software
package. However, below is generalized summary of the typical steps involved in installing
simulation software.

Typical steps involved in installing simulation software:

1) Download the Software: Visit the official website of the simulation software
provider and locate the download section. Download the installer package
compatible with your operating system.
2) Run the Installer: Locate the downloaded installer file and double-click on it to run
the installation process. This might involve an executable file (e.g., .exe for
Windows) or a disk image (e.g., .dmg for macOS).

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 3) Select Installation Location: During the installation, you may be prompted to
choose the directory or folder where you want the simulation software to be
installed. The default location is often suggested.
4) Choose Components: Some simulation software packages allow users to choose
specific components or features to install. Select the components you need or go
with the default settings.
5) Read and Accept License Agreement: Review the license agreement or terms of use
presented during the installation process. If you agree, check the acceptance box or
click the "I agree" button.
6) Configure Settings (if applicable): Some simulation software may provide
configuration options during installation. This may include settings related to user
preferences, system integration, or licensing.
7) Install Dependencies (if required): Depending on the simulation software, there
may be dependencies or runtime libraries that need to be installed. The installer
may handle this automatically or provide instructions.
8) Wait for Installation to Complete: Allow the installation process to run. Depending
on the size and complexity of the software, this may take some time. Be patient and
avoid interrupting the process.
9) Launch the Software: Once the installation is complete, you may be prompted to
launch the simulation software immediately. If not, you can usually find the
software in your applications menu or start menu.
10) Check for Updates (Optional): After installation, it's a good practice to check for
software updates. Many simulations tools release periodic updates with bug fixes,
improvements, and new features.
11) Activate or Register (if required): Some simulation software may require activation
or registration using a license key. Follow the provided instructions to activate the
software if necessary.
12) Verify Installation: Open the simulation software and ensure that it launches
without issues. Verify that all the features are accessible and that the software is
functioning correctly.

Example of installing a simulation software:

Proteus software installation steps:

Step 1: Visit the official Labcenter Electronics website

([Link]/downloads) or any trusted source to download the Proteus
installer.

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 Here we are going to install Proteus 8.13. Let's Click on Download. It will show
the following interface now click on Download.

Step 2: It will start to download the zip file. Based on your internet speed it will
take some time. Wait until the download process is completed.

Step 3: When downloading is completed and then going to the download folder
it will show the zip file.

Step 4: Now on right-click the file and extract this using whatever software you
have to extract the zip file and select the destination. Here, browse the location
where you want to save.

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 Step 5: Extracted folder will look like this.

Step 6: Now open Proteus 8.13 SP0 Pro Folder and click on the .exe file. It will ask
to run. Click on Run.

Step 7: In case you don’t have an installation wizard then first it will ask the Click
an install wizard. Click next and mark check on Agree. Then it will install the
wizard, it is an optional process, if you already have this wizard then it will go to
the next step directly.

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 Step 8: Next it will show the following interface and we need to select the
location where we want to install this software. Click on Next.

Step 9: Now it will show the following interface. Simply click on Next.

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 Step 10: Now it will start to install. It will take some time.

Step 11: After Completion of Installation it will show the following interface.
Simply Click on Finish. Our Proteus 8.13 is installed in our Windows 10.

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 Step 12: The desktop icon of this software will show like this. For checking
whether it is installed perfectly or not, click on Proteus Professional Icon.

Step 13: It is opening correctly and now we can start to work with this Proteus.

Practical Activity 2.1.4: Drawing power converters circuit diagrams

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 2.1.4 you are requested to perform the following task:
As technician in computer system architecture you are requested to open simulation
software and draw the circuit diagram of the power converters below:
a) AC to DC converter
b) DC to AC converter
c) DC to DC converter
d) AC to AC converter
2: Present the work done to trainer.
3: Ask question if any for clarification

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 Key readings 2.1.4

Drawing of power converters circuit diagrams

1. Setting drawing environment in simulation software

Proteus is a design software developed by Labcenter Electronics for electronic circuit

simulation, schematic capture and PCB design. Its simplicity and user-friendly design
made it popular among electronics hobbyists.
Common interface parts and their functions in Proteus:

Main Toolbar: Contains various icons for quick access to frequently used tools and
functions, such as opening, saving, and simulating projects.

Workspace Area: The central area where users design and simulate electronic circuits.
It includes the schematic editor (ISIS) and, if applicable, the PCB layout editor (ARES).

Project Explorer: Provides a hierarchical view of the project components, including

schematics, PCB layouts, libraries, and source code files. Users can navigate and manage
project elements through this panel.

Output Panel: Displays messages, errors, and warnings generated during simulations or
compilation. It helps users identify issues in their designs.

Components Toolbar: Contains a library of electronic components that users can drag
and drop onto the workspace to create circuits. Components include resistors,
capacitors, microcontrollers, sensors, etc.

Component Mode Toolbar: Offers options for placing and editing components on the
schematic. Users can switch between placing components, wiring, and other editing
modes.

Properties Panel: Displays properties and attributes of selected components or

elements. Users can modify component values, set simulation parameters, and
customize various properties.

Graphs and Instruments Toolbar: Provides tools for adding simulation probes,
oscilloscopes, multimeters, and other measurement instruments to the schematic for
real-time data visualisation during simulation.

Control Panel: Includes simulation controls such as play, pause, stop, and step buttons.
Users can control the simulation process and analyse the behaviour of their circuits.

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 Status Bar: Displays information about the current status of the software, including
simulation progress, grid settings, and coordinates of the cursor.

Toolbox: Contains additional tools and functions that users can use during schematic or
PCB design. This may include drawing tools, annotation tools, and utilities.

Library Manager: Allows users to manage and customise component libraries. Users can
add, remove, or modify existing libraries to expand the available components.

Resource Selector: Enables users to select and switch between different resources, such
as schematic sheets, PCB layouts, and 3D views.

3D Viewer (if available): Provides a three-dimensional view of the PCB layout, allowing
users to visualise the physical appearance of the designed circuit.

To draw a circuit diagram in Proteus, you can follow these steps:

Step 1: Open Proteus

• Launch the Proteus application from your computer.

Step 2: Create a New Project

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 • Go to File → New Project.

• Enter the project name and specify a location for saving your project.

• Follow the wizard to create the project. Choose Create a Schematic from Scratch.

Step 3: Add Components to the Workspace

• In the schematic capture window, click on P (Component Mode).

• Search for the components needed for your power converter (e.g., MOSFETs,
diodes, capacitors, inductors, power sources, and control ICs).

o For example, if simulating a Buck Converter, you might need a DC supply,

MOSFETs, inductors, and a diode.

• Click on the desired component, and press OK to place it on the workspace.

Step 4: Arrange and Connect Components

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 • Use your mouse to place each component on the schematic.

• Connect the components using wires by clicking on the pin of one component
and dragging it to another.

• Add other circuit elements like resistors, capacitors, or switches as needed.

• Ensure you have a load connected (like a resistor or other loads) to test the
output.

Step 5: Configure Components

• Double-click on each component to configure its parameters.

o Set the values for inductors, capacitors, resistors, voltage sources, and
any other parameters relevant to your simulation.

Step 6: Add Ground and Power Supply

• Don’t forget to add a ground to your circuit by selecting Terminal Mode and
choosing the Ground symbol.

• If necessary, also add a DC or AC voltage source from the component list (for the
input of your converter).

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 Step 7: Add Probes or Virtual Instruments

• For monitoring voltage or current in specific points of the circuit, you can add
virtual instruments like oscilloscopes, voltmeters, or ammeters.

o Go to Instruments Mode, select the instrument, and place it in your

circuit.

o Wire the probes to the relevant points (e.g., to measure input and output
voltages).

Step 8: Run the Simulation

• After completing the circuit, press the Play button at the bottom of the window
to run the simulation.

• Observe the behaviour of the power converter and adjust component values as
needed.

Step 9: Analyze the Results

• You can view the output waveforms or values on the virtual instruments
(oscilloscopes, meters, etc.).

• You can stop the simulation and tweak the circuit if needed, then run it again to
see how changes affect the system.

Step 10: Save the Project

• Once satisfied, save your project by going to File → Save Project.

With these steps, you can simulate different types of power converters such as buck

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 converters, boost converters, or buck-boost converters in Proteus.

2. Power converters circuit diagrams

2.1 AC to DC converter

The circuit above consists of AC main power source, a step down transformer, a bridge
rectifier, two capacitors for filtration and a regulator to provide a steady DC power.

2.2 DC to AC converter

The 12V DC to 220V AC inverter circuit is designed using IC CD4047. The IC CD4047 acts
as a switching pulse oscillating device. The n-channel power MOSFET IRFZ44n acts as a
switch. The 12-0-12V secondary transformer inversely used as a Step-up transformer
from converting low AC to High AC.

Components Required
The following components are required for making this Inverter project.
1. IC CD4047
2. IRFZ44 Power MOSFET – 2

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 3. 12-0-12/1A Secondary Transformer
4. 22KΩ Variable Resistor
5. 100Ω/10W Resistors – 2
6. 0.22µF Capacitors
7. 12V Sealed Lead Acid Battery

2.3 DC to DC converter

A DC to DC power converter is an electronic device that changes a direct current (DC)

input from one voltage level to another, either stepping it up (boost) or stepping it down
(buck). These converters are essential in applications requiring voltage regulation or
transformation in portable devices, power supplies, and renewable energy systems.

Include the following types:

• Buck Converter: Steps down the voltage.

• Boost Converter: Steps up the voltage.

• Buck-Boost Converter: Steps up or down the voltage depending on the input.

• Cuk Converter: Provides an inverted output voltage.

The following is a 3.7V to 9V Boost Converter Circuit using MC34063 DC−to−DC

converter IC.

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 The list of components that we need for designing 3.7V to 9V Boost Converter Circuit is
given below:

2.4 AC to AC converter

AC-AC conversion, also known as frequency conversion, voltage conversion, or phase

conversion, converts one alternating voltage (AC) to another at a different frequency or
voltage. This process is used in many applications, including powering electric motors,
speed regulation, and voltage modulation.

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 As seen in the circuit diagram above, the basic circuit consists of a Triac, a Diac, a
potentiometer, a resistor, and a capacitor.

Practical Activity 2.1.5: Simulating power converters

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 2.1.5 you are requested to perform the following task:
As technician in computer system architecture, you are requested to go in computer lab,
open simulation software and simulate the following power converters:
a) AC to DC converter
b) DC to AC converter
c) DC to DC converter
d) AC to AC converter
2: Present the work done to trainer.
3: Ask question if any for clarification

Key readings 2.1.5

Simulating the power converter

To simulate an electronic power converter circuit (such as a DC-DC converter, AC-DC

rectifier, DC-AC inverter and AC to AC), follow these key steps:

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 • Define the Objective of the Simulation
• Select Simulation Software
• Model the Power Converter Circuit
• Configure the Circuit Topology
• Set Simulation Parameters
• Run the Simulation
• Analyse the Results
• Optimize the Design

1. Simulating AC to DC converter
To simulate an AC to DC converter in any simulation software, you set up a basic
circuit that includes components such as a transformer, a bridge rectifier, a
capacitor for filtering, and a load. Proteus provides a visual environment for
electronics simulation and is particularly useful for designing circuits and
embedded systems.

Below is a simulation of AC to DC converter using Proteus:

The above simulated diagram show AC input that is converter and regulated to DC at the
output.

2. Simulating DC to AC converter

To simulate a DC to AC converter (inverter) in Proteus, you will need to design a basic

inverter circuit that converts a DC input (e.g., from a battery) into an AC output. A simple
way to achieve this is by using components like MOSFETs or transistors as switches, a
PWM controller such as Timer (CD4047BCN)for signal generation, and an optional

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 transformer to step up the converted AC.

Here is a simple DC to AC simulation using Proteus:

The above simulated diagram show a DC input from a battery that is converted and
stepped up to an AC output.

3. Simulating DC to DC converter

Below is a simple simulation of DC to DC converter using a DC to DC converter IC

The above simulation convert 3.7V DC input from battery to 9V DC ouput.

4. Simulating AC to AC converter

To simulate a simple AC to AC converter (such as an AC voltage controller), you will need

an AC power source, a Triac to control the voltage, a Diac for triggering the Triac, two
resistors and a capacitors for the timing circuit that sets the firing angle, a load (like a
resistor) to represent the output, and an oscilloscope to observe the input and output
AC waveforms. These components will allow you to adjust the amplitude of the output
AC voltage effectively.

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 Practical Activity 2.1.6: Generating power converter PCB Design

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 2.1.6 you are requested to perform the following task:
As technician in computer system architecture, you are requested go in computer lab,
open a project in simulation software and generate a PCB design of power converter.
2: Present the work done to trainer.
3: Ask question if any for clarification

Key readings 2.1.6

Generating power converter PCB Design

Designing a DC to AC power converter PCB involves several stages, from understanding

the circuit to generating the final PCB layout. Here's a step-by-step guide to creating a
DC to AC power converter PCB design using Proteus or any PCB design tool:

1. Create a Schematic in Proteus

• Open a New Project: Create a new project and select Schematic Capture.
• Place Components: Select and place the components based on your DC to AC
circuit design.
• Connect Components: Use the wire tool to connect the components as per

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 your circuit diagram.

2. Assign PCB Footprints

• Assign Footprints: For each component in the schematic, assign a
corresponding PCB footprint that matches its physical size and package type.
• Check Component Footprints: Ensure that high-power components like
MOSFETs, transformers, and capacitors have sufficient space for heat
dissipation and current handling.

3. Design the PCB Layout

• Define Board Shape and Size: Set the dimensions of your PCB according to the
design.

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 • Place Components: Arrange the components on the PCB, considering the
following:

o High-power components should have adequate heat dissipation

(MOSFETs, transformers).

o Separate low-power and control circuits from high-power switching

circuits.

o Group components by their functions (e.g., the MOSFETs and their gate
drivers should be placed close together).

By following these steps, you can design a DC to AC power converter PCB, ensuring
correct component placement, routing, and thermal management for efficient
operation.

Points to Remember

• Common types of power semiconductor devices:

o Diodes: is a two terminal electronic components that allow current to flow in one
direction only.
o Transistors: is a three-terminal semiconductor device used to amplify or switch
electronic signals and power.
o Thyristors: is a four-layer, three-terminal semiconductor device used to control
and switch high voltage and current.

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 o IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors): is a power semiconductor device that
combines the fast switching of a MOSFET with the high current and voltage-
handling capabilities of a bipolar transistor.
o MOSFETs (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors): is a voltage-
controlled semiconductor device used for switching and amplifying electronic
signals.
• Power electronic converters are devices that convert electrical energy from one form
to another using power semiconductor devices. They are widely used in modern
electrical systems to control and manage the flow of electrical energy efficiently.
There are four main types of power electronic converters:
o AC-DC Converters (Rectifiers): Converts alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC).
o DC-DC Converters (buck and boost converter): Converts one DC voltage level to
another DC voltage level (either step-up or step-down).
o DC-AC Converters (Inverters): Converts direct current (DC) into alternating
current (AC).
o AC-AC Converters: Converts AC from one frequency and/or voltage
level to another.
• Simulation software for power electronic converters allows engineers to model,
analyse, and optimize converter designs before actual implementation. These
tools help in understanding the converter's behaviour, switching characteristics,
thermal performance, and efficiency under various operating conditions.
Examples of Circuit Simulation and drawing software are NI Multisim, Proteus,
Autodesk Eagle, Easy EDA, matlab, CAD. You may try many software to explore
different features.
• Steps which apply when you're drawing power converter:
i) Understand the Requirements
o Determine input/output specifications: Know the input voltage,
output voltage, and current requirements.
o Select the type of converter
ii) Choose Components
iii) Draw the Power Stages
iv) Draw the Control Stages
v) Label Components
• To simulate an electronic power converter circuit (such as a DC-DC converter,
AC-DC rectifier, DC-AC inverter and AC to AC), follow these key steps:

i. Define the Objective of the Simulation

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 ii. Select Simulation Software
iii. Model the Power Converter Circuit
iv. Configure the Circuit Topology
v. Set Simulation Parameters
vi. Run the Simulation
vii. Analyse the Results
viii. Optimize the Design

• Step-by-step guide to generate PCB of power converter using any PCB design tool:

i. Create a Schematic
ii. Assign PCB Footprints
iii. Generate PCB Layout

Application of learning 2.1.

ABC is a computer manufacturing company; it has a large command of designing

electronic power converts.

As one of the designers in that company you are requested to design an AC to DC

converter by drawing, simulating, and generating PCB of AC to DC converter and this
converter will convert standard 230V AC from the wall socket into the required 12V DC
voltages for different parts of the computer.

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 Indicative content 2.2: Assembling Power Electronic Converter Components

Duration: 10 hrs

Practical Activity 2.2.1: Assembling power electronic converter components

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 2.2 you are requested to perform the following task:
As technician in computer system architecture you are requested go in workshop to
assemble power electronic converter components.
2: Present the work done to trainer.
3: Ask question if any for clarification

Key readings 2.2.1

Assembling power electronic converter components
1. Placing components into PCB
Fixing components on a printed circuit board (PCB) requires precision and care to ensure
the components are correctly installed without damaging the board. Here are some
essential tips:

i. Preparation
• Clean the PCB: Ensure the board is free from dust, debris, or old solder using a
soft brush or an isopropyl alcohol solution.
• Use the right tools: Ensure you have appropriate tools like a temperature-
controlled soldering iron, tweezers, solder, flux, desoldering braid/pump, and
magnifying glass.

ii. Component Placement

• Double-check polarity: For polarized components (capacitors, diodes, etc.),
ensure correct polarity before soldering.
• Fit snugly: Insert through-hole components so they sit flush with the PCB. For
surface-mount devices (SMDs), align them carefully with the pads.
• Use flux: Flux helps the solder flow better and adheres well to the component
and the PCB pads, creating a solid connection.

2.2.2 Soldering the components

Soldering is an essential skill for assembling and repairing electronics. Proper soldering

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 techniques ensure strong, reliable electrical connections. Here are various soldering
techniques and best practices:

Through-Hole Soldering
• Step 1: Insert the component lead through the hole in the PCB.
• Step 2: Heat the joint by applying the soldering iron to both the lead and the pad
simultaneously.
• Step 3: After heating for about 1-2 seconds, introduce the solder to the joint (not
directly to the iron).
• Step 4: Allow the solder to flow and form a concave shape around the joint, then
remove the soldering iron and let the joint cool naturally.

2.2.3 Wiring and connection of components

Wiring and connecting components in electronics requires careful attention to detail for
proper circuit functionality and reliability.
It starts with selecting the appropriate wires based on current and voltage ratings,
ensuring that each connection is solid and free from short circuits. For through-hole
components, wires are inserted into the PCB holes and soldered on the opposite side,
while surface-mount components use pads.

Proper handling of polarized components like diodes, capacitors, and transistors is

crucial to avoid damage or malfunction. Twisting and tinning wires before soldering
improves connection strength, and heat shrink tubing can be used to insulate exposed
joints.

Points to Remember

• Placing components on PCB:

o Correct Orientation: Ensure that polarized components like diodes, electrolytic
capacitors, and ICs are oriented correctly according to the circuit design and
markings on the PCB.

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 o Component Spacing: Leave enough space between heat-generating components,
such as transistors and voltage regulators, to allow for heat dissipation and avoid
thermal issues.
• Soldering components on PCB:
o Clean the Solder Pads: Ensure that the PCB pads are clean and free of oxidation or
contaminants to allow the solder to flow properly, ensuring strong connections.
o Use the Right Temperature: Use a soldering iron at the correct temperature
(typically around 350°C for most components) to avoid damaging components and
ensure clean, reliable solder joints.
• Wiring and connecting components:
o Secure Wiring: Ensure wires are neatly routed and securely fastened to the PCB or
connectors, using cable ties or clips to prevent loose or tangled wiring, which can
cause stress on solder joints or short circuits.

Application of learning 2.2.

You are a technician tasked with assembling a DC power converter for a small electronic
device. The device requires a stable 12V DC power supply, but the available input is 220V AC
from a mains power source.
Using a PCB design provided by your engineering team, you must assemble a working AC to
DC power converter.

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 Indicative content 2.3: Testing Power Electronic Converters

Duration: 5 hrs

Practical Activity 2.3.1: Testing power electronic converters

Task:

1: With referring to key readings 2.2 you are requested to perform the following task:
As technician in computer system architecture, you are requested go in workshop to
test power electronic converter.
2: Present the work done to trainer.
3: Ask question if any for clarification

Key readings 2.3.1

Testing power electronic converters

2.3.1 Continuity testing

A continuity test in the context of power electronic converters is a diagnostic procedure

used to check for proper electrical connections between components. It verifies that
there is a continuous electrical path between two points in the circuit. This test ensures
that there are no open circuits, broken connections, or unintended high-resistance
paths, which could affect the converter's performance.

Steps for Performing a Continuity Test:

1. Power Down the System: Make sure the converter is disconnected from the
power supply to avoid accidents or damage to the testing equipment.

2. Set the Multimeter to Continuity Mode: Most multimeters have a dedicated

continuity setting.

3. Test the Multimeter: Touch the probes together; a beep should indicate proper
function.

4. Test the Component or Circuit: Place the multimeter probes across the two
points you want to test. If the multimeter beeps, it indicates that the path is

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 continuous (low resistance). No beep or a high-resistance reading suggests an
open circuit or a bad connection.

2.3.2 Measure voltage and current

A measurement test in a power electronic converter involves assessing various electrical

parameters to ensure that the converter is functioning as intended. These tests are
critical for verifying the performance, efficiency, and safety of the converter and typically
involve measuring quantities such as voltage, current, power, and switching
characteristics.

Key Measurement Tests in Power Electronic Converters:

1. Voltage Measurement:

✓ Input Voltage: Ensures that the correct voltage is supplied to the converter. This
is essential for the proper functioning of the power electronics components.

✓ Output Voltage: Verifies that the converter produces the expected output
voltage, whether it's AC or DC. For example, a DC-DC converter should provide
the correct regulated output voltage.

✓ Ripple Voltage: Measures the AC component superimposed on the DC output

voltage, which is crucial for ensuring low noise and stable output.

Equipment: Digital multimeter (DMM), oscilloscope.

2. Current Measurement:

✓ Input Current: Ensures that the converter draws the correct amount of current,
which indicates proper power consumption.

✓ Output Current: Verifies that the load is receiving the expected amount of
current. Too much current may indicate an overload or short circuit, while too
little may suggest an underperforming converter.

✓ Switching Current (for switches like MOSFETs/IGBTs): Used to monitor the

current through power switches, which is important for analyzing their
performance and ensuring they don’t exceed their rated limits.

Equipment: Clamp meter, DMM, current probes (for oscilloscopes).

Procedure for Performing Measurement Tests:

1. Prepare the Converter: Ensure the converter is in a safe and stable operating
condition, connected to the correct input source and load.

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 2. Select the Appropriate Test Points: Identify the points in the circuit where
measurements need to be taken (input/output, across switches, etc.).

3. Choose the Right Equipment: Use calibrated and appropriate instruments based
on the type of measurement (voltage, current, temperature, etc.).

4. Record Data: Take measurements under various operating conditions (e.g.,

different load levels, temperatures, and switching frequencies).

5. Analyze the Results: Compare the measured values against design specifications
or expected performance criteria.

2.3.3 Analyse output waveform

Analysing the output waveform of a power electronic converter is essential to ensure

that it operates as expected and meets the desired performance specifications. Here's
how to effectively analyse the output waveform of a power electronic converter:

Steps to Analyze the Output Waveform:

1. Select the Appropriate Equipment:

To capture and analyze the waveform, you need suitable tools:

• Oscilloscope: The primary tool for observing the shape, amplitude, and
frequency of the waveform.

• Digital Multimeter (DMM): For basic measurements like RMS voltage, current,
etc.

2. Configure the Oscilloscope:

• Set Time and Voltage Scales: Choose appropriate time base (time/division) and
voltage scale (volts/division) based on the expected waveform characteristics.

• Trigger Settings: Set the trigger mode to capture the waveform reliably

3. Capture the Output Waveform:

• Connect the Oscilloscope Probes: Ensure proper probe grounding to avoid noise
and interference in the measurement.

• Observe the Waveform: Take note of the shape (sine wave, square wave,
sawtooth, or complex pulse wave) and any anomalies such as ripples, spikes, or
distortions.

4. Analyse the Waveform Characteristics:

• Amplitude:

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 ✓ Peak Voltage (Vpeak): The maximum voltage value from the waveform.

✓ Root Mean Square (RMS) Voltage: This is particularly important for AC

waveforms to assess the equivalent DC voltage. For AC inverters, the RMS voltage
should match the desired output level.

• Frequency: Measure the output frequency to ensure it matches the design

specifications.

• Ripple: Voltage Ripple: For DC converters, check the magnitude of the ripple
voltage (small AC component superimposed on the DC output). Excessive ripple
can affect the performance of sensitive electronics.

Points to Remember

• Continuity testing is a process used to check whether there is an uninterrupted path

(or complete circuit) for current to flow in an electrical system or component. It helps
identify open circuits, short circuits, or loose connections in wires, cables, fuses, or
electronic components.
• Measurement testing refers to the process of determining and verifying various
electrical, physical, or performance parameters in systems, components, or devices
using specific measurement instruments. It involves quantifying properties like voltage,
current, resistance, power, frequency, to ensure the system or device meets its design
specifications and operates within expected tolerances.

Application of learning 2.3

You are an electronics technician responsible for testing the functionality and performance of
a power electronic converter. The converter under test could be a DC-DC step-down (buck)
converter, a DC-AC inverter, or an AC-DC rectifier.

Your goal is to ensure that the converter meets the design specifications and operates safely
and reliably under different conditions.

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 Learning outcome 2 end assessment

Theoretical assessment

A. Multiple-choice questions on power electronic converters:

Question 1:

Which of the following is a type of DC-DC converter?

A) Inverter

B) Buck Converter

C) Rectifier

D) Transformer

Question 2:

What is the main purpose of an inverter in power electronics?

A) To convert DC to AC

B) To convert AC to DC

C) To step down voltage

D) To step up voltage

Question 3:

In a full-bridge rectifier, what is the output waveform for an AC input?

A) Pure sine wave

B) Pulsating DC

C) Pure DC

D) Square wave

Question 4:

Which of the following converters is used to step up DC voltage?

A) Buck Converter

B) Boost Converter

C) Inverter

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 D) AC-DC Converter

Question 5:

What is the role of a PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) technique in converters?

A) To reduce harmonic distortion

B) To regulate output voltage

C) To increase current flow

D) To convert AC to DC

B. Match each converter component with its respective description

Column A: Converter Component Column B: Function/Description

A. Smooths the output voltage by reducing

1. Inductor
ripple

2. Diode B.

3. Resistor C. Switches on and off to control energy flow

4. Capacitor D. Ensures current flows in one direction

5. Switching Device (e.g., MOSFET) E. Stores energy in a magnetic field

F. Regulates the switching to achieve desired

6. Controller (PWM Control)
voltage level

Practical assessment

XYZ Company is dedicated to manufacturing of computer accessories. As a technician in

computer system architecture, your task is to design, assemble and test a power
converter for the desktop computer.

The power converter will take the incoming AC mains voltage and convert it to regulated
DC voltages to power various computer components.

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 References

Books:
Erickson, R. W., & Maksimovic, D. (2020). Fundamentals of power electronics (3rd ed.).
Springer.
Mohan, N., Undeland, T. M., & Robbins, W. P. (2003). Power electronics: Converters,
applications, and design (3rd ed.).
Mohan, N., Undeland, T. M., & Robbins, W. P. (2003). Power electronics: Converters,
applications, and design (3rd ed.). Wiley.
Rashid, M. H. (2013). Power electronics: Circuits, devices, and applications (4th ed.).
Pearson.
Rashid, M. H. (2017). Power electronics: Circuits, devices and applications (4th ed.)
Web Links:
EasyEDA. (n.d.). Documentation and manual. EasyEDA. Retrieved January 13, 2025, from
[Link]
Labcenter Electronics. (n.d.). Proteus documentation and manuals. Labcenter Electronics.
Retrieved January 13, 2025, from [Link]
END

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Learning Outcome 3: Implement a Power Supply Unit (PSU) of
Computer System

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 Indicative contents

3.1 Designing computer power distribution system

3.2 Assembling power supply unit
3.3 Testing computer supply unit

Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 3: Implement a Power Supply Unit

(PSU) of a Computer System

Knowledge Skills Attitudes

• Interpretation of • Designing a power • Being responsible

voltage regulation distribution scheme • Having attention to
concepts • Drawing of details
• Description of a power schematic diagram of • Being rapid
supply types power supply unit • Being organized
• Description of electrical • Simulating the power • Willing to explore
quantities supply unit circuit new ideas
diagrams
• Assembling power
supply unit
• Testing computer
supply unit

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 Duration: 20 hrs

Learning outcome 3 objectives:

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:

1. Interpret correctly the voltage regulation in accordance with the power supply
unit.

2. Design correctly the computer power distribution system according to system

power requirements

3. Describe appropriately the power supply types in accordance with the power
supply unit.

4. Draw correctly the schematic diagram of power supply unit in line with Computer
power supply system.

5. Simulate systematically the power supply unit circuit diagrams in line with
Computer power supply system.

6. Generate correctly power supply PCB in line with Computer power supply system.

7. Assemble properly the power supply unit in line with Computer power distribution
system design.

8. Describe correctly testing concepts in line with Computer power distribution

system design.

9. Inspect appropriately computer power supply unit in line with Computer power
supply system.

10. Measure correctly input and output voltage and current of power supply unit in
line with Computer power supply system.

11. Test systematically the power supply unit concepts in line with Computer power
supply system.

Resources

Equipment Tools Materials

• Personal Computer, • Screwdrivers • Labelling materials

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 • PPEs, • Needle-nose pliers • Connectors

• Oscilloscope, • Universal plier • Power

Semiconductor
• Multi-meter, • Tweezers
devices
• ESD Workbench, • Soldering iron
• Soldering materials
• SMD rework station, • Desoldering pump
• Power cables
• Glue gun
• Glue stick
• Circuit Simulation and
• PCB
drawing software
• Electronic Passive
Components

• Spare screws

• Isopropyl alcohol
and cotton swabs

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 Indicative content 3.1: Designing Computer Power Distribution System

Duration: 4 hrs

Theoretical Activity 3.1.1: Interpretation of voltage regulation concepts.

Tasks:

1: Interpret the following questions related to the voltage regulation in power supply.

i. What do you understand by the following terms?

a) Voltage divider circuit

b) Voltage rails

c) Automatic voltage regulator

d) Voltage regulator module

e) Power distribution Module

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications, if any.

5: Read the key reading 3.1.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 3.1.1.:

Interpretation of Voltage Regulation concepts in Computer Power Supply Unit

1. Introduction
Voltage regulation ensures that the output voltage of a power supply remains constant
despite variations in load or input voltage. It is typically expressed as a percentage and helps
protect electronic devices from damage due to voltage fluctuations.
For example, a power supply with good voltage regulation will keep the output at 5V,
whether the input voltage varies (line regulation) or the current drawn by the load changes
(load regulation).

2. Voltage Divider Circuit

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 A voltage divider circuit is a simple electrical circuit that converts a higher voltage into a
lower voltage. It consists of two resistors connected in series across a voltage source. The
output voltage is taken from the junction of the two resistors. The formula for the output
voltage (Vout) can be expressed as:

Where:
Vin is the input voltage,
R1 is the resistor connected to the input voltage, and
R2 is the resistor connected to ground.
In computer power supplies, this principle can be used for reference voltages or to create
specific lower voltages needed for various components.

3. Voltage Rails
Voltage rails refer to the specific output voltages provided by a power supply unit (PSU).
Each rail corresponds to a different voltage level required by various components within a
computer system. Common voltage rails include +3.3V, +5V, and +12V. These rails are
essential because different components like CPUs, GPUs, and storage devices require
different operating voltages to function correctly. The stability and regulation of these rails
are crucial for reliable operation; fluctuations can lead to system instability or hardware
damage.

4. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

An Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is an electronic device that automatically maintains
a constant voltage level. In computer power supplies, AVRs are used to ensure that the
output voltage remains stable despite variations in input voltage or load conditions. They
work by monitoring the output voltage and making adjustments as necessary through
feedback mechanisms. This regulation helps protect sensitive electronic components from
overvoltage or under voltage conditions, which can cause malfunction or damage.

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 AVRs are commonly used in generators, power distribution systems, and large electrical
equipment. They ensure that devices receive stable voltage regardless of input fluctuations,
which is critical in places with unstable power supply conditions.
How it works:

• Senses output voltage.

• Compares it to a reference.
• Automatically adjusts the internal control circuitry to stabilize the voltage.
5. Voltage Regulator Module (VRM)
A Voltage Regulator Module (VRM) is a specialized circuit designed to provide precise
control of output voltages for specific components such as CPUs and GPUs within
computers. VRMs convert higher input voltages down to lower levels while maintaining
high efficiency and low ripple noise. They typically consist of multiple phases that distribute
current load evenly across several inductors and capacitors, improving thermal
performance and reliability. VRMs are critical in modern computing systems where power
demands are high and efficiency is paramount.

A Voltage Regulator Module (VRM) is a component used in motherboards and other

electronic systems to regulate and supply a precise voltage to microprocessors and other
high-demand components.

In modern computer systems:

• VRMs are crucial for stepping down the voltage from the power supply (e.g., 12V)
to the specific voltage required by the CPU or GPU (e.g., 1.2V–1.5V).
• They dynamically adjust the output voltage based on the power demand of the
processor, ensuring stable performance.

A VRM is made of power MOSFETs, inductors, and capacitors and is responsible for
protecting sensitive electronics from voltage fluctuations.

6. Power distribution scheme

A power distribution scheme in a computer power system refers to the way electrical
power is delivered and managed across various components of the computer. It ensures

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Manual
 that each component (e.g., motherboard, processor, memory, storage drives, and
peripheral devices) receives the right voltage and current required for optimal operation.

Practical Activity 3.1.2: Designing a power distribution scheme

Task:

1. Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

As electronician, you are asked to go in the electronic workshop and design a power
distribution scheme for a computer system, understanding how different components of
the system require various power levels and how power is distributed efficiently.

2. Read key reading 3.1.2 then perform the activity.

3. Present your work to the trainer and whole class

4. Ask questions if any for clarification

5. Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.2

Key readings 3.1.2

Designing a power distribution scheme

Designing a power distribution scheme in a computer system's power supply involves a

series of careful considerations and steps. The aim is to ensure stable and efficient power
delivery to all components.

Steps of Designing power distribution scheme

Here’s a step-by-step outline:

Step1. Understand Power Requirements: Analyse the power requirements of each

component in the system (e.g., CPU, GPU, RAM, storage, motherboard) including Voltage
and Current Requirements and Power Ratings.

Step2. Select the Power Supply Unit (PSU): Based on the power requirements of each
component, calculate the total power the PSU needs to provide. Also consider the Efficiency
Ratings and Form Factor Compatibility.

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Manual
 Step3. Define Power Distribution Buses: Design power buses to distribute the correct
voltage to the corresponding components.

Step4. Protection Mechanisms: Incorporate protective mechanisms to safeguard the

system in case of faults or surges by designing the system with necessary fuses and circuit
breakers to prevent damage to components.

Step5. Regulation and Conversion: Include VRMs to ensure a steady voltage supply even
under varying loads and convert the main power rail voltages to other necessary levels
where needed.

Step6. Power Connectors and Cabling: Ensure the proper use of power connectors and
design the layout for proper cable management to ensure clean power flow and reduce
heat build-up in the case.

Step7. Cooling Considerations: Ensure the PSU and other high-power components have
adequate cooling (e.g., fans or heat sinks) to prevent overheating.

Step8. Testing and Validation: After assembling the power distribution system, perform
stress tests to ensure the PSU and power rails can handle maximum loads and use the
voltage monitoring tools to check for stability and efficiency under different operating
conditions.

Step9. Compliance and Safety Standards: Design the system to comply with efficiency
standards like Energy Star, reducing overall power consumption and heat output.

Points to Remember

• Description of voltage regulation concepts in Power supply system

✓ A voltage divider circuit is a simple electrical circuit that converts a higher voltage
into a lower voltage.

✓ Voltage rails refer to the specific output voltages provided by a power supply
unit (PSU). Each rail corresponds to a different voltage level required by various
components within a computer system.

✓ An Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) is an electronic device that automatically

maintains a constant voltage level.

✓ A Voltage Regulator Module (VRM) is a specialized circuit designed to provide

precise control of output voltages for specific components such as CPUs and
GPUs within computers.

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Manual
 ✓ A power distribution scheme in a computer power system refers to the way
electrical power is delivered and managed across various components of the
computer.

• Steps of Designing power distribution scheme

Step1. Understand Power Requirements

Step2. Select the Power Supply Unit (PSU)

Step3. Define Power Distribution Buses

Step4. Incorporate protective mechanisms to safeguard the system in case of

faults

Step5. Include VRMs to ensure a steady voltage supply even under varying loads

Step6. Ensure the proper use of power connectors

Step7. Ensure the PSU and other high-power components have adequate
cooling to prevent overheating.

Step8. Tests to ensure the PSU and power rails can handle maximum loads and
use the voltage monitoring tools to check for stability and efficiency under
different operating conditions.

Step9. Design the system to comply with efficiency standards

Application of learning 3.1.

You are a system designer tasked with creating a custom high-performance workstation
for a company specializing in 3D rendering, AI computations, and video editing.
The workstation will have multiple high-end graphics cards (GPUs), large storage arrays
(SSDs and HDDs), and a powerful multi-core processor (CPU).
You are requested to design the power distribution scheme for the system to ensure
reliable performance.

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 Indicative content 3.2: Assembling Power Supply Unit

Duration: 9 hrs

Theoretical Activity 3.2.1: Description of a power supply types

Tasks:

1: Describe the following questions related to power supply types

i. Describe the following types of power supply:

a) Linear power supply

b) Switched Mode power supply (SMPS)

c) Uninterruptable power supply (UPS)

d) Programmable Power supply

e) Variable Power Supply

f) Circuit Simulation

ii. What do you understand by Circuit Simulation?

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications, if any.

5: Read the key reading 3.1.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 3.2.1.:

Description of a power supply types
1. Linear power supply
a) Definition
A linear power supply converts AC voltage to a stable DC voltage. It uses a transformer
with an iron core to step down the AC voltage. Then, a rectifier converts AC to DC. Finally,
a filter smooths the DC voltage, and a regulator maintains a constant output. Linear
power supplies are known for their reliability and low noise, making them ideal for
sensitive electronic equipment.
b) Types of Linear Power Supply
There are typically two types of linear power supplies:

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  Unregulated Linear
 Regulated Linear

✓ Regulated Linear Power Supply

Voltage regulation in regulated power supplies refers to maintaining the voltage at the
desired level. This is particularly suitable for sensitive connected appliances as regulated
voltage provides a smooth, steady voltage supply.

The process of producing regulated voltage includes a series of sub-functions. First, the
AC supply is stepped down to the desired output level, and then the reduced AC voltage
is transformed into a positive waveform by a diode bridge rectifying circuit. A filter circuit
comprising a parallel-connected capacitor turns the positive waveform into a rippled-DC
voltage, and finally a regulator circuit eliminates the ripples in the DC to deliver stable
voltage to the connected load.

Regulated linear power supplies are ideal for almost all types of electronic devices, as
these power supplies ensure smooth supply of voltage.

✓ Unregulated Linear Power Supply

As mentioned earlier and as the name suggests, regulation of voltage isn’t involved in
an unregulated linear power supply. Apart from that, the basic functions of an
unregulated power supply are similar to regulated linear power supplies.

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 The AC input voltage, just like a regulated power supply, is initially processed and then
transformed into rippled DC voltage through a filter capacitor. But since the unregulated
power supplies don’t have a voltage regulator circuit, the ripples in the DC output voltage
cannot be done away with. This leads to voltage sags, which are often reflected in the
output.

c) Regulated and Unregulated Power Supply: How Are They Different?

The basic difference between a regulated and an unregulated power supply is the
presence or absence of voltage regulation. In the case of regulated linear, the voltage is
regulated, which means any change in the input voltage isn’t reflected in the output. On
the contrary, unregulated power supplies do not have voltage regulation and for this
reason, voltage is not regulated at the output.

d) Applications
•Regulated power supply are Application areas of a regulated power supply include TVs,
computers, and other highly sensitive electronic devices where voltage variations can be
fatal.
•Unregulated linear power supply are used in electrical devices like LED lamps and DC
motors that are not so sensitive to voltage fluctuations can use unregulated power
supplies.

2. Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

a) Definition

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 A Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is an electronic power supply that efficiently
converts electrical power using a switching regulator. Unlike traditional linear power
supplies, which dissipate excess power as heat, an SMPS rapidly switches the input
voltage on and off at high frequencies to regulate the output voltage, making it highly
efficient.

SMPS are often smaller than and not as heavy as normal power supplies. This makes
them perfect for tiny devices that you can take with you. They can also adjust to slight
changes in the electricity that comes in, so they can deal with different voltages. This
makes them more flexible than regular power supplies that only work with one specific
voltage.

b) Key Features of SMPS:

✓ Efficiency: SMPS are much more efficient than linear power supplies because they
minimize energy loss. The switching action reduces heat generation, which allows
for smaller, more compact designs.

✓ High-Frequency Operation: SMPS operates at high switching frequencies (usually in

the range of 20 kHz to several MHz), which allows for smaller components, such as
transformers and inductors, contributing to the compact size of SMPS.

✓ Versatility: SMPS can work with a wide range of input voltages and can provide
multiple regulated outputs at different voltages.

c) Types of SMPS:
✓ AC-DC Converters: Converts AC input to a regulated DC output. Commonly used in
computer power supplies.
✓ DC-DC Converters: Converts one level of DC voltage to another level, such as
stepping up or stepping down the voltage.
✓ DC-AC Inverters: Converts DC input to AC output, often used in uninterruptible
power supplies (UPS).

d) Working principle
An SMPS works by turning a quick, pulsing direct current (DC) into a slower, steady direct
current (DC). This conversion process is accomplished through several stages, including
the input stage, switching stage, output stage, and control circuit.

• Input Stage: The AC (or DC) input is first rectified and filtered to produce a high
DC voltage.

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 • Switching Stage: A high-frequency switch (typically a MOSFET) turns the power
on and off rapidly, controlling the flow of current through the transformer or
inductor.

• Output Stage: The output is then rectified and filtered to remove high-frequency
noise, providing a stable DC output.
• Feedback Control: The output is constantly monitored and fed back to the
control circuit, which adjusts the switching duty cycle to maintain a stable output
voltage under varying loads.
•

e) Applications of SMPS:
• Power supplies for computers, TVs, and mobile chargers
• Industrial equipment that requires efficient, high-power conversion
• LED drivers and lighting systems
• Telecommunications equipment
f) Selecting an AC-DC switched-mode power supply
When selecting an AC/DC switched-mode power supply, in addition to the required
electrical specifications such as:
 input and output voltage,
 power handling, and
 operating efficiency,
3. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
a) Definition
An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is an electrical device that provides emergency
power to connected equipment in case of a primary power failure. It ensures continuous
power delivery for a limited duration, allowing users to safely shut down equipment or
switch to an alternative power source, minimizing data loss, hardware damage, or
operational downtime.
b) Major parts of a UPS:

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 1. Battery: The core of a UPS, it stores electrical energy and delivers it when the
main power source fails. Most UPS systems use rechargeable lead-acid or lithium-
ion batteries.

2. Rectifier/Charger: This component converts incoming AC (Alternating Current)

power to DC (Direct Current) to charge the battery. It also powers the inverter
when the main power is present.

3. Inverter: When the main power supply fails, the inverter converts the stored DC
power from the battery back into AC power to supply connected devices.
4. Transfer Switch: The transfer switch automatically switches between main
power and battery power. When a power failure is detected, it shifts to battery
power, ensuring no interruption to connected devices.

5. Surge Protector: Many UPS units also include a surge protection feature,
safeguarding connected equipment from voltage spikes caused by power surges
or lightning strikes.

6. Control and Monitoring Circuit: Modern UPS systems have monitoring circuits to
display battery status, load levels, and alerts. Some are integrated with network
monitoring tools to manage power remotely.

c) Types of UPS Systems:

The uninterrupted power supply (UPS) systems are broadly classified into the following
three types:

 Off-Line UPS: In an off-line UPS system, the ac power from the supply mains is first
converted into DC power using a rectifier circuit and then stored in the battery
connected to the output port of the rectifier.

When, there is any power failure that occurs in the supply mains, the dc power of the
battery is converted into ac power using a power inverter and is then transferred to the
load connected to the ups system. The off-line ups systems provide surge protection in
addition to the emergency power. These are the least expensive UPS systems available
in the market.

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 Standby (Offline) UPS provides basic protection and is ideal for smaller loads. The
inverter kicks in only when the main power source fails, making it less expensive but
offering limited protection.

 On-Line UPS: In this system, the rectifier circuit receives ac power from the supply
mains and directly drives the inverter circuit. Thus, it involves two simultaneous
conversion processes and is hence referred to as a Double Conversion UPS System.

In the case of supply mains power failure, the rectifier circuit becomes inactive and the
DC power stored in the battery is converted into AC by the inverter and supplied to the
load. Once the mains power is restored, the rectifier circuit again starts charging the
battery. A current limiting mechanism is also provided in the system to protect the
battery from overheating. Although, on-line ups systems are slightly expensive due to
their design and components used.

Line-Interactive UPS: Offers intermediate protection by regulating minor fluctuations in

voltage (e.g., brownouts or overvoltages) without switching to battery power, extending
battery life.
 Line Interactive UPS: Under normal operating conditions, the load is supplied with
AC power through a parallel connection of the AC source and the bidirectional
converter.
The converter charges the battery, and also provides AC power to the load in the
situation of breakage of supply mains. In this type of UPS system, a bypass is also

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 provided which transfers the load to a bypass AC input when the UPS fails to function.
The line-interactive UPS systems are well suited for medium to high power rating loads.

d) Functions and Features:

 Power Continuity: The UPS keeps essential equipment (e.g., servers, medical
devices, networking gear) powered during an outage, preventing data loss,
system crashes, and hardware failure.

 Voltage Regulation: Some UPS systems regulate voltage, smoothing out spikes
and sags in power without switching to battery power, ensuring a steady and safe
voltage supply to sensitive equipment.

 Data Loss Prevention: For systems like computers and servers, a UPS provides
enough time for users to save work, close applications, and safely shut down in
an organized manner during power outages.

 Network Connectivity: Advanced UPS units are equipped with network

interfaces, allowing users to monitor power status, receive notifications, and
perform automatic shutdowns through remote control.
e) Role of UPS
When there is any failure in the main power supply from the utility, the UPS supplies
emergency power to the load for a short duration of time. This is the primary function
of a UPS. Modern UPSs can also provide protection against electrical faults such as short-
circuit, voltage fluctuations, low voltage, instability of mains frequency, etc.

f) Applications
These days, UPS systems are very common in almost all electrical and electronic systems.
Following are some of the important applications of different types of UPS systems:
 UPS systems are used in computer data centres as Servers, data centers, and
network equipment rely on UPS systems for power backup to maintain
continuous operations and prevent data corruption during outages.
 UPS systems are used in industrial control and monitoring systems.
Manufacturing plants use UPS systems to maintain control systems, preventing
production stoppages and equipment damage due to power loss.

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  UPS systems are also used in telecommunication systems.
 They are also used in hospitals, banks, insurance offices, and other commercial
applications for backup power, etc.
 Medical Equipment: In hospitals, UPS systems are used for critical medical
devices like ventilators, ensuring they keep running during power interruptions.

4. Programmable power supply

a) Definition
A programmable power supply is a type of power supply unit (PSU) that allows the user
to control and adjust its output parameters (such as voltage, current, or power) via
external inputs. These adjustments can be made through various interfaces, using a
keypad or rotary switch from the front panel of the power supply, computer software,
or communication protocols like USB, Ethernet, or GPIB (General Purpose Interface Bus).
This capability enables the power supply to adapt to a wide range of applications.

b) Key Features:
 Adjustable Output: The output voltage and current can be precisely controlled
according to the requirements of the connected device or system. This is useful for
testing and prototyping.
 Automation: Programmable power supplies can be integrated into automated
testing systems where different voltages or currents are required at different stages
of the test process. This helps in performing tasks without manual intervention.
 Remote Control: These power supplies often support remote control through
software or interfaces, allowing users to control them from a computer or
programmable logic controller (PLC).
 Protection Features: Programmable power supplies often come with advanced
protection features such as overvoltage protection (OVP), overcurrent protection
(OCP), and short-circuit protection to safeguard both the power supply and the
connected devices.
 Memory Functions: Some programmable power supplies can store user-defined
settings for different applications, enabling quick switching between preset
configurations.

c) Types of programmable power supply

You can find programmable power supplies in various form factors including:
 DC programmable power supplies are designed to deliver stable voltage.
A DC programmable power supply operates in two primary modes:

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 Constant Voltage (CV): The output voltage is set by the user’s configurations,
whereas the output current is determined by the load's resistance.

Constant Current (CC): The Constant Current (CC) mode primarily serves as a safety
feature but can also be used for other purposes. In this mode, the current remains
fixed according to the user’s current limit setting. If the power supply operates in
Constant Voltage (CV) mode and the current exceeds the set limit, it will
automatically switch to CC mode. It will revert to CV mode once the load current
drops below the specified limit.

 AC Programmable Power Supply: An AC programmable power supply provides

alternating current to test equipment by simulating grid disturbances, such as
interruptions, harmonics, and surges, which could potentially damage a Device
Under Test (DUT).

 Benchtop Programmable Power Supply: Benchtop programmable power supplies

are light enough to be placed on a supported flat surface such as a workbench.

Benchtop programmable power supplies are essential tools for electrical engineers and
circuit designers, used to test and measure various electrical devices, including circuit
boards and other electronic components.

 Chassis-mounted Programmable Power Supply: Chassis-mounted programmable

power supplies are installed into a chassis or frame and come in both linear and
switching models. These supplies convert AC current to DC current based on the
application's requirements. The chassis can take various forms, with controls
typically located on the front panel of the chassis.

 Rack mount Programmable Power Supply: Rack-mounted programmable power

supplies are designed to be installed in a support rack, where multiple units can be
stacked together.

 Digital Programmable Power Supply: Digital programmable power supplies offer

precise control and monitoring via a digital interface and encoder knob.

 Analog Programmable Power Supply: Analog programmable power supplies

utilize knobs and dials for adjusting output parameters. Although they are
generally less precise than digital models, they are valued for their simplicity and
suitability for specific applications.
e) Applications:

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 ✓ Product Testing: Used in labs and manufacturing to test electronic devices by simulating
different power conditions.
✓ Research and Development (R&D): Ideal for R&D environments where different
voltages or currents are needed for experimenting with circuit designs.

✓ Automated Test Equipment (ATE): Integrated into automated systems for testing large
quantities of products under different conditions.
✓ Battery Testing: Programmable power supplies are often used for charging and
discharging batteries at controlled rates to analyze their performance.

5. Variable power supply

a) Definition
A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power supply, is one where
you can continuously adjust the output voltage to you requirements.
The variable power supply circuit is equipped with an adjustable voltage regulator to adjust
the output according to the output. An adjustable voltage regulator has line regulation and
load regulation.

A variable power supply is a device that allows you to adjust its output voltage and, in some
cases, the current as well. This adaptability is essential for applications that require
different voltages for testing or operational purposes. The adjustments are typically made
using a potentiometer or a similar control, which lets users fine-tune the voltage output
according to their specific needs.
The flexibility of a variable power supply makes it invaluable in laboratories, electronics
manufacturing, and repair workshops. By simply turning a knob or setting a control, users
can modify the output to match the exact requirements of the device they are working
with, ensuring optimal performance and protection against voltage-sensitive components.
This ability to customize output helps prevent damage and extends the lifespan of
electronic devices

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 b) Working principle
The working principle of a variable power supply revolves around converting and regulating
input power to provide a stable, adjustable output.
Here’s how it works:

 AC to DC Conversion: The power supply typically takes an AC input and converts it to

DC using rectifiers. This is the first step in providing a usable DC output.
 Voltage Regulation: The rectified DC voltage is then regulated using either linear or
switching regulators. Linear regulators are simpler and provide low noise output,
whereas switching regulators are more efficient and suitable for high power
applications.
 Adjustment Mechanism: The adjustable feature is achieved through variable resistors
or digital control circuits. In analog designs, potentiometers are commonly used, while
digital designs employ microcontrollers or digital signal processors for precise control.

This combination of conversion, and regulation ensures that the variable power supply can
provide a wide range of output settings with high precision and stability.

c) Applications
Variable power supplies are used across a wide array of applications due to their versatility
and precision.
Here are some common applications:

 Electronics Development and Testing: In research and development labs, engineers

use variable power supplies to test and prototype electronic circuits. The ability to
adjust voltage and current helps in analyzing circuit behavior under different
conditions.
 Education: In educational institutions, variable power supplies are used in laboratories
to teach students about electronics and electrical engineering principles.

 Repair and Maintenance: Technicians use variable power supplies to diagnose and
repair electronic devices. The adjustable output helps in testing different components
and circuits.

 Battery Charging: Variable power supplies can be used to charge batteries, allowing
precise control over the charging voltage and current to optimize battery life and
performance.

 Industrial Automation: In industrial settings, these power supplies are used to power
and test various automation components and systems.

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 These applications demonstrate the wide-ranging utility of variable power supplies in both
educational and professional settings.

5. Circuit simulation
Simulating a circuit involves creating a detailed circuit schematic and using the software’s
simulation tools to analyse its behaviour under various conditions.
Proteus software provides a comprehensive environment for designing and testing
electronic circuits, including Linear power supply, SMPS, variable, etc

Practical Activity 3.2.2: Drawing of schematic diagram of power supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to key reading 3.2.2 and the instruction from your trainer, you are requested
to perform the given task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Computer Lab to draw the schematic diagram
of a basic DC power supply unit, which converts AC mains power into regulated DC
voltage, utilizing standard electronic components using Proteus.

2: Present your work to the trainer

3: Ask questions if any for clarification

4: Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.2

Key readings 3.2.2

Drawing of schematic diagram of power supply unit

Steps of Drawing of schematic diagram of power supply unit using Proteus

Here is a step-by-step guide for drawing a schematic diagram of a power supply unit (PSU)
in Proteus software:

Step 1: Define Power Supply Specifications: Before you start with the schematic,
determine the Input Voltage and Output Voltage.

Step 2: Open Proteus Software: Start the Proteus software then Go to File > New Project,
name your project and select the directory for saving.

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 Step 3: Select and Add Components: Go to Library > Pick Devices or click the P button on
the toolbar. Search for components using their names or descriptions then after Place
Components on Schematic by clicking on the schematic workspace to place each
component.

Step 4: Connect Components: Select the wire tool (blue dot or pencil icon) from the toolbar
to connect the components.

Step 5: Add Labels and Power Sources: Use the Label Tool to add text labels for
components like Vout, Vin, GND, and other important nodes.

Step 6: Annotate and Finalize Schematic: Use the Annotate tool to automatically assign
identifiers (e.g., R1, C1, D1) to all components.

Step 7: Save the Schematic: Save it by going to File > Save or clicking the save icon

Practical Activity 3.2.3: Simulating the power supply unit circuit diagrams

Task:

1: Referring to the key reading 3.2.3 and instruction from your trainer, you are requested
to perform the given task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Computer Lab to design and simulate a 12V DC
regulated power supply using the following components:

a) Step-down transformer (220V AC to 15V AC).

b) Bridge rectifier (using four diodes or an integrated bridge rectifier).

c) Smoothing capacitor (2200μF to filter the rectified signal).

d) 7812 voltage regulator (to provide a stable 12V DC output).

e) Load resistor (to simulate a typical load).

2: Present your work to whole class.

3: Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

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 Key readings 3.2.3

Simulating the power supply unit circuit diagrams

1. Steps of simulating Linear power supply using Proteus

Below are the steps to design and simulate a linear power supply in Proteus.

Step 1: Define the Power Supply Requirements such as Input Voltage, Output Voltage and
Components.

Step 2: Open Proteus and Create a New Project: Launch Proteus and Go to File > New
Project then name your project and specify the directory to save it.

There you can change the Name and Path of the project after setting click Next.

Now you need to Mark Create a schematic from the selected template then you can either
select Default or you can select any templates size normally we select landscape A4,

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 By selecting the Landscape A4 and click Next, you will have a schematic window as shown
in the picture below.

Step 3: Select and Add Components: Click on library then Pick Devices button (or press P)
to search for and add components then after selecting the components, click on the
schematic editor and arrange them logically, ensuring correct orientation.

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You can also edit the component’s parameters by right clicking on it and click on Edit
parameters.

Step 4: Build the Schematic: Connect Components Using the Wire Tool and Label
Connections for easy identification.

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Step 5: Set Up Simulation Parameters: Add Voltage Probes or Virtual Instruments (e.g.,
oscilloscope or voltmeter) to measure AC input and DC output. (Probes can be placed at the
output of the transformer, the rectifier, the filter capacitor, and after the voltage regulator
to observe the waveform changes at each stage), then set the Simulation Mode to "Analog"
for accurate power supply simulation.

To add a voltmeter click on the meter icon and select DC VOLTMETER then click where ever
you want to place it connect it by wires(lines) if necessary

Step 6: Run the Simulation: Click the Run Simulation button (green play icon) and the circuit
will begin simulating, and you can observe the waveforms or voltage readings from the
probes and instruments.

To check the circuit click on the play icon on bottom left of the proteus.

Step 7: Analyse Simulation Results: Check if the output voltage matches the expected
value. If the output voltage is not as expected, recheck the transformer configuration,
rectifier connections, and regulator wiring.

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Step 8: Save and export the Simulation: Once the design works as expected, save your
project by going to File > Save.

You can export the schematic as an image or a PDF for sharing or documentation purposes
by going to File > Export.

2. Steps of simulating Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS) using Proteus

Here's a step-by-step guide to simulating an SMPS in Proteus:

Step1. Install and Open Proteus: Make sure you have a licensed version of Proteus installed
on your computer then launch the Proteus software.

Step2. Create a New Project: Go to File > New Project to start a new project the follow the
wizard to set up the project, including naming it and selecting a directory to save it.

Step3. Design the SMPS Circuit: Use the P (Pick Devices) button or Library > Pick Devices to
search for and place components and position the components on the schematic sheet, use
the Wiring tool to connect the components as per your SMPS design and configure
Components by double-clicking on each component to set its parameters.

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Step4. Configure Simulation Settings: Go to Simulation > Edit Simulation Profile to define
simulation parameters then choose the type of simulation you want to perform, such as
Transient Analysis, AC Analysis, or DC Sweep.

Step5. Run the Simulation: Click on the Play button or go to Simulation > Run to start the
simulation then observe the simulation results in the Virtual Oscilloscope or other
measurement tools provided by Proteus.

Step6. Analyze the Results: Observe the output voltage and current waveforms to ensure
they match the expected values.

Step7. Document and Save: Save the schematic and simulation results regularly to avoid
losing progress by clicking File > Save to save your project. And you can generate reports
and export simulation results for documentation purposes.

3. Steps of simulating Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) using Proteus

Here's a step-by-step guide to simulate a UPS in Proteus:

Step1. Install and Open Proteus: Make sure Proteus is installed on your computer then
open the Proteus software.

Step2. Create a New Project: Go to File > New Project to create a new project and follow
the setup wizard to name the project and choose a directory.

Step3. Design the UPS Circuit: Use the P (Pick Devices) button or Library > Pick Devices to
search for and place components. Then position the components on the schematic sheet
according to the UPS design and connect the components using the Wiring tool. Also
double-click each component to set its parameters.

Step4. Configure Simulation Settings: Go to Simulation > Edit Simulation Profile to define
simulation parameters and choose the type of simulation, such as Transient Analysis for
time-based behavior or AC Analysis for frequency response.

Step5. Run the Simulation: Click on the Play button or go to Simulation > Run to begin the
simulation and observe the UPS operation through the Virtual Oscilloscope or other
measurement tools provided by Proteus.

Step6. Analyze the Results: Verify that the output voltage remains stable and within the
expected range during normal operation and battery backup modes. Ensure that the UPS
switches correctly between mains power and battery power without interruption and
analyze how the UPS manages battery charging and discharging, including the charging rate
and cutoff thresholds.

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Step7. Document and Save: Save the schematic and simulation results regularly to prevent
data loss by clicking on File > Save to save your project.

4. Steps of simulating Programmable power supply using Proteus

Simulating a Programmable Power Supply using Proteus involves designing a circuit

schematic that includes components to control and program the output voltage and
current.

Here's a step-by-step guide to simulating a programmable power supply in Proteus:

Step1. Install and Open Proteus: Verify that Proteus is installed on your computer then
open the Proteus software.

Step2. Create a New Project: Go to File > New Project to create a new project and follow
the setup wizard to name your project and select a directory for saving it.

Step3. Design the Programmable Power Supply Circuit: Use the P (Pick Devices) button or
go to Library > Pick Devices to search for and place components then position the
components on the schematic sheet according to your design and after use the Wiring tool
to connect components according to the circuit design also set parameters of components
such as resistor values, capacitor values, and control settings.

Step4. Configure Simulation Settings: Go to Simulation > Edit Simulation Profile to define
the type of simulation and parameters and choose Transient Analysis to observe time-based
behavior or DC Sweep for varying input voltages.

Step5. Run the Simulation: Click on the Play button or go to Simulation > Run to begin the
simulation and monitor the simulation results using virtual instruments by using virtual
instruments like Oscilloscope, Multimeter, or Virtual Analyzer to measure output voltage,
current, and control signals.

Step6. Analyze the Results: Ensure that the output voltage and current are adjustable and
meet the desired specifications based on the control signals or programming settings then
analyze the performance of the programmable power supply, including response time,
accuracy, and stability.

Step7. Document and Save: Save the schematic and simulation results regularly to avoid
data loss by clicking on File > Save to save your project then generate reports and export
simulation results for documentation purposes.

5. Steps of simulating Variable power supply using Proteus

Here’s a step-by-step simulating Variable power supply using Proteus:

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Step1. Install and Open Proteus: Make sure that Proteus is installed on your computer then
Open the Proteus software.

Step2. Create a New Project: Go to File > New Project to create a new project and follow
the setup wizard to name your project and choose a directory for saving it.

Step3. Design the Variable Power Supply Circuit:Use the P (Pick Devices) button or Library >
Pick Devices to search for and place components then position the components on the
schematic sheet according to your design then after connect the components according to
the circuit design and configure their parameters.

Step4. Set Up Simulation Profile and Define Simulation Parameters: Go to Simulation >
Edit Simulation Profile to define the type of simulation and parameters then after insert
voltage sources to simulate input power and control signals.

Step5. Run the Simulation: Click on the Play button or go to Simulation > Run to begin the
simulation then observe the circuit behavior using virtual instruments like Oscilloscope,
Multimeter, or Virtual Analyzer to measure the output voltage, current, and adjustment
settings.

Step6. Analyze the Results: Ensure that the output voltage is adjustable over the desired
range and that it matches the specifications set by the potentiometer or control signal.

Step7. Optimize Design: Make necessary adjustments to improve the performance of the
variable power supply. This might involve changing component values, improving stability,
or enhancing the control mechanism.

Step8. Save Your Work and Generate Reports: Save the schematic and simulation results
regularly to avoid data loss by File > Save to save your project and also generate and export
reports of your simulation results for documentation purposes.

Practical Activity 3.2.4: Generating a power supply PCB

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Computer Lab to generate the PCB layout of a
regulated DC power supply that converts 220V AC input into a stable 5V DC output,
suitable for powering microcontrollers or other low-power electronic circuits using
Proteus software.

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 3: Present your work to whole class.

4: Read key reading 3.2.4 and perform the task provided in application of learning 3.2.4

Key readings 3.2.4

Generating a power supply PCB

Steps of Generating a power supply PCB using Proteus

Generating a PCB (Printed Circuit Board) for a power supply using Proteus involves several
key steps, from designing the schematic to creating and verifying the PCB layout.

Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you through the process:

Step1. Design the Schematic by creating a New Project, designing the schematic and after
simulate the circuit.

As you know we can not place VSINE or Transformer on the PCB board we need to add a
block which is called as TBLOCK-I2 it is a two terminal connector at which we will connect
our output terminals of the transformer similarly for the voltmeter we are going to put the
same terminal block.

For this purpose we will replace VSINE and voltmeter with terminal block (TBLOCK)

Now only remaining component is LED who's PCB footprint is missing so we need to add
the PCB footprint of LED for that purpose double click the LED click on the question mark a
new window named packages would appear type LED and double-click LED now and the
PCB package you can see there would be written LED at the end.

You can rename the terminal blocks by input and output or whatever you like

Step2. Create the PCB Layout: Once the schematic is complete and tested, convert it to PCB
layout by going to Tools > Update PCB Layout and choose a PCB layout based on your
schematic.

Also while launching the the Proteus software, you can choose create a PCB layout from the
selected remplate and select Generic Single Layer.

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 1. Click on the PCB layout tab then zoom in to upper left corner as shown in pictures
this block is 1x1 cm in area

2. Now from the left toolbar click on the Square button and from the bottom toolbar
select Board Edge.

3. Draw a rectangle of any size by clicking anywhere inside the blue area of the PCB
window, as you can see I have drawn a 2 x 2 cm² block. This is the size of your PCB
you can change it by hoovering your mouse pointer at any corner off this Block. As
I have also changed it after completing the design.

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 4. Now click on the small diode icon which indicate that component lists. Select the
component and then click inside the yellow Square to place it

5. When you would be placing a component you will see green lines which indicates
the connection of one point to the other point and the Yellow arrow head which
indicates that this component is to join with this terminal of the other component.
Place the components wherever you like keep in mind that you choose simple and
easy path which is indicated by the green lines. After placing all the components you
can adjust the yellow rectangle

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 6. Make sure there are no DRC errors on the bottom status bar, DRC error appears
when there is an overlapping of a terminal with other terminals or with board edge.

Step3. Define PCB Settings: Define the board dimensions, layer stack, and other settings
using Design > Board Shape to set the dimensions of the PCB. Then set the number of layers
and other properties via Design > Layer Stack Manager.

Step4. Place Components: Arrange the components on the PCB layout by dragging them
from the Components list then position components to minimize trace lengths and avoid
clutter.

Step5: Route Traces: Use the Route tool to connect the components according to the
schematic and ensure proper routing of signal traces, power lines, and ground planes.

Auto-Routing

1. Click on the routing button from left toolbar as described in picture then double

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 click default, change the default width to 20th or 25th (this is the thickness of your
PCB routing) and click OK

1. Now click on the second last icon (Auto-Router) and check the Wire-Grid and Via-
Grid it should be more than 15 other wise soldering would be difficult in close
connections. then click Begin Routing

2. After routing make sure there are no CRC errors, in case there is an error there
would be a connection missing press CTRL+Z and re-arrange that component and
start routing again.

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Manual-Routing

1. Click on the routing button from left toolbar as described in picture then double
click default, change the default width to 20th or 25th (this is the thickness of your
PCB routing) and click OK

2. Click on any terminal the point that terminal wants to connect would be highlighted
just click on that highlighted terminal same as we did while making the schematic.
Make all the connections you would notice that whenever you are making the
connection the CRC errors would be reduced after all the connections there would
be no CRC error.

If you want to make your PCB design more professional click on tools then the second last
item name power plan generator Just click ok and see what happens with your PCB design

Step6: Add PCB Features: Insert necessary PCB features such as:

o Pads: For mounting components.

o Silkscreen: To mark component outlines and labels.

o Copper Pour: For ground planes or power distribution.

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 E

Step7. Verify and Finalize the PCB Design: Verify that there are no electrical issues with the
layout and ensure that all connections are correct and there are no unconnected nets.

Step8. Review the PCB Design: Double-check component placements, trace routing, and
board layout and make sure there are no errors or design issues before proceeding to
fabrication.

Proteus offer to students a 3D visualisation tool you can see your circuit in 3D which is quite
awesome.

Step9. Generate Gerber Files: Go to File > Export > Gerber Files to generate the files
required for PCB fabrication.

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Step10. Printing PCB: For printing the PCB layout there are two methods

1. Go to output click on export graphics then click on export Adobe PDF file in this
method you will save the PCB layout as a PDF file and dialog box will open from this
box only select the bottom copper and the Board Edge and un-check everything
else and click OK. You need to check the actual size printing option while printing
from a adobe or any other PDF viewer.

2. Go to output click on print layout, a dialog box will appear only check bottom
copper and board Edge adjust the PCB as shown in the print preview you can print
it anywhere on the page and click OK.

Practical Activity 3.2.5: Assembling power supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

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 As technician, you are asked to go in the electronic workshop to assemble a power supply
unit that converts 230V AC mains into a regulated 12V DC output.

2: Present your work to whole class.

3: Read key reading 3.2.5 and perform the task provided in application of learning 3.5

Key readings 3.2.5

Assembling power supply unit

Steps of Assembling power supply unit

Step1. Gather Tools and Components: This includes tools such as soldering iron, solder,
screwdrivers, multimeter, tweezres, ect and components such as PCB, connector terminals,
enclosure, heat sink, electronic components, etc

Step2. Prepare the PCB: This involves checking for any visible defects or damage on the
PCB and ensure that the board is clean and free of dust or debris. Also compare the PCB
layout with the schematic to ensure that all components are correctly placed.

Step3. Assemble the Components: Insert components into their respective holes or slots
starting from smaller to larger, then heat the soldering iron and apply solder to the
component leads and PCB pads. After soldering, use wire cutters to trim any excess
component leads that extend beyond the PCB.

Step4. Inspect the Assembly: Ensure that all components are properly aligned and that
there are no physical defects, then use a multimeter to check for continuity between
relevant points to ensure that there are no open circuits or incorrect connections.

Step5. Test the Assembly: Connect the PSU to an appropriate power source and verify that
the output voltages are within the specified range and check for stability. Then monitor the
PSU’s performance under load conditions, checking for correct voltage regulation, stability,
and any signs of overheating or instability.

Step6. Check for Proper Operation: Verify that the PSU can handle the expected load and
that it operates correctly within its specifications.

Step7. Finalize Assembly: Place the assembled PCB into an enclosure or casing to protect it
from environmental factors and mechanical damage. Then label the PSU’s input and output
connections for easy identification and safe operation and conduct a final set of tests to
ensure that the PSU functions correctly and meets all design specifications.

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Step8. Documentation and Safety: Keep records of the assembly process, including any
issues encountered and how they were resolved also follow all safety guidelines when
working with electrical components and power supplies.

Points to Remember

• Description of a power supply types

✓ A linear power supply converts AC voltage to a stable DC voltage.
 There are typically two types of linear power supply as Unregulated Linear and
Regulated Linear
✓ A Switched Mode Power Supply (SMPS) is an electronic power supply that
efficiently converts electrical power using a switching regulator.
 Types of SMPS are: AC-DC Converters, DC-DC Converters, and DC-AC Inverters.
✓ An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is an electrical device used to provide
emergency electrical power to different electrical loads in the case of a main power
supply failure.
✓ A programmable power supply is a type of power supply unit (PSU) that allows the
user to control and adjust its output parameters (such as voltage, current, or
power) via external inputs.
✓ A variable regulated power supply, also called a variable bench power supply, is
one where you can continuously adjust the output voltage to you requirements.
• Steps of Drawing of schematic diagram of power supply unit using Proteus
To draw of schematic diagram of power supply unit in Proteus, begin by determining
the Input Voltage and Output Voltage for your project. Next, launch the Proteus
software and navigate to File > New Project; here, you will name your project and select
a directory for saving it. After setting up the project, proceed to select and add the
necessary components for your schematic. Utilize the wire tool, represented by a blue
dot or pencil icon in the toolbar, to connect these components effectively. To ensure all
components are properly identified, use the Annotate tool to automatically assign

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 identifiers. Finally, save your work by going to File > Save or by clicking the save icon to
preserve your schematic design.
• Steps of simulating linear power supply using Proteus
To simulate your linear power supply project in Proteus, first define the Power Supply
Requirements, including the Input Voltage, Output Voltage, and the necessary
components. Next, launch the Proteus software and navigate to File > New Project, where
you will name your project and specify the directory for saving it. Once your project is set
up, click on the library and select the Pick Devices button (or press P) to search for and add
the required components. After selecting the components, connect them using the Wire
Tool and label the connections for easy identification. To measure AC input and DC output,
add voltage probes or virtual instruments to your schematic. When everything is in place,
click the Run Simulation button (represented by a green play icon) to start simulating your
circuit. After running the simulation, analyze the results carefully. Finally, remember to
save and export your simulation to preserve your work for future reference.

• Simulating an SMPS in Proteus involves:

To design and simulate a switched-mode power supply (SMPS) circuit, begin by starting a
new project where you will add and configure the necessary components for the SMPS.
Next, define the type of simulation you wish to conduct, along with the input sources that
will drive your circuit. This is crucial for ensuring that the simulation accurately reflects
real-world conditions. After setting up the simulation parameters, observe and analyze
the performance of the SMPS circuit through the simulation tools available. Finally, based
on the results obtained from your simulations, make adjustments to optimize
performance and verify that the circuit meets your specifications.

• Simulating a UPS in Proteus involves:

To simulate an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) circuit, begin by designing the
circuit and configuring the necessary components to ensure optimal functionality. Once
the design is in place, define the type of simulation you will conduct, along with the input
sources that will be used to test the circuit's performance. After setting up these
parameters, observe the UPS performance during the simulation and make any
adjustments as needed to enhance its efficiency and reliability. Finally, if any issues arise
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during this phase, take the time to address those problems and improve the overall design
to meet your specifications.

• Simulating a programmable power supply in Proteus involves:

Simulating a programmable power supply in Proteus involves several key steps. First, you
need to design the circuit and configure the components appropriately to ensure that
they function as intended. Once the circuit is set up, the next step is to define the type of
simulation you wish to run and specify the input sources that will be used during the
simulation. After these preparations, proceed to run and analyze the simulation to
observe how the circuit performs under various conditions. Finally, if any issues arise
during this analysis, it’s important to address these problems and improve the
design accordingly.

• Simulating a variable power supply in Proteus involves:

To simulate a variable power supply in Proteus, first, you need to design the circuit and
configure the necessary components, laying the groundwork for your simulation. Next, it’s
important to define the type of simulation you wish to conduct, along with the input
sources that will power your circuit. Once these parameters are set, you can proceed to run
and analyze the simulation, observing how the circuit performs under various conditions.
Finally, if any issues arise during this analysis, you should address these problems and
refine your design accordingly to enhance performance.

• Generating a PCB for a power supply in Proteus involves:

Generating a printed circuit board (PCB) for a power supply in Proteus involves several key
steps. First, you need to create and test the circuit design, ensuring that all components
are correctly configured and functioning as intended. Once the circuit is validated, the next
step is to convert the schematic to a PCB layout; this includes placing the components,
routing the traces, and adding any necessary features to enhance the design. Following the
layout creation, it's essential to perform design checks to ensure everything is in order
before generating Gerber files, which are crucial for fabrication. Finally, after preparing the
files for manufacturing, you will assemble the PCB and verify its functionality to confirm
that it operates as expected.
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 • Assembling a power supply unit involves:
Assembling a power supply unit (PSU) involves several important steps to ensure a
successful build. First, making sure you have everything required for the assembly process.
Next, prepare the printed circuit board (PCB) by inspecting and verifying both the PCB and
its components to ensure they meet specifications. Once everything is in order, assemble
the components by carefully placing and soldering them onto the PCB. After assembly, it's
crucial to inspect and test the unit; this includes performing visual inspections, conducting
continuity checks, and executing load testing to confirm functionality. Following these
tests, finalize the assembly by enclosing the PSU, labelling all connections clearly, and
conducting final tests to ensure everything operates correctly.

Application of learning 3.2.

You are an Electronics Technician working for a startup company that is developing a
smart home automation hub. This hub will control various IoT devices like lights,
thermostats, and security cameras. The hub must operate on a reliable and efficient
power supply to ensure continuous operation. It will convert 230V AC mains power to 5V
DC with a maximum current output of 2A to power the hub’s microcontroller and
communication modules.

Your supervisor tasked you with the following tasks:

i. Designing and drawing a 05V DC regulated power supply circuit, using Proteus, for
an embedded system project.

ii. Before physically building the power supply unit (PSU), you are tasked by
simulating the design to verify its performance, efficiency, and safety.

iii. Create a printed circuit board (PCB) for this power supply circuit,

iv. Assemble a 05V DC power supply unit to fit the system

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 Indicative content 3.3: Testing Computer Power Supply Unit

Duration: 7 hrs

Theoretical Activity 3.3.1: Description of testing concepts

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of power supply testing

concepts.

i. What do you understand by the following terms?

a) Voltage

b) Current

c) Transient response

d) Ripple

e) Short circuit

f) Electromagnetic Interference

g) Electromagnetic Compatibility

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications, if any.

5: Read the key reading 3.3.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 3.3.1.:

Description of testing concepts

1. Voltage: is the electrical potential difference between two points in a circuit. It’s the force
that drives the flow of current through a circuit.

It’s measured in volts (V) by the instrument called Voltmeter connected in parallel with the
component under test. Testing voltage helps ensure that a circuit or component is operating
at the correct voltage levels.

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2. Current: is the flow of electric charge through a conductor or circuit, measured in
amperes (A) by the instrument called Ammeter connected in series with the component
under test.

Testing current helps to determine if the correct amount of current is flowing through a
component or circuit, which can be critical for proper operation and safety.

3. Transient Response: It refers to how a circuit reacts to sudden changes in voltage or

current, such as switching on or off. It’s crucial in assessing how quickly and effectively a
circuit returns to its steady-state operation after a disturbance. Testing transient response
helps to evaluate the stability and performance of circuits, especially in dynamic conditions.

Transient response testing in a computer power supply evaluates how well the supply
responds to sudden changes in load conditions, particularly in terms of voltage stability.
This is important to ensure that the power supply can handle rapid changes in the power
demand from components like the CPU and GPU without causing system instability.

4. Ripple: is the small, unwanted AC component superimposed on the DC output of a power

supply or regulator. It is typically caused by incomplete smoothing of the output voltage.
Testing for ripple is important in power supplies to ensure that the DC output is stable and
free from excessive fluctuations that could affect circuit performance.

Measuring ripple in a computer power supply involves detecting the small, high-frequency
variations superimposed on the DC output voltage. Ripple is an important parameter as it
indicates the quality of the power supply's filtering and regulation. Excessive ripple can
affect the stability and performance of electronic components.

5. Short Circuit: A short circuit occurs when there is an unintended path of low resistance
that bypasses the intended circuit path. This can cause excessive current flow, potentially
leading to overheating or damage. Testing for short circuits involves checking for
unexpected connections between circuit points that should be isolated.

6. EMI/EMC: EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) refers to unwanted electromagnetic

signals that can disrupt the operation of electronic devices. EMC (Electromagnetic
Compatibility) is the ability of a device to operate correctly in its electromagnetic
environment without causing or being affected by EMI. Testing for EMI and EMC involves
ensuring that devices are shielded or designed to minimize interference and comply with
regulatory standards for electromagnetic emissions and immunity.

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 • EMI (Electromagnetic Interference): This refers to unwanted electromagnetic
emissions generated by electronic devices, such as a PSU, which can interfere with
the performance of nearby equipment.

• EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility): This ensures that a device, like a PSU, can
operate properly in its electromagnetic environment without causing or being
affected by interference.

Testing the Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) of

a computer power supply unit (PSU) is crucial to ensure it complies with industry standards
and does not disrupt other devices or systems

Practical Activity 3.3.2: Visual inspecting of computer power supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the electronic worshop to conduct a visual

inspection of a computer power supply unit to identify potential issues and the
components involved.

2: Present your work to whole class.

3: Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.2

Visual inspection of computer power supply unit

1. Steps of visual inspection of computer power supply unit

The visual inspection of a computer power supply unit (PSU) is an essential part of
diagnosing potential hardware issues or ensuring that the PSU is functioning properly.

Here are the steps for performing a thorough visual inspection:

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Step1. Turn off the Computer and Unplug the Power Supply: Before inspecting the PSU,
ensure that the computer is turned off and unplugged from the wall socket to prevent
electrical hazards and ensure no power is connected.

Step2. Inspect the External Casing: Look for any dents, cracks, or physical damage to the
PSU's external casing.

Step3. Inspect the Power Cable: Ensure the power cable is intact with no visible cuts,
fraying, or loose connections. A damaged power cable can cause improper power delivery
or pose a safety risk.

Step4. Check for Bulging or Leaking Capacitors: If possible, remove the cover and check
inside the PSU to look at the capacitors for any signs of bulging, leaking, or physical
distortion. Damaged capacitors are a common cause of PSU failure.

Step5. Look for Burn Marks or Discoloration: Check the circuit board and components for
any burn marks, soot, or discoloration, which can indicate overheating or electrical shorts.

Step6. Examine Wiring and Connectors: Check that connectors are securely attached and
not bent, missing, or loose. Loose connectors can cause poor power delivery.

Step7. Inspect for Dust and Debris: Dust accumulation can cause the PSU to overheat. Make
sure to clean any dust from the vents, fan, and around the PSU. A can of compressed air can
be used to blow dust out of hard-to-reach areas.

Step8. Smell for Burnt Odors: A burnt smell from the PSU could indicate overheating or
internal component failure. If you detect such an odor, the PSU may be damaged and unsafe
to use.

Step9. Check the PSU Label and Ratings: Ensure the PSU label is intact and clearly visible.
The label should provide information about the PSU’s wattage, voltage ratings, and
certification

Step10. Ensure Proper Grounding: Inspect the PSU’s ground connection (if visible) to
ensure it’s secure and free of corrosion because improper grounding can lead to electrical
hazards or malfunction.

Step11. Look for Signs of Liquid Damage: Check for any signs of liquid spills or corrosion,
which could indicate water damage or exposure to moisture.

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 Practical Activity 3.3.3: Measuring input voltage and current of a power
supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the electronic workshop to measure the input
voltage and current of a computer power supply unit, and relate these measurements to
the overall performance and safety of the PSU.

2: Present your work to whole class.

3: Read key reading 3.3.3 and perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.3

Measuring input voltage and current of a power supply unit

1. Steps yo measure input Voltage

Step 1: Set the Multimeter to Voltage Mode: Turn the dial on the multimeter to the DC
Voltage (V) setting, as input voltage in most circuits is DC (e.g., power supplies). If you are
working with AC, set the multimeter to the AC Voltage (V~) setting and Select a range that
is higher than the expected voltage to avoid overloading the meter. If unsure, start with the
highest setting and adjust accordingly.

Step 2: Connect the Probes: Red probe goes to the positive input voltage terminal, Black
probe goes to the ground (negative) terminal and place the probes directly across the points
you want to measure the voltage difference between.

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Step 3: Turn on the Circuit: Power on the circuit to measure the input voltage under
operating conditions.

Step 4: Read the Measurement: The voltage will be displayed on the multimeter screen and
if the value exceeds the multimeter's range, adjust the range setting or select a higher-
capacity multimeter.

Step 5: Turn Off the Circuit: After recording the measurement, turn off the circuit and
disconnect the probes.

2. Steps meaure input Current in a power supply

Step1. Turn Off the Power: Power off the circuit or device where you will measure the
current to ensure safety while connecting the multimeter.

Step2. Set the Multimeter to the Current Measurement Mode: If you’re measuring direct

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current (A–) (e.g., from batteries or DC circuits), set the multimeter to DC current and if
you’re measuring alternating current (A~) (e.g., from AC mains), set it to AC current.

 Choose the appropriate current range on the multimeter. If unsure, select the
highest range to prevent overloading the multimeter.

Step3. Switch Probe Connections: Insert the black probe into the "COM" port (common
ground) and insert the red probe into the port labeled "mA" or "A" for current for low
current measurements (typically below 200mA), while you have to insert the red probe into
the high-current port labeled "10A" or similar, depending on your multimeter for higher
current (usually above 200mA),

Step4. Break the Circuit: To measure current, you must connect the multimeter in series
with the circuit. This means you need to disconnect or break the circuit at the point where
you want to measure the current flow.

Step5. Connect the Probes in Series: Connect the black probe to the part of the circuit that
leads to the negative (or ground) side and connect the red probe to the positive side where
the current will flow.

For AC measurements, the orientation of the probes doesn’t matter since the current
alternates.

Step6. Turn On the Power: Once the multimeter is connected in series, turn the circuit or
device back on to allow current to flow through the multimeter.

Step7. Read the Display: The current will be displayed on the multimeter’s screen. Be sure
to note the units (mA, A, etc.) and ensure that the value is within the expected range for
your circuit.

Step8. Turn Off the Power and Disconnect the Multimeter: After measuring the current,
turn off the power to the circuit, then disconnect the multimeter probes.

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  Switch the red probe back to the voltage/resistance port if you’re finished
measuring current.

Step9. Turn Off the Multimeter: Turn off the multimeter to conserve battery life.

Practical Activity 3.3.4: Measuring output voltage and current

Task:

1. Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the electronic workshop to measure the output
voltage and current of a computer power supply unit to understand its performance
characteristics and ensure it meets specifications.

2. Read key reading 3.3.4 to understand the procedures, then perform the activity.

3. Present your work to whole class.

4. Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.4

Output voltage and current measurement

Measuring the output voltage and current in a computer power supply involves using
appropriate tools and following safety guidelines. Here are the steps you can follow:

1. Steps for output Voltage Measurement:

Step1: Power Off the Computer: Before performing any measurement, ensure that the
computer is turned off and unplugged to avoid any electric shocks.

Step2: Locate the Power Supply Connectors: Identify the connectors coming from the
power supply and use a power supply pinout diagram to identify which pins carry the
different voltage rails and ground.

Step3: Set Multimeter to Voltage Mode: Set your digital multimeter to measure DC voltage.
Ensure the multimeter probes are properly connected: the red probe to the VΩ port and
the black probe to the COM port.

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Step4: Turn On the Computer: Power on the computer to start the power supply.

Step5: Measure the Output Voltage: Carefully place the black probe on a ground pin (black
wire) and the red probe on the pin carrying the voltage you want to measure then record
the voltage readings for different rails. Ensure the readings are within the expected
tolerance levels.

2. Steps for output current Measurement:

Step1: Set Multimeter to Current Mode: Turn off the computer and switch your digital
multimeter to the appropriate current range then ensure the red probe is in the correct
port for current measurement.

Step2: Disconnect Load: Disconnect the load (e.g., motherboard, drives) from the power
supply connector where you plan to measure the current.

Step3: Insert Multimeter in Series: To measure current, the multimeter must be placed in
series with the loadand connect one end of the multimeter probe to the output pin (and
the other probe to the wire going to the load.

Step4: Turn On the Power Supply: Power on the computer or the power supply then the
current will flow through the multimeter.

Step5: Check Current Reading: Record the current drawn by the load at different voltage
rails.

Step6: Turn Off and Reconnect: After taking measurements, turn off the power supply,
disconnect the multimeter, and reconnect the load.

Practical Activity 3.3.5: Testing transient response of a computer power supply

Task:

1. Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the electronic workshop to test the behavior of a
computer power supply unit (PSU) under sudden load changes and evaluate its transient
response without causing instability in the output voltage.

2. Read key reading 3.3.5, then perform the activity.

3. Present your work to whole class.

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 4. Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.5

Testing transient response

Steps of Transient response testing

Here are the detailed steps for performing transient response testing in a computer power
supply:

Step 1: Understand the Purpose of Transient Response Testing: Measure how quickly the
PSU stabilizes the output voltage after a load change and identify if there are significant
voltage overshoots, undershoots, or oscillations during transient conditions.

Step 2: Prepare the Required Equipment: These are Electronic Load, Oscilloscope,
Multimeter and the device being tested (The power supply unit).

Step 3: Select Test Parameters: Set the input voltage and choose the critical voltage rails to
test, as they are used to power important components like the CPU, GPU, and motherboard.

Step 4: Connect the Test Equipment: Attach the output rails of the PSU to the electronic
load>>connect the oscilloscope to the voltage rail you want to monitor and perform then
attach the current probes to measure the load current dynamically during the test.

Step 5: Define the Transient Load Profile: Program the Electronic Load to switch between
different loads quickly.

Step 6: Run the Transient Test: Provide AC power to the PSU and ensure it operates
normally under stable load conditions. Then initiate the Transient Load Test by using the
electronic load to create abrupt changes in load then using the Oscilloscope, observe how
the voltage rail behaves during load changes.

Step 7: Analyze the Oscilloscope Waveforms: Look for key indicators of PSU performance
such as: Peak-to-Peak Voltage, Voltage Ripple and Stabilization Time.

Step 8: Repeat the Test for Other Voltage Rails: Use the same transient load profile for
each rail to assess the PSU's performance under various conditions.

Step 9: Document the Results: Document the amount of overshoot, undershoot, and
recovery time for each rail during different load changes and after compare with
Specifications to ensure that the PSU performs within the acceptable limits specified by the
manufacturer or industry standards.

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Step 10: Conclude with a Final Report: Summarize the performance of the PSU in terms of
transient response, highlighting any issues that might need correction and after
recommend whether the PSU is suitable for use in systems that experience frequent or
significant load variations, such as gaming PCs or workstations.

Practical Activity 3.3.6: Measuring ripple in a computer power supply

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Electronic Workshop tasked with testing the
quality of a computer's power supply by measuring the ripple voltage on the output rails.

2: Read key reading 3.3.6, then perform the activity.

3: Present your work to whole class.

4: Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.6

Measuring ripple in a computer power supply

Steps of Measuring ripple in a computer power supply

Here are the steps to measure ripple in a computer power supply:

Step 1: Understand the purpose of Ripple Measurement: The small AC voltage fluctuations
present on the DC output, typically measured in millivolts (mV) or microvolts (µV).

Step 2: Prepare the Equipment such as a digital oscilloscope is preferred for capturing high-
frequency ripple with adequate resolution, a high-frequency probes to minimize loading
effects on the circuit and the unit under test (UUT) from which you want to measure ripple.

Step 3: Connect the Equipment: Set Up the Oscilloscope by choosing an oscilloscope

channel with appropriate bandwidth and ensure that the oscilloscope probe is properly
calibrated and then connect the probe tip to the output terminal of the power supply where
you want to measure ripple.

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Step 4: Set Up the Oscilloscope: Set the time base to capture a sufficient number of ripple
cycles>>adjust the voltage scale (vertical scale) to ensure that the ripple signal is visible and
set the oscilloscope to trigger on the DC voltage level of the ripple to capture stable
waveforms. Use edge triggering for a stable display.

Step 5: Measure Ripple: Observe the waveform on the oscilloscope display. The ripple will
appear as a small AC component superimposed on the DC voltage. This will help you to
determine the peak-to-peak voltage of the ripple and the frequency of the ripple.

Step 6: Analyze the Results: Compare the measured ripple voltage with the specifications
of the power supply to ensure it is within acceptable limits and ensure that the ripple
frequency corresponds to the expected switching frequency or harmonics.

Step 7: Document the Results: Record the measurements and compare with Specifications
to ensure that the ripple levels are within the manufacturer’s specifications or industry
standards then after prepare a report summarizing the ripple measurements, including any
observations or issues identified during the testing.

Practical Activity 3.3.7: Protecting overload and short circuit

Task:

1. Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Electronic Workshop to design and implement
protective circuits to safeguard a computer power supply from overloads and short
circuits.

2. Read key reading 3.3.7, then perform the activity.

3. Present your work to whole class.

4. To get more clarification. perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.7

Protecting overload and short circuit

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 1. Steps of protecting overload in a computer power supply

Here’s a step-by-step guide to protect against overload in a circuit:

Step1. Understand the Circuit’s Power Requirements: Calculate or look up the current and
voltage requirements of the components in the circuit. Ensure that the circuit's power
supply provides the necessary voltage and current within safe operating limits.

Step2. Add an appropriate fuse: Place a fuse in series with the circuit’s power input. The
fuse should be rated slightly higher than the maximum expected current draw but lower
than what would cause damage.

Step3. Implement a Circuit Breaker: For circuits requiring continuous operation or easy
resetting after an overload, use a circuit breaker instead of a fuse.

Step4. Use Current-Limiting Resistors: In simpler circuits, placing resistors in series with
certain components or inputs can limit the maximum current that flows through those
sections of the circuit.

Step5. Install Thermal Protection: Thermal protection devices such as thermal fuses or
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors can help protect the circuit from
overcurrent by increasing their resistance when the temperature rises due to overload.

Step6. Use a Current Limiter IC: Integrated circuits (ICs) specifically designed to limit current
can protect more advanced circuits from overload. These devices monitor the current flow
and shut down or limit the output when the current exceeds a set threshold.

Step7. Use Overcurrent Protection (OCP) Circuits: Overcurrent protection circuits can
monitor current flow and automatically cut power or limit current when an overload
condition is detected.

Step8. Implement a Power Management IC: For complex systems, power management ICs
can regulate current and voltage levels, offering overload protection along with other
features like undervoltage lockout (UVLO) and overvoltage protection (OVP).

Step9. Use a Zener Diode for Voltage Clamping: In some circuits, overload can happen due
to excessive voltage. A Zener diode can be used in reverse bias to clamp the voltage to a
safe level.

Step10. Employ a Crowbar Circuit for Short-Circuit Protection: This is a protective circuit
that uses a thyristor (like an SCR) to short the power supply when excessive voltage or
current is detected, essentially "crowbarring" the power supply and preventing further
damage to the circuit..

Step11. Design with a Soft Start Mechanism: These circuits gradually increase the voltage
and current when powering up a system, avoiding the sudden inrush current that can cause

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overload. They are particularly useful in circuits with capacitors, motors, or inductive loads
that draw high initial currents.

Step12. Use a Power Supply with Built-in Protection: When designing a circuit, using a
regulated power supply that has built-in overload protection (like foldback current limiting
or shutdown features) can prevent damage to both the power supply and the circuit itself.

Step13. Regular Maintenance and Testing: Over time, components can degrade, increasing
the likelihood of overloads. Regularly inspect and test the circuit, especially in industrial or
high-power applications, to ensure that all protection mechanisms are functioning properly.

2. Steps of testing short circuit in a computer power supply

Testing for a short circuit in a general electronic circuit is a critical troubleshooting step.
Here's a step-by-step guide to help you safely test for a short circuit in a circuit:

Step1. Power Off and Disconnect the Circuit: Before testing for a short circuit, ensure that
the circuit is completely disconnected from any power sources to avoid the risk of electric
shock or damaging components.

Step2. Visual Inspection: Check the circuit board and components for visible signs of
damage, such as burnt marks, melted components, or damaged wires. These are often
indicators of a short circuit and also look for any solder bridges that could be shorting
adjacent pins or traces on the PCB (Printed Circuit Board). Poor soldering can often cause
accidental shorts.

Step3. Set the Multimeter to Continuity: If your multimeter has a continuity setting, set it
to this mode. In continuity mode, the multimeter will beep when there is a direct electrical
path between two points, which is useful for finding short circuits.

Step4. Test for Continuity Across the Circuit: Put one probe on a known ground (like the
ground rail of the circuit) and use the other probe to check various points in the circuit and
check between power and ground.

Step5. Isolate Sections of the Circuit: If the circuit is complex, try isolating different sections
to narrow down where the short may be occurring and also test components individually
by desoldering it from the circuit and test it with your multimeter.

Step6. Check the Power Rails: If your circuit uses voltage regulators, check the input and
output for shorts to ground then after check the entire power rail of the circuit, which
connects the power supply to various components, for any shorts to ground.

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 Practical Activity 3.3.8: Testing temperature in computer power supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Electronic Workshop to to measure and analyze
the temperature of various components within a computer power supply unit (PSU) to
ensure safe and optimal operation.

2: Read key reading 3.3.8, then perform the activity.

3: Present your work to whole class.

4: Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.8

Testing temperature in computer power supply unit

Steps of testing temperature in computer power supply unit

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to safely test and monitor the temperature of a
computer PSU:

Step 1. Safety Precautions: Before testing, make sure the computer is powered off and
unplugged from the wall socket to prevent electric shock and allow it to cool before testing,
as it may be hot.

Step 2. Use an Infrared Thermometer or Thermal Camera (Non-Contact Method)

This method allows you to safely check the PSU temperature without opening the unit.

• Turn on the computer: Plug the power supply back in and turn the computer on.

• Aim the infrared thermometer: Point the infrared thermometer at the PSU’s
exhaust vent (where hot air exits). This will give you a general reading of the air
temperature being expelled, indicating the PSU's internal heat.

• Check temperature readings: Take note of the temperature. For most PSUs, exhaust
air should be between 30°C and 50°C (86°F to 122°F) under normal conditions.

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 Higher temperatures may indicate that the PSU is under stress or not properly
ventilated.

Step 3. Use a Temperature Probe (Contact Method)

For more precise readings, you can use a thermocouple or temperature probe. This method
is more advanced but provides better accuracy for internal temperatures.

• Turn off and unplug the PSU: Make sure the PSU is completely disconnected before
opening it.

• Open the PSU casing: If you are experienced and comfortable working with
electronics, you can carefully unscrew the PSU casing to access internal
components.

• Place the temperature probe: Attach the temperature probe to a key internal
component, such as a heat sink, transformer, or power MOSFET. These areas
typically generate the most heat.

• Reassemble the PSU: Once the probe is securely attached, close the PSU (if possible)
and reconnect it to the power supply.

• Turn on the computer: Power on the computer and monitor the temperature
readings from the probe.

• Monitor over time: Observe the temperature as the computer runs under normal
and load conditions. PSUs typically operate best between 40°C and 60°C (104°F to
140°F). Consistently high temperatures (above 70°C or 158°F) may indicate poor
airflow, dust buildup, or an overloaded PSU.

Step 4. Use PSU Monitoring Software

Many high-end power supplies come with built-in temperature sensors and monitoring
software that can provide real-time temperature data. If your PSU supports this feature,
follow these steps:

• Install the PSU manufacturer’s software: Some PSUs come with proprietary
software (e.g., Corsair Link, EVGA Precision, etc.) that allows you to monitor various
parameters, including temperature.

• Check the temperature readings: Open the software and look for temperature data
under the PSU monitoring section.

o Some software can provide the temperature of internal components like the
fan or power regulation modules.

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 o Compare the readings with the normal operating range (40°C to 60°C is
typical).

Step 5. Ensure Proper Ventilation

• Check PSU ventilation: Ensure the PSU has adequate airflow and that there are no
obstructions blocking the fan or ventilation grills.

• Clean dust buildup: Dust accumulation can block airflow and cause the PSU to
overheat. Use compressed air to clean out the PSU exhaust and fan area.

Step 6. Compare to Manufacturer Specifications

• Look up the PSU's rated operating temperature: Different PSUs have different
operating temperature ranges. Review the manufacturer’s manual or product
specifications for guidance on normal and maximum temperature ratings.

Practical Activity 3.3.9: Testing EMI/EMC in computer power supply unit

Task:

1. Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Electronic Workshop tasked with testing the
electromagnetic interference (EMI) levels and ensuring electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) of a newly designed computer power supply unit (PSU). Your goal is to verify that
the PSU complies with regulatory standards and does not cause interference to other
nearby electronic devices.

2. Read key reading 3.2.3, then perform the activity.

3. Present your work to whole class.

4. Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.9

Testing EMI/EMC in computer power supply unit

Steps of testing EMI/EMC in computer power supply unit

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Here's a step-by-step guide on how EMI/EMC testing is performed for a PSU:

Step1. Prepare tools and Equipment Required such as spectrum Analyzer: Measures
electromagnetic emissions over a wide frequency range, EMC Software, Oscilloscope, etc

Step2. Prepare the Test Setup: Place the PSU in the testing environment and connect the
LISN between the PSU and the power supply source.

Step3. Conduct Conducted Emissions Testing: Connect the PSU’s input power line to the
LISN, which provides a stable environment for measuring the conducted emissions and turn
on the EMI receiver/spectrum analyser then after observe the results.

Step4. Conduct Immunity Testing: To check the PSU's ability to operate correctly when
exposed to external electromagnetic disturbances. This is performed by the following
methods:

✓ Place the PSU in the test setup: For radiated immunity, place the PSU in an anechoic
chamber with antennas generating high-power electromagnetic fields.

✓ Apply disturbances: Introduce RF interference in various frequency bands and monitor

the PSU’s performance. For conducted immunity, inject noise through the power lines
and observe the PSU's behavior.

✓ Analyze functionality: Ensure the PSU continues to function without interruption or

significant performance degradation.

Step5. Check for Compliance: Once testing is complete, compare the results with the
relevant EMC regulations and standards.

Step6. Document Results: After all tests are complete, document the results with detailed
information about the test setup, procedures followed, and whether the PSU passed or
failed the tests.

Practical Activity 3.3.10: Testing safety in computer power supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in the Electronic Workshop to test the safety features
of a computer power supply unit (PSU) to ensure that it operates correctly and safely

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 within specified limits. You will identify and assess key safety mechanisms such as
overload protection, overvoltage protection, short circuit protection, and proper
grounding.

2: Read key reading 3.3.10, then perform the activity.

3: Present your work to whole class.

4: Perform the task provided in application of learning 3.3

Key readings 3.3.10

Testing safety in computer power supply unit

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to perform safety testing for a PSU:

Step1. Gather Necessary Testing Equipment such as multimeter, Insulation Resistance

Tester (Megger), Oscilloscope, automatic Test Equipment (ATE), etc

Step2. Visual Inspection and Physical Safety Check by inspecting the PSU for any visible
damage, like cracks, loose parts, exposed wires, or burnt components, then ensure that the
power connectors and cables are in good condition, also make sure the cooling fan is
operational and free of obstructions.

Step3. Ground Continuity Test: Place one probe on the PSU’s ground (the metal chassis)
and the other on the ground pin of the power cord, the resistance should be very low,
usually less than 0.1 ohms, to ensure proper grounding.

Step4. Insulation Resistance Test (Megger Test): Ensure the unit is powered down and
disconnected from any load the use the insulation resistance tester set to the appropriate
voltage (typically 500V or 1kV, depending on the PSU's rating).

Step5. Overload Protection Test: Connect the PSU to a load tester that can simulate
different power demands.

Step6. Short-Circuit Protection Test: Create a short circuit between the PSU’s output
terminals using a controlled test setup and check if the PSU should shut down immediately
upon detecting the short circuit.

Step7. Overvoltage Protection Test: Use a load tester to push the PSU to an overvoltage
condition by manipulating the load and input voltage and observe if the PSU should shut
down when the output voltage exceeds the specified limit.

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Step8. Temperature and Thermal Protection Test: Place thermal sensors or use a thermal
imaging camera to monitor key components of the PSU (such as the transformer, heat sinks,
and capacitors) then check that the temperature remains within safe operating limits.

Step9. Functional Testing: Use an oscilloscope to check for voltage ripples, noise, and power
fluctuations and measure the PSU’s efficiency (input power vs. output power) to ensure it
operates within the specified efficiency ratings.

Points to Remember

• Description of power supply testing concepts

✓ Voltage is the electrical potential difference between two points in a circuit.

✓ Current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor or circuit,

✓ Transient Response refers to how a circuit reacts to sudden changes in voltage or

current, such as switching on or off.

✓ Ripple is the small, unwanted AC component superimposed on the DC output of a

power supply or regulator.

✓ A short circuit occurs when there is an unintended path of low resistance that
bypasses the intended circuit path.

✓ EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) refers to unwanted electromagnetic emissions

generated by electronic devices, such as a PSU, which can interfere with the
performance of nearby equipment.

✓ EMC (Electromagnetic Compatibility) ensures that a device, like a PSU, can operate
properly in its electromagnetic environment without causing or being affected by
interference.

• Steps of Visual Inspection of Computer Power Supply Unit

To conduct a thorough visual inspection of a computer power supply unit (PSU), follow a
systematic approach. Begin by inspecting the exterior of the PSU, looking for any visible
signs of damage. Next, check for burn marks as these can indicate overheating or electrical
shorts. Move on to inspect the capacitors on the PSU circuit board for any signs of leaking.
Additionally, assess the condition of the cables that can lead to short circuits. It’s also
important to evaluate the integrity of the connectors and the power cord itself, as a

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 damaged cord poses a significant safety hazard. Finally, ensure that the ground pin on the
power cord is intact and undamaged.
• To measure input voltage with a multimeter, follow these steps:
To measure input voltage with a multimeter, begin by ensuring that the multimeter is
powered on. Next, set the multimeter to the appropriate voltage mode: choose DC voltage
(V–) if measuring input voltage from dc sources or select AC voltage (V~) for mains power or
other alternating current sources. It is advisable to select an appropriate voltage range; if
uncertain, start with the highest range to prevent damaging the multimeter. After configuring
the settings, insert the black probe into the "COM" port and the red probe into the port
labeled "VΩ" or "V" for voltage measurement.

Connect the probes to the circuit or device by placing the black probe on the negative terminal
or ground of the power source and the red probe on the positive terminal. Ensure that the
probes are connected in parallel to the input terminals of the device or circuit for an accurate
voltage measurement. Once connected, read the voltage displayed on the multimeter, taking
note of the units (volts, millivolts, etc.). Finally, after completing your measurement,
disconnect the probes and turn off the multimeter to preserve battery life and ensure safety.

• To measure current with a multimeter, follow these steps:

To measure current with a multimeter, begin by setting the multimeter to current mode by
turning the dial to the appropriate setting for either DC or AC current, depending on the type
of current you are measuring. Next, open the circuit; unlike voltage measurements, current
must be measured by inserting the multimeter in series with the circuit. Proceed to connect
the multimeter in series, ensuring that the red probe is placed at the point where the current
enters the circuit and the black probe is positioned at the point where the current continues
to flow after passing through. After making these connections, turn on the circuit to restore
power, allowing current to flow through both the multimeter and the circuit, which will enable
the multimeter to measure and display the amount of current on its screen. Once you have
observed and noted the measurement, ensure that the current value is within expected limits.
Finally, after completing your measurement, turn off the circuit, remove the multimeter, and
reconnect everything to restore the circuit to its original state.

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 • Steps of testing transient response of a computer power supply
First, it’s important to understand the purpose of transient response testing, which is to
assess how well a PSU can handle sudden changes in load. Next, you should prepare the
required equipment, including oscilloscopes, electronic loads, and any necessary connectors.
Once your equipment is ready, select the test parameters that will guide your testing process
and connect the test equipment properly to ensure reliable measurements. After setting up
the load, provide AC power to the PSU and ensure it operates normally under stable load
conditions before proceeding. Once stable operation is confirmed, analyze the oscilloscope
waveforms to evaluate the transient response characteristics of the PSU. To obtain a
comprehensive understanding, repeat the test for other voltage rails, as different outputs
may respond differently to load changes. After completing all tests, it’s crucial to document
the results meticulously for future reference.
• Here are the steps to measure ripple in a computer power supply:
First, understand the purpose of ripple measurement, which is to assess the small AC voltage
component present on a DC output. Next, prepare the necessary equipment, such as a digital
oscilloscope capable of capturing high-frequency ripple with adequate resolution. Then, set
up the oscilloscope by adjusting the time base to capture a sufficient number of ripple cycles
and adjusting the voltage scale (vertical scale) to make the ripple signal visible. After setup,
observe the waveform on the oscilloscope display, where the ripple will appear as a small AC
component superimposed on the DC voltage.
Once measured, compare the ripple voltage with the power supply's specifications to ensure
it meets the required standards. Finally, record the measurements and compare them with
the manufacturer’s specifications to confirm that the ripple levels are within acceptable limits.
• Protecting your circuit from overload involves a combination of preventive design steps
and protective components:
To ensure proper protection in electrical circuits, start by using fuses or circuit breakers as a
simple and effective method for safeguarding against overcurrent. Next, incorporate current-
limiting resistors or PTC thermistors to regulate current flow and prevent damage to
components. For more advanced control, implement overcurrent protection (OCP) circuits,
current limiter ICs, or power management ICs, which provide precise regulation. Zener diodes
and crowbar circuits can be added for voltage clamping and short-circuit protection. Lastly,

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consider using a power supply that includes built-in overload protection, providing an extra
layer of safety to the overall system.
• Steps of testing temperature in computer power supply unit
Before conducting any testing on your computer, it is essential to ensure that the device is
powered off and unplugged from the wall socket to prevent electric shock. Once the computer
is safely prepared, you can proceed to use one of several temperature measurement methods,
such as an infrared thermometer or thermal camera for a non-contact approach, a
temperature probe for a contact method, or PSU monitoring software to gather temperature
data. Additionally, it is crucial to ensure proper ventilation during this process, as adequate
airflow helps maintain optimal operating temperatures. Finally, after measuring the
temperatures, compare your findings to the manufacturer specifications to determine if the
components are functioning within the recommended temperature ranges.
• Steps of testing EMI/EMC in computer power supply unit
To carry out effective testing, begin by preparing the tools and equipment required for the
process, ensuring you have everything necessary for accurate measurements. Once your tools
are ready, proceed to prepare the test setup, arranging the equipment according to the
specifications needed for the tests. Next, conduct conducted emissions testing to evaluate
the electromagnetic interference generated by your device. Following this, perform immunity
testing to assess how well the device can withstand external electromagnetic disturbances.
After completing these tests, it's essential to check for compliance with relevant standards to
ensure that your device meets regulatory requirements. Finally, make sure to document the
results thoroughly, as this will provide a comprehensive record of the testing process and
outcomes, which is crucial for any future assessments or audits.
• Testing the safety of a PSU involves multiple steps:
To ensure the safety and reliability of a power supply unit (PSU), several critical testing steps
must be undertaken. First, ground continuity should be verified to ensure that the PSU is
properly grounded, which is essential for preventing electrical shock hazards. Next, it is
important to check insulation resistance to confirm that the insulation between live and
ground circuits is intact, safeguarding against potential short circuits.
Additionally, performing overload, short-circuit, and overvoltage tests is crucial for verifying
the PSU's protection mechanisms. Temperature monitoring should also be implemented to

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confirm that thermal protection systems are functioning correctly and preventing overheating.
Finally, conducting EMC/EMI and functional testing will ensure the PSU's stability and
compliance with safety standards, confirming that it operates effectively without causing
electromagnetic interference.

Application of learning 3.3.

You are an electronics technician in a computer repair shop. The goal of the company is to
designa power supply unit and repair the faulty computer power supplies of their clients.

a) You receive a faulty computer power supply, and you are tasked by the following:

i. Perform a visual inspection of a computer PSU to diagnose potential issues before

repairing it.

ii. Measure input voltage and current in a computer power supply unit (PSU) for
diagnostic and performance evaluation purposes.

iii. Measure the output voltage and current from various rails of the PSU to ensure they
meet the specified standards.

b) Your supervisor ask you to design a 9Vdc new power supply unit to supply an robotics
system for an automated manufacturing plant and after perform the following tasks:

i. Test transient response of a computer power supply unit (PSU) to determine if it

meets the necessary performance standards for reliable operation.

ii. Measure the ripple voltage in the output of a computer power supply to determine if
it meets the necessary performance standards for reliable operation.

iii. Perform an overload protection mechanism to prevent damage to both the power
supply and the electronic system during a power surge or excessive current draw.

iv. Test temperature of the PSU under varying loads to identify overheating issues and
assess whether cooling mechanisms are functioning effectively.

v. Test electromagnetic emissions to avoid causing interference with other electronic

devices

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 Learning outcome 3 end assessment

Theoretical assessment

Instruction: Attempt all provided questions

Section A: Multiple Questions: Encircle the letter of the correct answer.

1. What is the primary purpose of simulating a computer power supply in Proteus?

a) To build a physical prototype

b) To test and analyze the circuit behavior before hardware implementation

c) To create a schematic design for presentation purposes only

d) To train students on hardware soldering techniques

2. Which component is commonly used to convert AC mains voltage to DC in a computer

power supply simulation in Proteus?

a) Diode bridge

b) Resistor

c) Transformer

d) Inductor

3. When simulating the power supply, which component would you typically use to filter
the ripples from the rectified DC voltage?

a) Capacitor

b) Transistor

c) Resistor

d) Diode

4. Which Proteus tool or feature is used to measure the output voltage of the power supply
in the simulation?

a) Oscilloscope

b) Multimeter

c) Ammeter

d) Logic analyzer

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5. In a computer power supply simulation, what could cause the output voltage to fluctuate
or drop unexpectedly?

a) Incorrect diode placement

b) Insufficient load applied

c) Lack of ground connection

d) All of the above

6. Which type of regulator is commonly used in Proteus simulations to maintain a stable 5V

output for a computer power supply?

a) LM317

b) LM7805

c) LM555

d) 2N2222

7. In Proteus, which of the following indicates that your simulated power supply circuit is
functioning correctly?

a) Constant current at input

b) Stable DC voltage output at the correct levels

c) Increased heat dissipation in components

d) Flickering of voltage values on the display

8. Which test should be performed in Proteus to ensure that the computer power supply
can handle different loads?

a) Ripple test

b) Load regulation test

c) Line regulation test

d) Short circuit test

9. What is the function of a capacitor placed after the rectifier in a computer power supply
circuit?

a. To reduce the AC component

b. To regulate voltage

c. To increase the current

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 d. To filter out noise

10. In Proteus, which library contains most of the components required for designing a
computer power supply circuit?

a. Active Components Library

b. Transformer Library

c. Power Library

d. Electromechanical Library

11. Which software module in Proteus allows you to simulate the behavior of power supply
circuits?

A) ISIS

B) ARES

C) PSpice

D) LTspice

Section B: Matching Question

12. Match the statements in Column A with their corresponding significance in column B

Answer ColumnA ColumnB

1=……… 1) It’s role is filter and reduce the ripple in a) Transformer

the DC output of a in a computer power
supply circuit

2=……… 2) It’s important to protect the circuit from b) Multimeter

overcurrent conditions in the computer
power supply simulation.

3=……… 3) It is used stabilize the output voltage in a c) Smoothing capacitor

computer power supply circuit.

4=……… 4) Proteus tool or feature is used to d) Fuse

measure the output voltage of the power
supply in the simulation

e) The voltage regulator

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 Practical assessment

You are an electronics engineer working for a company that designs high-performance
custom gaming PCs. The company's latest project requires a Power Supply Unit (PSU) that
can support high-end components such as powerful graphics cards, multi-core processors,
and advanced cooling systems. Additionally, the PSU must be energy-efficient, modular,
and capable of supporting overclocking features while ensuring stable power delivery
across all components.

Your task is to design and implement a PSU for the system. This includes selecting
components, performing necessary calculations, building the circuit, and testing the PSU
to ensure it meets the necessary power demands and safety standards.

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 References

Books:
Brown, A., & Green, B. (2018). Optimizing power delivery in high-performance
computing systems. Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Power
Engineering, 112–118. Munich, Germany.
Smith, J. (2019). Efficient design of power distribution systems for computer networks.
Journal of Power Electronics, 12(3), 45–52.
IEC 60950-1. (2017). Information Technology Equipment - Safety - Part 1: General
Requirements.

Web Links:
IT Support Hub. (n.d.). Testing a computer PSU with a multimeter. IT Support Hub.
Retrieved January 13, 2025, from [Link]
psu-multimeterEND
Mullins, R. (2019). Power Supply Design for Beginners (2nd ed.).
Patel, R. (2023). Computer power supply distribution and efficiency. Retrieved
September 2023, from [Link]
Techopedia. (n.d.). How to test a computer PSU. Techopedia. Retrieved January 13,
2025, from [Link]

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Learning Outcome 4: Implement Power Management System

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 Indicative contents

4.1. Designing computer power management system architecture

4.2. Designing power backup system components

4.3. Integration of power backup system components

4.4. Maintaining power backup

4.5. Estimation of power system cost

Key Competencies for Learning Outcome 4: Implement Power Management

System

Knowledge Skills Attitudes

• Description of • Selecting tools and • Being patient

computer power technologies • Willingness to
management system • Developing explore new ideas
• Description of battery computer power • Demonstrate
management system management plan team spirit while
• Description of power • Calculating power working with
backup backup size others.
• Description of cost • Building battery • Having attention
estimation charging system to details.
• Description of bill of • Installation of • Being rapid
quantity electrical power • Being able to take
backup responsibility.
• Integrating power • Being organized.
backup to power • Establish
supply unit resilience in your
• Establishing routine daily activities.
maintenance
procedures

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 • Designing bill of
quantity
• Applying cost
estimation

Duration: 30 hrs

Learning outcome 4 objectives:

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:

1. Assess and gather effectively the requirements computer power management

system architecture
2. Identify correctly computer power management techniques based on computer
power management system architecture
3. Describe correctly battery management system based on computer power
management system architecture
4. Design correctly computer power management system plan based on power
management system architecture
5. Describe correctly power backup based on power backup system components
6. Identify effectively backup power sources based on power backup system
7. Calculate efficiently power backup size based on Total power consumption by
system
8. Describe properly battery charging controller based on backup system
components
9. Design correctly battery charging controller based on backup system components
10. Describe properly component placement compatibility and placement assessment
based on backup system components
11. Install correctly electrical power backup to power supply unit based on backup
system components

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 12. Apply effectively communication interface based on backup system
13. Integrate correctly power backup system to power supply unit in line with power
backup system
14. Establish Routine Monitoring and maintenance Procedures in line with power
backup system
15. Estimate accurately the cost of power system in line with power backup system

Resources

Equipment Tools Materials

• Personal • Screwdrivers •Soldering wire

Computer
• Needle-nose pliers •Jumper wires
• PPEs
• Multi-meter • Universal plier •Breadboard
• Function • Tweezers •PCB
generator
• Flashlight or headlamp •Power cables
• SMD rework
station • Cable testers •Desoldering wick
• DC Power • ESD Tools applicator •Drawing materials
supply
• Office UPS • Wire cutter/stripping Pliers (papers and pencil)
• Soldering iron •Electronic Passive
• Desoldering pump Components
• Glue gun •Wires (2.5mm2,
• Circuit Simulation and 1.5mm2,4mm2, and
drawing software (NI Multisim, 6mm2)
Proteus, Autodesk Eagle, Easy •Insulator tapes
EDA, matlab, CAD) •Water proof tapes
• Drawing accessories •Connection boxes
•Screws
•Electrical pipes
•Cat 6e
•RJ 45 connectors

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 Indicative content 4.1: Designing Computer Power Management System
Architecture

Duration: 6 hrs

Theoretical Activity 4.1.1: Description of Assessment and requirements

gathering

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to the assessment and requirements gathering
in computer management system.
i. Describe power requirements of a computer power management system.
ii. Discuss about usage pattern of a computer power management system.
iii. Identify critical components of computer power consumption.
iv. List the steps of documenting your findings on computer power system
requirements.
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.
3: Present your findings to the class.
4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 4.1.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.1.1.:

Description of Assessment and requirements gathering
1. Evaluate Power Requirements
1.1 What are the power requirements?
Power requirement refers to the specific amount of computing power, in terms of either
microprocessors and their speed or the peak watts from the computing power supply,
needed for a particular project or task in the field of computer science.
The power requirements of a computer power system depend on the components of the
system and the workload it handles.
1.2 Evaluation of Power Requirements in a Computer Power Management System
Evaluating the power requirements of a computer power management system involves
determining how efficiently the system uses and distributes power, identifying the power

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 needs of each component, and ensuring that the system has enough capacity for optimal
performance under varying loads.
The evaluation of power requirements in a computer power management system depends
on several key factors:
a) Hardware Configuration: The type and specifications of hardware components
significantly influence power consumption. More powerful CPUs and GPUs consume
more energy, especially during intensive tasks.
For instance, high-performance graphics cards can substantially increase electricity usage
during gaming or graphic design activities.

b) Software Efficiency: The efficiency of the operating system and applications plays a
crucial role in energy consumption. Efficient software can minimize the processing
demands on hardware, thereby reducing power usage. Conversely, resource-intensive
applications can lead to increased energy consumption due to higher CPU and memory
usage.

c) Usage Patterns: Understanding how and when computers are used is vital for
evaluating power needs. Many systems remain active during idle times, leading to
unnecessary energy consumption.
For example, studies indicate that computers are often left on overnight or during long
breaks, which contributes to excessive energy use.

d) Power Management Settings: The configuration of power management features

within the operating system can optimize energy consumption. Features like sleep
modes, scheduled shutdowns, and dynamic voltage scaling help reduce power draw
when systems are not in use.

e) Environmental Factors: External conditions such as temperature and humidity can also
affect power requirements. Higher temperatures may necessitate increased cooling
efforts, which in turn raises overall energy consumption.
f) Component Interactions: The interplay between different hardware components—
such as the CPU, GPU, RAM, and storage devices—can impact overall power efficiency.

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 For example, if a high-performance CPU is paired with an inefficient power supply unit
(PSU), it may not operate optimally, leading to wasted energy.

1.3 Factors Influencing Energy Consumption

Several factors affect the overall energy consumption of computer systems:
• Hardware Efficiency: The efficiency ratings of components (e.g., CPUs and PSUs) can
greatly influence power usage. Higher efficiency ratings (like 80 Plus) indicate better
performance with less wasted energy.
• User Behavior: How users interact with their computers (e.g., leaving systems on
overnight) contributes to unnecessary power consumption.
• Operating System and Software: The efficiency of the operating system and
applications plays a role in managing power usage effectively.

2. Analysis of Power usage pattern.

Power usage patterns in a computer power supply system refer to the variations in
electricity consumption based on different operational states and tasks performed by the
computer.

Analyzing the power usage pattern of a computer system involves understanding how
power is consumed across different components and under various conditions. The pattern
can vary based on workload, system configuration, and user behavior.
Understanding power usage patterns in computers is essential for optimizing energy
efficiency and reducing costs.
Here is an analysis of the power usage pattern for a typical computer system:

2.1. Idle State

When a computer is powered on but not under any significant load (e.g., only basic
background tasks like system processes or minimal applications are running), the power
usage is at its lowest.

• CPU: Minimal usage, typically operating at low clock speeds to conserve energy
(around 10W–30W depending on the model).

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 • GPU: Very low power draw (usually less than 10W), especially if it switches to idle
or low-power states when not used for rendering.
• Storage (HDD/SSD): Minimal activity, usually around 2W–5W.
• RAM: Memory is used to hold basic system processes, consuming around 3W–5W.
• Total Power Consumption: 50W–100W for an average desktop, even lower for
laptops due to better power efficiency mechanisms.

2.2. Moderate Load (Browsing, Streaming, Office Applications)

In this state, the computer is running typical everyday tasks such as web browsing, video
streaming, and word processing. These tasks don’t require the full processing power of the
CPU or GPU.
• CPU: Power consumption increases to moderate levels (around 20W–50W),
depending on the number of active applications and whether they are single-
threaded or multi-threaded.
• GPU: Still low power usage unless a GPU-accelerated task like video playback is
occurring (10W–30W).
• Storage: Occasional access to storage, but consumption remains relatively low
(around 2W–10W).
• RAM: More memory is active, consuming around 5W–10W.
• Total Power Consumption: 100W–200W, depending on the system configuration.
2.3. High Load (Gaming, Video Editing, 3D Rendering)
High-performance tasks such as gaming, video editing, and 3D rendering demand significant
computational power.

• CPU: The CPU may run at or near full load, consuming between 60W–150W
depending on the number of cores and frequency.
• GPU: This component can reach its maximum power draw, especially during intense
gaming or rendering (between 150W–350W for high-end GPUs).
• Storage: More frequent read/write activity, but consumption typically remains
below 15W for modern SSDs and HDDs.

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 • RAM: More memory access, especially for rendering or large-scale data tasks (10W–
15W).
• Cooling Fans: Increased workload requires more cooling, increasing fan speeds and
power usage (5W–15W).
• Total Power Consumption: 300W–600W for gaming desktops, higher for systems
with multiple GPUs or overclocked components.

2.4. Peak Power Usage (Boot-up and Intensive Tasks)

During boot-up or when launching heavy software (such as a game or editing software),
there may be a temporary spike in power consumption as all components briefly run at high
capacity.

• CPU: High spike in power for a short period as the system initializes (100W+).
• GPU: Briefly powers up to load graphical interfaces or initialization screens (up to
300W depending on the GPU).
• Storage: Increased access as system files are loaded from disk, especially if using
traditional HDDs (up to 20W).
• Cooling System: Some fans may spin faster to accommodate higher heat output
during boot (up to 10W–20W).
• Total Power Consumption: May momentarily spike to 500W–700W depending on
the system.

2.5. Sleep/Hibernation Mode

In these power-saving states, the system consumes very little power. Most components are
either shut down or in low-power mode.
• CPU: Minimal power draw, sometimes as low as 1W.
• GPU: Effectively zero power consumption unless there is a wake-on-GPU feature.
• Storage: Inactive, using near-zero power.
• Total Power Consumption: Typically 2W–10W depending on the system and
peripherals.

2.6. Power Usage in Laptops vs. Desktops

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 • Laptops: Optimized for energy efficiency. Modern laptops adjust power
consumption dynamically depending on usage. They may consume between 10W
(idle) to 100W (heavy load), which is significantly less than desktops.
• Desktops: Tend to consume more power due to larger components, more powerful
GPUs, and higher-performing CPUs. The consumption range can be from 50W (idle)
to 600W or more (under heavy load).

3. Identify Critical Components

Identifying the critical components that contribute to energy consumption in computer
power systems is essential for optimizing efficiency and reducing operational costs.
Here are the primary components:

3.1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Power Consumption: The CPU is one of the most power-hungry components,
typically consuming between 50 to 150 watts depending on its architecture and
workload.
• Impact: The power usage can vary significantly based on the tasks being performed,
with higher consumption during intensive processing tasks like gaming or data
analysis

3.2. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

• Power Consumption: GPUs can consume a substantial amount of power, often
ranging from 20 watts for low-end models to over 350 watts for high-performance
gaming cards. In gaming PCs, a high-quality GPU can use up to 250 watts alone.
• Impact: The GPU's power draw is particularly pronounced during graphics-intensive
tasks such as gaming or video rendering, where both the CPU and GPU operate at
peak performance levels.

3.3. Power Supply Unit (PSU)

• Efficiency: The PSU's efficiency plays a crucial role in overall energy consumption.
Higher efficiency ratings (e.g., 80 Plus Gold or Platinum) indicate better performance
in converting AC to DC power, reducing wasted energy and heat generation.

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 • Impact: An inadequate or inefficient PSU can limit performance and lead to
increased energy costs due to wasted power.

3.4. Memory (RAM)

• Power Consumption: RAM typically consumes between 2 to 5 watts per module and
does not fluctuate significantly with load. However, having more RAM modules
increases overall consumption.
• Impact: While RAM is not the largest consumer of power, its cumulative effect in
systems with multiple modules can contribute to total energy usage.

3.5. Storage Devices

• Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): HDDs consume about 5 to 15 watts while spinning and
during read/write operations.
• Solid-State Drives (SSDs): SSDs generally consume less power than HDDs, using
energy only during active read/write processes. This makes SSDs a more energy-
efficient option for storage.

3.6. Motherboard and Other Components

• Power Consumption: The motherboard itself consumes approximately 20 to 40
watts, along with other peripherals like cooling fans and network cards which add
to the total system draw.
• Impact: Although individually these components consume less power compared to
CPUs and GPUs, their collective impact can be significant in larger systems.

Summary Table of Power Consumption

The following table summarizes the estimated power consumption of critical components
under various states:
Component Idle Network Gaming Streaming 3D Editing
(W) (W) (W) (W) (W)
CPU 5 - 15 15 – 30 Up to 200 Up to 100 Up to 150
GPU <10 <20 Up to 350 Up to 150 Up to 250
Motherboard 25 - 40 30 – 50 45 - 80 40 – 70 40 – 70

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 RAM <5 <5 <10 <5 <10
Storage <3 <3 <5 <3 <5
(HDD/SSD)
4. Document Findings and Requirements

After evaluating the system’s power needs and identifying critical components, document
the key findings and establish the requirements for optimizing power consumption. The
goal is to create a comprehensive report that outlines current power usage, areas for
improvement, and potential solutions for more efficient power management.

4.1 Documentation Should Include:

• Power usage profile: Summarize power consumption across different workloads
(idle, active, peak usage).
• Component analysis: Detail the power consumption of critical components and
identify those that contribute most to overall power usage.
• Usage patterns: Highlight key trends and usage scenarios that lead to high energy
consumption (e.g., during idle time, heavy multitasking).
• Recommendations for improvement: Suggest power-saving strategies, such as
enabling power management features, upgrading components, or adjusting usage
habits.
• Requirements for optimization: Identify the technical and operational
requirements for implementing effective power management solutions.

4.2. Recommendations for Reducing Energy Consumption

To optimize energy efficiency in computer systems, consider the following strategies:
• Utilize Power Management Features: Enable sleep modes and other built-in power-
saving settings.
• Choose Energy-Efficient Components: Select hardware with high-efficiency ratings
to minimize energy waste.
• Regularly Update Software: Keep operating systems and applications updated to
benefit from improvements in energy management.

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 • Monitor Usage Patterns: Use tools to track energy consumption and identify
opportunities for reduction.
• Educate Users: Promote awareness about energy-saving practices among users to
encourage responsible usage.

To ensure accurate assessment and effective planning for power supply needs:
i. Identify Current Power Supply: Determine the specifications of the existing power
supply.
ii. Check Motherboard Requirements: Verify the motherboard's power requirements
and compatibility with potential upgrades.
iii. Check Other Components' Requirements: Assess the power needs of all critical
components including CPU, GPU, and peripherals.
iv. Calculate Total Power Consumption: Sum the power requirements of all
components to understand total system demand.
v. Compare Power Supply Options: Evaluate different power supply units based on
efficiency ratings and compatibility with existing hardware.
vi. Document Power Supply Upgrade: Record details of any upgrades made to the
power supply system.
vii. Consider Additional Factors: Document other considerations such as cooling
requirements and future expansion plans which may impact power needs.

Theoretical Activity 4.1.2: Identification of computer power management

techniques and power saving strategies
Tasks:
1: Answer the following questions related to the identification of computer power
management techniques.
i. What do you understand by computer power management?
ii. Descibe the Processor power states
iii. Discuss the software optimization
iv. Identify the computer power saving strategies
v. Identify the power management policies
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.
3: Present your findings to the class.
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 4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 4.1.2 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.1.2.:

Identification of computer power management techniques

1. Computer power management

1.1 Definition

• Power management: is how power is efficiently directed to different components

of a system. Power management is especially important for portable devices that
rely on battery power. By reducing power to components that are not being used,
a good power management system can double or triple the lifetime of a battery.

Computer power management (CPM) refers to the strategies and technologies used to
control and optimize the energy consumption of computers and related devices. This
practice is essential for enhancing energy efficiency, reducing operational costs, and
promoting sustainability.

1.2 Key Aspects of Computer Power Management

• Energy Conservation: CPM aims to minimize power usage by transitioning

computers into low-energy states when they are not in active use. For instance,
systems can automatically enter sleep mode after a set period of inactivity,
significantly reducing energy consumption from approximately 35-70 watts to as
low as 2 watts

• Automated Control: Power management systems often include automated features

such as scheduled shutdowns, wake-ups, and sleep modes. These features allow
organizations to customize power settings based on specific operational needs,
ensuring that computers are only using power when necessary.

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 • Software and Hardware Integration: Effective power management requires
collaboration between software, hardware, and the operating system. Device
drivers play a crucial role in managing power for individual components, allowing
for intelligent decisions regarding power usage across the entire system.

• User Behavior Monitoring: Understanding user activity is vital for optimizing power
management. Many computers remain powered on during idle times due to user
habits or software processes that inhibit low-power states. Addressing these
behaviors can lead to substantial energy savings.

• Environmental Impact: By implementing effective CPM strategies, organizations

can significantly reduce their carbon footprint. The Environmental Protection
Agency estimates that if all office desktops had power management activated, it
could save billions in energy costs annually.

1.3 Benefits of Computer Power Management

• Cost Savings: Reducing energy consumption directly translates into lower electricity
bills. Organizations can save an average of $36 per PC per year through effective
power management practices.

• Extended Hardware Lifespan: By minimizing the operational load on computers,

CPM can help extend the lifespan of hardware components, reducing maintenance
and replacement costs.

• Improved Efficiency: Automated power management allows for better resource

allocation and operational efficiency, enabling IT departments to focus on more
critical tasks rather than manual power management.

2. Sleep modes

2.1 Definition

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 Sleep mode is a power saving state that stops all actions on the computer. Any open
documents and applications are moved to the system memory (RAM) and the computer
goes to a low-power state.

2.2 System Sleeping States

Power ACPI Description

state state

Working S0 The system is fully usable. Hardware components that aren't in

use can save power by entering a lower power state.

Sleep S0 low- The system can very quickly switch from a low-power state to
(Modern power high-power state in response to hardware and network events.
Standby) idle Systems that support Modern Standby do not use S1-S3.

Sleep S1 The system appears to be off. The amount of power consumed

in states S1-S3 is less than S0 and more than S4. S3 consumes
S2
less power than S2, and S2 consumes less power than S1.
S3 Systems typically support one of these three states, not all three.

In states S1-S3, volatile memory is kept refreshed to maintain the

system state. Some components remain powered so the
computer can wake from input from the keyboard, LAN, or a USB
device.

Hybrid sleep, used on desktops, is where a system uses a

hibernation file with S1-S3. The hibernation file saves the system
state in case the system loses power while in sleep.

Note: SoC systems that support Modern Standby don't use S1-
S3.

Hibernate S4 The system appears to be off. Power consumption is reduced to

the lowest level. The system saves the contents of volatile
memory to a hibernation file to preserve system state. Some

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 components remain powered so the computer can wake from
input from the keyboard, LAN, or a USB device.

Fast startup is where the user is logged off before the

hibernation file is created. This allows for a smaller hibernation
file, more appropriate for systems with less storage capabilities.

Soft off S5 The system appears to be off. This state is comprised of a full
shutdown and boot cycle.

Mechanical G3 The system is completely off and consumes no power. The

off system returns to the working state only after a full reboot.

[Link] power states

3.1 Definition

Processor power states are mechanisms that allow CPUs to manage their energy
consumption efficiently by adjusting operational parameters based on workload and
activity levels.

Processor power management involves various states that help optimize energy
consumption during different operational conditions.

These states are categorized into P-states (performance states) and C-states (idle states).

3.2. P-States (Performance States)

P-states allow the processor to adjust its frequency and voltage dynamically based on
workload demands. This helps in reducing power consumption without significantly
impacting performance.

The states are defined as follows:

• P0: Maximum performance state, where the CPU operates at its highest frequency
and voltage.

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 • P1, P2,...Pn: Successively lower performance states where the CPU operates at
reduced frequencies and voltages. The exact number of P-states varies by processor
model.

Initially, the operating system would set these states by writing values into special
processor registers. However, modern architectures like Intel's Skylake allow the CPU itself
to manage P-states more autonomously through technologies such as Speed Shift.

3.3. C-States (Idle States)

C-states are designed to reduce power consumption when the CPU is not executing
instructions. They represent various levels of inactivity where different parts of the
processor can be powered down.

The various C-states include:

• C0: Active state where the CPU is executing instructions. P-states are applicable
here.

• C1: Auto Halt state, where the CPU is halted but can return to C0 instantly.

• C1E: Enhanced version of C1, with low frequency and voltage.

• C2: Temporary state before deeper sleep states; some memory paths remain active.

• C3: Deeper sleep state where caches are flushed, and clocks are turned off.

• C6: Core states saved before shutdown; PLL (Phase-Locked Loop) is off.

• C7: Similar to C6 but with additional cache flushing.

• C8: Deeper state where even more components are powered down.

Higher C-states typically indicate a deeper level of sleep, resulting in lower power
consumption but longer wake-up times

3.4 ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface)

ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface) is a standard used to manage power
consumption and configuration settings in computers. It provides a common interface for

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 operating systems and hardware components to communicate and coordinate power-
related functions. ACPI is designed to improve energy efficiency, system responsiveness,
and overall user experience.

• QuickStart technology: Extends battery life by entering a low-power state during the
briefest pauses in user activity, such as between key strokes. Instantly returns to full-
power state when prompted.

• Dynamic Cache Sizing: power savings mechanism flushes system memory dynamically,
based on demand or during periods of inactivity. Power savings occur as the cache ways
are turned off once the data has been saved in memory. Once the Dynamic Cache Sizing
feature flushes the entire cache data to memory, the processor transitions to Intel®
Enhanced Deeper Sleep. This allows the processor to lower voltage below the Deeper
Sleep minimum voltage for enhanced power savings and/or efficiencies.

4. Software optimization

4.1 Definition

Software optimization refers to the process of improving the efficiency and performance of
software applications, particularly in terms of resource usage, speed, and energy
consumption. It involves making adjustments to code, algorithms, and system
configurations to achieve better performance while minimizing resource requirements.

Program optimization, code optimization, or software optimization is the process of

modifying a software system to make some aspect of it work more efficiently or use fewer
resources.

Configure operating system settings to enable power-saving features like screen dimming,
hard drive spin-down, and automatic sleep.

4.2 Function

Software optimisation manage the following functions:

4.2.1 Processor Power States:

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 • Dynamic Frequency Scaling: Software can dynamically adjust the processor's clock
speed and voltage based on workload, reducing power consumption during periods
of low activity.

• C-State Management: Software can intelligently manage the processor's power

states (C0-C6) to minimize power consumption while maintaining performance.

4.2.2 Memory Management:

• Page Replacement Algorithms: Efficient page replacement algorithms can minimize

memory access, reducing the power consumption of memory controllers and cache.

• Memory Compression: Software can compress memory data to reduce the overall
memory footprint and, consequently, the power required to access it.

4.2.3 I/O Device Management:

• Power Management Policies: Software can implement power management policies

for I/O devices, such as hard drives and network interfaces, to reduce their power
consumption during idle periods.

• Device Scheduling: Optimizing the scheduling of I/O operations can reduce the
overall power consumption of I/O subsystems.

4.2.4 Operating System Optimization:

• Background Task Management: Software can prioritize and manage background

tasks to minimize their impact on power consumption, especially during idle
periods.

• Power-Saving Features: Operating systems can provide features like screen

dimming, hard drive spin-down, and automatic sleep to reduce power consumption.

4.2.5 Application Optimization:

• Energy-Efficient Algorithms: Developers can design algorithms and data structures

that are more energy-efficient, especially for computationally intensive tasks.

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 • Idle Detection and Power Management: Applications can implement mechanisms
to detect periods of inactivity and automatically reduce their power consumption.

4.2.6 Cloud-Based Optimization:

• Virtualization and Consolidation: Cloud platforms can consolidate multiple virtual

machines onto fewer physical servers, improving resource utilization and reducing
power consumption.

• Workload Balancing: Software can distribute workloads across multiple servers to

optimize resource utilization and minimize power consumption.

5. Identify Power Saving Strategies.

5.1 Definition

Power saving strategies are essential for optimizing energy consumption in computer
systems, enhancing efficiency, and reducing operational costs. These strategies can be
categorized into hardware-based and software-based approaches.

5.2 Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS)

Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS) is a power management technique that
optimizes energy consumption in computing systems by dynamically adjusting the voltage
and frequency of processors and other components based on workload requirements.

a. Importance

The primary goal of DVFS is to balance computational capacity with power efficiency. By
adapting the voltage and frequency according to performance needs, DVFS ensures that
systems operate efficiently under varying workloads, thereby reducing overall energy
consumption while maintaining performance levels.

b. Basic Concepts

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 • Voltage Scaling (Undervolting): This involves reducing the supply voltage to the
processor. Lowering voltage leads to significant power savings due to the quadratic
relationship between voltage and active power consumption.

• Frequency Scaling (Underclocking): This refers to lowering the clock frequency of

the processor, which also reduces dynamic power consumption. By decreasing
frequency, the processor consumes less power during less demanding tasks.

• Overvolting: In contrast, increasing the voltage can enhance performance for

demanding tasks, allowing the processor to operate at higher frequencies.

c. DVFS Techniques

• Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS): A simpler form of DVFS that scales down only the
voltage based on performance requirements.

• Adaptive Voltage and Frequency Scaling (AVFS): An extension of DVFS that utilizes
closed-loop feedback mechanisms to compensate for variations in temperature,
process conditions, and IR drop. AVFS provides active monitoring and adjustments
for better power reduction but requires more complex control systems.

d. Implementation Challenges

Implementing DVFS involves several challenges:

• Power Domains: DVFS requires distinct power domains where different voltage
levels can be applied. Consistent definitions across these domains are crucial for
effective management.

• Operating Modes: Each power domain can operate in various modes, each with
specific supply voltages and operating frequencies.

• EDA Tools Optimization: Efficiently optimizing different voltage-frequency

combinations can be complex and may require longer design times but offers
substantial power savings.

e. Benefits

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 • DVFS can improve dynamic power consumption by 40-70% and reduce leakage
by 2X to 3X.

• It enhances battery life in portable devices and lowers thermal dissipation, which is
critical for maintaining optimal operating conditions.

• The technique also contributes to reducing a device's carbon footprint by lowering

overall energy usage.

f. Applications

DVFS is widely used across various platforms:

• It is implemented in mobile devices, laptops, desktops, servers, and data centers to

optimize performance while conserving energy.

• In virtual environments like VMware vSphere, DVFS helps reduce energy

consumption by dynamically adjusting CPU states based on resource demands.

Below are some effective power-saving strategies:

a. Hardware-Based Strategies

• Low-Power Components: Utilize energy-efficient hardware components, such as

low-power processors, energy-efficient memory modules, and high-efficiency
power supply units. These components are designed to minimize energy
consumption while maintaining performance.

• Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS): Implement DVFS techniques that
adjust the voltage and frequency of the processor based on workload demands. This
allows the CPU to operate at lower power levels during less intensive tasks, thereby
saving energy without sacrificing performance.

• Power Gating: Use power gating techniques to selectively turn off power to unused
components within the system. This helps reduce leakage power and overall energy
consumption when certain parts of the hardware are not in use.

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 • Efficient Cooling Solutions: Invest in advanced cooling technologies that require
less power, such as variable-speed fans or liquid cooling systems. Efficient cooling
reduces the need for excessive energy consumption to maintain optimal operating
temperatures.

b. Software-Based Strategies

• Power Management Policies: Implement operating system-level power

management policies that control when and how devices enter low-power states.
Features like sleep modes, hibernation, and automatic shutdowns can significantly
reduce energy usage during idle periods.

• Screen Dimming and Timeout Settings: Configure monitors to dim or turn off after
a period of inactivity. This simple adjustment can lead to substantial energy savings,
especially in office environments where computers may remain idle for extended
periods.

• Background Process Management: Optimize background processes to minimize

resource usage when the system is not actively being used. This includes managing
startup programs and ensuring that non-essential applications do not consume
resources unnecessarily.

• Intelligent Task Scheduling: Use intelligent scheduling algorithms that prioritize

tasks based on their resource requirements and timing. By scheduling intensive
tasks during off-peak hours or when other resources are available, overall power
consumption can be reduced.

c. Centralized Management Tools

• Power Management Software: Utilize centralized power management solutions

that allow IT administrators to monitor and control power settings across all devices
within an organization. This enables uniform application of power-saving measures
and facilitates automated actions like scheduled shutdowns or wake-ups

d. User Education and Awareness

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 • Promote Energy-Saving Practices: Educate users about the importance of energy
conservation and encourage practices such as shutting down computers when not
in use, utilizing sleep modes, and being mindful of resource-intensive applications.

6. Smart power Management Policies.

Smart power management policies are essential components of computer power

management systems designed to optimize energy consumption while maintaining system
performance. These policies leverage both hardware and software techniques to
intelligently manage power usage based on current demands and usage patterns. Here’s an
overview of the basics of smart power management policies:

6.1. Definition and Purpose

Smart power management policies refer to a set of rules and algorithms that govern how a
computer system manages its power consumption. The primary objectives include:

• Reducing Energy Consumption: Minimize unnecessary power usage during idle

times or low-demand periods.

• Extending Device Longevity: Reduce wear on components by managing heat

generation and power cycles.

• Enhancing Performance: Ensure that the system remains responsive by balancing

power savings with performance needs.

6.2. Types of Smart Power Management Policies

• Dynamic Frequency Scaling: Adjusts the processor’s clock speed based on workload
demands. When the workload decreases, the system can lower the frequency,
thereby saving power.

• Sleep and Hibernate Modes: Automatically transitions systems into low-power

states after a period of inactivity. Sleep mode keeps the session in memory for quick
wake-up, while hibernate saves the session to disk and powers down completely.

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 • Task Scheduling Optimization: Implements intelligent scheduling algorithms to
prioritize high-demand tasks while reducing resource allocation for less critical
processes during low activity periods.

• Adaptive Power Management: Utilizes real-time data to adjust power settings

dynamically based on current usage patterns, such as temperature, workload, and
user behavior.

6.3. Implementation Mechanisms

• Operating System Integration: Modern operating systems incorporate built-in

power management features that allow for seamless implementation of smart
policies. This includes APIs for developers to create applications that can leverage
these features.

• Hardware Support: Many processors come with built-in support for various power
states (P-states and C-states) that can be managed through these policies. For
instance, Intel processors use Speed Shift Technology to optimize P-state
transitions.

• Monitoring Tools: Software tools monitor system performance and energy

consumption, providing feedback that helps refine power management strategies
over time.

6.4. Benefits

• Cost Savings: By reducing energy consumption, organizations can significantly lower

electricity bills.

• Environmental Impact: Decreased energy usage contributes to reduced carbon

emissions, supporting sustainability initiatives.

• User Experience Improvement: Systems that efficiently manage power can provide
better performance during active use while ensuring quick recovery from low-
power states.

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 6.5. Challenges

Implementing smart power management policies can present challenges, including:

• Complexity of Implementation: Developing effective algorithms that balance

performance and energy savings requires sophisticated programming and testing.

• User Acceptance: Users may need to adapt to changes in how their devices behave
regarding performance and responsiveness during low-power states.

Theoretical Activity 4.1.3: Description of battery management system

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to the description of battery management

system.

i. What do you understand by battery?

ii. What do you understand by battery management system?

iii. Identify the types of battery used in computer power system

iv. How do you manage charging and discharging cycles of battery?

v. Describe the term optimized charging efficiency.

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 4.1.3. from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.1.3.:

Description of battery management system
1. Battery
1.1 Definition and Function

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 A battery is a device that stores electrical energy in chemical form and converts it into
electrical energy when needed. It consists of one or more electrochemical cells that
generate voltage through chemical reactions.
Batteries are widely used in various applications, including consumer electronics (like
smartphones and laptops), electric vehicles, and renewable energy systems, providing a
portable power source that enables devices to operate without a direct connection to a
power supply.
Batteries are characterized by their capacity (measured in ampere-hours or milliampere-
hours), voltage, energy density, and cycle life, which indicates how many charge-discharge
cycles they can undergo before significant capacity loss occurs.
Here are some key points about batteries:
• Electrochemical Cells: A battery is made up of electrochemical cells that undergo
chemical reactions to generate electricity. When discharging, these reactions
produce electrical energy, which can be used to power devices.
• Rechargeable vs. Non-Rechargeable: Batteries can be classified as primary (non-
rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable). Primary batteries, like alkaline batteries,
can only be used once, while secondary batteries, such as lithium-ion and lead-acid
batteries, can be recharged and reused multiple times.
1.2 Types of Batteries
• Lead-Acid Batteries: Commonly used in vehicles, these are one of the earliest types
of rechargeable batteries. They have a high power-to-weight ratio and are cost-
effective for automotive applications.
• Lithium-Ion Batteries: Widely used in portable electronics and electric vehicles,
lithium-ion batteries are known for their high energy capacity, low self-discharge
rate, and absence of memory effect.
1.3 Applications
Batteries are essential for powering a wide range of devices, including:
• Consumer Electronics: Such as smartphones, laptops, and cameras.
• Automobiles: Providing the necessary power to start engines and operate electrical
systems.

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 • Renewable Energy Systems: Storing energy generated from sources like solar
panels for later use.
1.4 Importance
Batteries play a crucial role in modern technology by enabling portable power solutions and
supporting the transition to renewable energy sources. Their ability to store and supply
energy efficiently makes them vital for both everyday consumer products and larger-scale
applications like electric vehicles and grid storage systems.
2. Battery Management System (BMS)
2.1 Definition
A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic system that manages and monitors
rechargeable battery packs or cells to ensure their safe and efficient operation.
It ensures safe operation by regulating charging and discharging processes, monitoring
critical parameters such as voltage, current, temperature, and state of charge (SoC). The
BMS also protects against overcharging, over-discharging, and thermal runaway, thereby
enhancing the battery's lifespan and performance.
The BMS plays a crucial role in various applications, including electric vehicles, renewable
energy storage systems, and portable electronic devices.
2.2 Functions of a Battery Management System
a) Monitoring: The BMS continuously monitors critical parameters such as voltage,
current, temperature, and state of charge (SOC) of individual battery cells or modules.
This real-time data collection is essential for ensuring safe operation and optimal
performance.
b) Protection: The BMS protects the battery from operating outside its safe limits. It
prevents overcharging, over-discharging, and excessive heating, which can lead to
battery damage or failure. By managing these conditions, the BMS helps prolong the
lifespan of the battery.
c) Balancing: To maximize the battery's capacity and efficiency, the BMS balances the
charge levels across individual cells within a battery pack. This ensures that all cells
operate at similar states of charge, preventing localized overcharging or undercharging.
d) State Estimation: The BMS calculates various states of the battery, including:

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  State of Charge (SOC): Indicates how much energy is left in the battery relative to
its total capacity.
 State of Health (SOH): Reflects the overall condition and capacity of the battery
compared to its original specifications.
e) Communication: The BMS communicates with external systems or devices to relay
information about the battery's status, including alerts for any faults or operational
issues. This communication is vital for integrated energy management systems.
f) Thermal Management: The BMS monitors the temperature of the battery cells and can
control cooling systems to prevent overheating, which is critical for maintaining safety
and performance.
2.3 Types of Battery Management Systems
a) Centralized BMS: A single controller oversees all cells in a battery pack. This
approach is cost-effective but may struggle with scalability in larger systems due to
wiring complexity.
b) Modular BMS: Multiple smaller units monitor individual modules within a battery
pack. This design allows for easier management but can be more complex and
expensive.
c) Distributed BMS: Each cell has its own management unit connected through a
communication bus to a central controller. While this system offers high accuracy
and flexibility, it can also be more costly to implement.
2.4 Importance of a Battery Management System
The BMS is critical for ensuring that batteries operate safely and efficiently in various
applications. It enhances performance by optimizing charging and discharging cycles,
extending battery life, and preventing hazardous conditions that could lead to fires or
explosions.
2.5 BMS Components and their functions:
A Battery Management System (BMS) consists of several key components, each serving
specific functions to manage the battery effectively.
Here are the primary components of a BMS and their roles:

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 a) Microcontroller (MCU): Acts as the central processing unit of the BMS,
orchestrating all operations. It continuously collects data from various sensors,
processes this information, and makes critical decisions regarding cell balancing,
thermal regulation, and communication with external devices.
b) Cell Monitoring Circuit: Monitors individual cells’ voltage, current, and
temperature to detect discrepancies early. This ensures that all cells operate within
safe limits and helps in balancing the charge among cells.
c) Balancing Circuit: Ensures that all cells within a battery pack maintain similar states
of charge (SoC). It redistributes energy among cells to prevent overcharging or
undercharging, which can lead to capacity loss or reduced performance. Balancing
can be achieved through passive (dissipating excess energy) or active methods
(moving charge from higher voltage cells to lower voltage ones).
d) Thermal Management System: Monitors and regulates the temperature of the
battery cells to keep them within safe operating ranges. It can activate cooling or
heating systems as needed to prevent overheating or excessive cooling, thereby
preserving battery life.
e) Communication Interfaces: Enables data exchange between the BMS and external
systems using protocols like CAN bus or UART. This communication allows for real-
time monitoring and control, including receiving charge/discharge commands and
reporting diagnostic information.
f) Pre-Charge Circuit: Manages inrush current during charging to prevent component
failure. It ensures that the initial charging current does not exceed safe levels when
connecting to a power source.
g) Insulation Monitoring Device (IMD): Detects unintentional leakage between hot
conductors and ground, enhancing safety by preventing potential electrical
hazards.
h) Real-Time Clock (RTC): Keeps track of time for scheduling tasks related to battery
management, such as logging data and executing timed operations.
i) Current Sensing and Control: Current Sensing and Control mechanisms monitor
and regulate charge and discharge currents for optimal battery usage. Adding

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 current sensors can measure the flow of electric charge, providing essential data
for managing the charging and discharging processes.
j) Protection Circuits: They may include voltage limiters and disconnect
switches. Also, over-discharging can damage cells and reduce battery lifespan.
Protection circuits implement mechanisms to disconnect the load when the
voltage drops to a critical level.
• Overview of BMS Circuit Diagram Symbols and Notations
BMS circuit diagrams use standardized symbols and notations to represent various
components, ensuring clear communication and understanding.
-Common Symbols: Symbols such as resistors, capacitors, and specific icons for BMU,
voltage balancing, temperature sensors, and other components are universally recognized
in BMS circuit diagrams.
-Standardized Representation: Following a standardized representation helps engineers
and technicians accurately interpret and implement the circuit diagram

• A BMS Circuit Diagram with Adjustable regulator

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 The circuit diagram appears to be a battery charging circuit designed for charging multiple
lithium-ion (Li-ion) cells, likely configured in parallel.
Here’s a breakdown of the key sections and components:
Power Input Section consists of DC 18-20V input at terminals X1 and X2 and the input is
filtered by two capacitors (C2 and C1, both 100μF) to smooth out the voltage supply.
Voltage Regulation Section consists of LM317 voltage regulators (CV and CC) are used for
constant voltage (CV) and constant current (CC) regulation. Where the LM317 marked as
CV is responsible for regulating the output to a fixed voltage (14V). The resistors R16
(2.4kΩ) and R17 (240Ω) set the output voltage and the LM317 marked as CC works in
constant current mode. Resistor R18 (2Ω, 1W) limits the current to 600mA. This ensures a
constant current supply to the charging section.
Battery Charging Section consists of there are three parallel charging circuits, each
corresponding to a battery (BAT1, BAT2, BAT3, rated 3.7V), VT1, VT2, VT3 are BD140 PNP
transistors controlling the charging process, TL431 components are adjustable voltage
references used to regulate the voltage across the batteries. They ensure the battery
charging voltage does not exceed safe limits ,Resistors R1, R6, R11 (1kΩ each) and R2, R7,
R12 (20kΩ each) form voltage dividers to control the charging voltage, VD1-VD12 are likely

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 diodes used for current flow regulation and protection and HL1, HL2, HL3 seem to be
indicator LEDs to show the charging status for each battery.
Operation:
• The input voltage (18-20V) is regulated by the LM317s to provide a stable 14V
output with 600mA current limiting.
• Each battery (BAT1, BAT2, BAT3) is connected to its own charging circuit, controlled
by BD140 transistors and regulated by TL431.
• The diodes and transistors ensure that the batteries are charged safely with the
correct voltage and current.
This circuit is a multi-cell lithium-ion battery charger with constant voltage (CV) and
constant current (CC) control, capable of charging three 3.7V cells in parallel. The use of
LM317 voltage regulators provides stable voltage and current for safe charging, and the
transistors ensure proper charge regulation for each battery individually.

The experiments demonstrated that the balancing circuit functions optimally. The charging
process reaches completion upon attaining the designated voltage of 4.2 Volts.
3. Types of battery used in computer power system
Computer power systems utilize various types of batteries, each with its unique
characteristics and applications.
The most common types include:
3.1. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries: Li-ion batteries are the predominant choice for laptops
and other portable electronics due to their high energy density, lightweight, and low self-
discharge rates.

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 • Subtypes:
• Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (NMC): Commonly used in
consumer electronics for its balance of performance and safety.
• Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4): Known for safety and longevity, often
used in power backup systems.
• Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LCO): Offers high energy density but has a shorter
lifespan, suitable for devices requiring compact batteries
3.2. Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Batteries: Ni-MH batteries are a more environmentally
friendly alternative to Ni-Cd batteries, providing higher capacity and less susceptibility to
memory effects.

• Applications: Although less common in modern laptops, they are still used in some
devices that require moderate energy density and are less hazardous than older
technologies
3.3. Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Batteries: Once the standard for portable devices, Ni-Cd
batteries have largely fallen out of favor due to their weight, toxicity, and memory effect
issues.
• Current Use: They are now primarily found in older devices or specific applications
where their characteristics are still beneficial
3.4. Lithium Polymer (Li-Po) Batteries: Li-Po batteries use a polymer electrolyte instead of
liquid, allowing for thinner and lighter designs. They are increasingly popular in high-end
laptops and mobile devices.
• Advantages: They provide high energy density and can be shaped to fit various
designs, making them ideal for compact electronics
3.5. Lead-Acid Batteries: While not commonly used in laptops, lead-acid batteries are
prevalent in larger power systems like UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) due to their
robustness and cost-effectiveness.
• Limitations: They are heavier and have lower energy density compared to modern
alternatives
Summary Table of Battery Types

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 Battery Type Energy Density Lifespan (Cycles) Common
(Wh/kg) Applications
Lithium-Ion 126-190 500-1,000 Laptops,
smartphones
Nickel-Metal 100 300-500 Some laptops,
Hydride hybrid vehicles
Nickel-Cadmium 45-80 1,000 Older laptops,
specific tools
Lithium Polymer 185 300-500 High-end laptops,
drones
Lead-Acid 30-50 200-300 UPS systems

4. Monitoring battery health and status

Monitoring the health and status of a battery is crucial for ensuring its reliability,
performance, and longevity. This process involves tracking various parameters and metrics
that indicate the condition of the battery and its ability to hold and deliver charge
effectively.
4.1 Parameters for Monitoring
• State of Charge (SoC): Indicates the current charge level relative to the battery's
capacity.
SoC represents the current charge level of the battery, expressed as a percentage of its total
capacity.
Importance: Monitoring SoC helps determine how much energy is available for use and
when the battery needs to be charged.
• State of Health (SoH): Reflects the overall condition of the battery, including its ability
to hold charge compared to when it was new.
SoH indicates the overall condition of the battery compared to its original specifications,
often expressed as a percentage.
Factors Affecting SoH: Capacity fade, internal resistance, and the number of charge-
discharge cycles.

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 Importance: A declining SoH indicates that the battery's performance is deteriorating and
may require replacement.
• Temperature: Monitoring temperature is crucial as it affects battery performance and
lifespan.
• Voltage and Current: These parameters help assess charging efficiency and detect
potential issues.
Importance: Overvoltage can damage the battery, while undervoltage can lead to a loss of
capacity.
• Cell Balancing: Ensuring that all cells in the battery pack are at a similar voltage level to
prevent overcharging or undercharging.
• Overcharge and Overdischarge Protection: Preventing the battery from being charged
beyond its maximum capacity or discharged below its minimum voltage.
• Temperature Monitoring and Management: Monitoring the temperature of the
battery pack and taking appropriate measures to prevent overheating or freezing.
Importance: High temperatures can lead to thermal runaway, while low temperatures can
reduce efficiency.
• Short Circuit Protection: Detecting and preventing short circuits within the battery
pack.
4.2 Monitoring Technologies
4.2.1. Battery Management Systems (BMS)
• Functionality: BMS monitors SoC and SoH, ensuring safe operation within specified
limits. It prevents overcharging, deep discharging, and overheating.
• Real-Time Data: Advanced BMS can provide real-time data on battery parameters,
allowing for immediate corrective actions if needed
4.2.2. Impedance Spectroscopy
• Method: This technique involves applying an AC current or voltage perturbation to
measure the impedance response of the battery at various states of charge. It can
diagnose internal degradation due to overcharge or over-discharge conditions.
• Benefits: Impedance data helps classify battery health zones, alerting users to
potential failures before they occur.

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 4.2.3. Electrochemical Models
• Adaptive Observers: Researchers have developed electrochemical model-based
systems that estimate lithium concentration in electrodes and aging parameters in
real-time. This approach enhances understanding of non-measurable internal
variables critical for battery management.
• Applications: This technology is particularly beneficial for electric vehicles and
stationary storage systems, providing insights into battery performance over its
entire lifecycle.
4.2.4. Dedicated Monitoring Systems
• BQMS (Battery Health Monitoring System): Designed for stationary applications, it
monitors parameters such as string voltage, cell temperature, and connection
resistance. It operates continuously and can provide alerts for maintenance needs.
• Efftronics Battery Health Monitoring: This system offers 24/7 monitoring of
individual cell voltages, temperatures, and charging/discharging currents, helping
identify weak cells before failure
5. Managing charge/discharge cycles
5.1 Charge/discharge cycle
A charge/discharge cycle is a complete sequence of charging and discharging a battery. It
is a measure of how many times a battery can be recharged and used before its capacity
and performance decline significantly.
A charge/discharge cycle refers to the process of charging a battery from a low state of
charge to its maximum capacity and then discharging it back to a low state. This cycle is
essential for assessing battery health and longevity, particularly for lithium-ion batteries,
which can endure approximately 300-500 cycles before significant capacity loss occurs
5.2 The guide of performing a charge/discharge cycle:
Performing a charge/discharge cycle for a battery involves a series of systematic steps that
ensure the battery is charged to its maximum capacity and then discharged appropriately.
Below are the detailed steps involved in this process:
a. Prepare the Battery

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 • Check Compatibility: Ensure that the battery is compatible with the charger and the
device it will power.
• Inspect Condition: Visually inspect the battery for any signs of damage, swelling, or
leakage.
b. Charging the Battery
• Connect to Charger: Attach the battery to an appropriate charger, ensuring correct
polarity (positive to positive, negative to negative).
• Set Charging Parameters: If applicable, set parameters such as current and voltage
on the charger according to manufacturer specifications.
• Start Charging: Initiate the charging process. Monitor the charging status through
indicators (LEDs or a display).
• Charge to Full Capacity: Allow the battery to charge until it reaches its maximum
voltage or capacity (typically indicated by a full charge light or display).
c. Monitor Charging
• Temperature Monitoring: Keep an eye on the battery temperature during charging.
Excessive heat can indicate problems and may shorten battery life.
• Voltage Checks: Ensure that the voltage does not exceed safe limits (e.g., for
lithium-ion batteries, typically no more than 4.2V per cell).
d. Discharging the Battery
• Disconnect from Charger: Once fully charged, disconnect the battery from the
charger.
• Connect to Load: Attach the battery to a load (device or circuit) that will utilize its
energy.
• Set Discharge Parameters: If available, set parameters for controlled discharge
(current draw).
• Gradual Discharge: Allow the battery to discharge gradually until it reaches a
predetermined cutoff voltage (e.g., 20% capacity for lithium-ion batteries).
e. Monitor Discharge
• Voltage and Current Monitoring: Continuously monitor voltage and current during
discharge to ensure they remain within safe limits.

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 • Avoid Deep Discharge: Do not allow the battery to discharge below its
recommended cutoff level, as this can cause damage.
f. Recharge After Discharge
• Reconnect to Charger: After reaching the desired discharge level, reconnect the
battery to its charger.
• Repeat Cycle: Continue this process periodically based on usage patterns and
manufacturer recommendations.
g. Analyze Performance
• Data Collection: Record data from each charge/discharge cycle, including voltage
levels, charging times, and temperatures.
• Evaluate Capacity Loss: Over time, compare current performance metrics against
baseline values to assess any degradation in capacity or performance.
6. Battery testing and characterization
6.1 Definition
Battery testing and characterization are essential processes for evaluating the performance,
safety, and longevity of batteries. Various methods are employed to assess different
parameters of battery health.
They involve applying different charge/discharge cycles to the batteries under various
conditions and measuring their parameters, such as voltage, current, capacity, energy,
power, efficiency, impedance, and temperature. These parameters can provide useful
information about the battery's state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), and state of
function (SOF).
Here’s some of the key testing methods and their significance:
6.2 Key Battery Testing Methods
6.2.1. Voltage Measurement: A simple method to gauge the state of charge (SoC) by
measuring the open circuit voltage when the battery is at rest.
Limitations: Voltage alone cannot accurately determine the state of health (SoH) of the
battery, as it does not account for internal resistance or capacity degradation
6.2.2. Internal Resistance Testing: This involves measuring the internal resistance through
techniques like pulse or AC impedance methods.

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 Importance: High internal resistance can indicate corrosion or mechanical defects, which
may signal the end of a battery's life. This test is also known as the ohmic test
6.2.3. Coulomb Counting: This method tracks the flow of charge into and out of the battery
to estimate its capacity.
Application: While providing instant readouts of Full Charge Capacity (FCC), it requires
periodic calibration through full charge/discharge cycles to correct tracking errors.
6.2.4. Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS): EIS provides a detailed snapshot of
the battery's chemical state by analyzing its impedance across a range of frequencies.
Benefits: This method can identify internal degradation and assess overall health without
disassembling the battery
6.2.5. Load Bank Testing (Discharge Testing): This comprehensive test evaluates a battery's
performance under specific load conditions, determining actual capacity and identifying
weak cells.
Procedure: The test typically requires taking batteries offline, which can be a drawback due
to downtime
6.2.6. Visual and Mechanical Inspections
Importance: Regular visual inspections help identify physical signs of wear or damage,
ensuring that any potential issues are addressed before they lead to failure
6.2.7. Advanced Non-Invasive Techniques: Techniques such as X-ray analysis, MRI, and
magnetic sensing are used to examine battery cells without disassembly.
Applications: These methods can provide insights into internal structures and detect issues
like lithium plating or electrolyte depletion without altering the battery's state
7. Optimizing charging efficiency
7.1 Introduction
Optimized charging efficiency refers to the effective management of energy transfer during
the battery charging process, aiming to maximize the amount of energy stored in the
battery while minimizing losses.
This concept is crucial for enhancing battery performance, extending lifespan, and ensuring
safety in various applications, particularly in lithium-ion batteries.
7.2 Key Aspects of Optimized Charging Efficiency

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 a. Definition: Charging efficiency is quantified as the ratio of energy output (energy stored
in the battery) to energy input (energy consumed during charging). It is expressed as:

b. Importance: High charging efficiency is critical for:

• Reducing energy losses during charging.
• Enhancing overall battery utilization.
• Extending the operational range of devices powered by batteries.
c. Methods to Improve Charging Efficiency:
• Selecting Appropriate Chargers: Using chargers that match the battery's
specifications helps avoid energy losses and protects against damage.
• Optimizing Charging Algorithms: Implementing strategies like constant current
(CC), constant voltage (CV), or hybrid CC-CV methods can improve both charging
speed and efficiency.
• Temperature Management: Maintaining optimal temperature during charging
prevents degradation and enhances efficiency.
• Battery Management Systems (BMS): Advanced BMS can monitor and control
charging parameters in real-time, ensuring optimal performance and safety.
d. Charging Techniques:
• Pulse Charging: This method uses periodic current pulses, allowing for better
electrolyte distribution and higher overall efficiency.
• Multi-Stage Charging: Gradually adjusting current and voltage throughout the
charging process can optimize performance while minimizing risks of overheating or
overcharging.
e. Real-World Applications: Optimized charging efficiency is vital in sectors like electric
vehicles, renewable energy storage, and consumer electronics where battery performance
directly impacts usability and sustainability.
7.3 Charging Methods
7.3.1. Constant Current (CC) Charging: Charges the battery at a fixed current until a
predefined voltage is reached.

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 Advantages: Simple implementation and effective for many battery types, including NiCd,
NiMH, and Li-ion.
This help to monitor the battery closely to prevent overcharging, which can damage the
cells and reduce lifespan
7.3.2. Constant Voltage (CV) Charging: Maintains a constant voltage while allowing the
current to decrease as the battery approaches full charge.
This help to reduce the risk of overheating and overcharging during the final stages of
charging.
7.3.3. Constant Current/Constant Voltage (CC/CV) Charging: Combines CC and CV
methods. Initially charges at a constant current until a set voltage is reached, then switches
to constant voltage mode.
Advantages: Efficiently charges batteries while minimizing the risk of damage from
overcurrent or overvoltage.
It is commonly used for lithium-ion batteries
7.3.4. Pulse Charging: Involves charging with periodic pulses rather than a continuous
current.
Advantages: Allows for better distribution of charge within the battery, potentially
increasing efficiency and reducing unwanted chemical reactions.
It helps maintain electrolyte uniformity and can improve overall charging rates
7.3.5. Burp Charging: A technique that applies short discharge pulses during rest periods in
pulse charging to dislodge gas bubbles on electrodes.
It can enhance charge rates and improve battery longevity by preventing dendrite
formation
7.4. The benefits of using optimized charging
Using optimized charging offers several significant benefits, particularly for lithium-ion
batteries commonly found in smartphones, laptops, and electric vehicles.
7.4.1. Prolonged Battery Lifespan
• Reduced Wear and Tear: Optimized charging minimizes the time a battery spends
at full charge, which can reduce stress on the cells and slow down capacity

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 degradation over time. By avoiding constant exposure to high voltage levels, the
overall lifespan of the battery can be extended.
7.4.2. Mitigation of Memory Effect
• Improved Performance: For certain battery types, optimized charging helps reduce
the memory effect, where batteries lose their maximum energy capacity if not fully
discharged regularly. This is particularly beneficial for older battery technologies but
also aids in maintaining performance in lithium-ion batteries
7.4.3. Enhanced Charging Efficiency
• Smart Charging Patterns: Optimized charging utilizes machine learning to adapt to
user habits, allowing devices to charge quickly up to a certain percentage (e.g., 80%)
and then slow down as it approaches full capacity. This approach not only saves
energy but also enhances efficiency by preventing unnecessary energy loss during
charging
7.4.4. Temperature Control
• Safety and Efficiency: By regulating the charging speed based on usage patterns and
environmental conditions, optimized charging helps maintain an ideal temperature
range during the charging process. This reduces the risk of overheating, which can
lead to safety hazards and decrease battery efficiency.
7.4.5. Convenience for Users
• Predictive Charging: Devices equipped with optimized charging features can predict
when they will be unplugged based on user routines. For example, if a phone is
plugged in overnight, it will charge to 80% quickly and then hold off on reaching
100% until just before the user typically unplugs it. This ensures that users always
have a full battery when needed without unnecessary wear during prolonged
charging sessions.
7.4.6. Cost Savings
• Reduced Energy Costs: Higher charging efficiency translates to lower energy
consumption over time. For commercial applications, this can lead to significant cost
savings due to reduced electricity usage during charging cycles.

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 Practical Activity 4.1.4: Designing computer power management system
plan

Task:

1: After learning basic of power management system, you are requested to read the
given task below. The task should be done individually.

As electronician, you are asked to go in the Computer Lab and design a plan for a
computer power management.

2. Read key reading 4.1.4 then perform the activity.

3. Present your work to the trainer and whole class

4. Ask questions if any for clarification

5. Perform the task provided in application of learning 4.1

Key readings 4.1.4.:

Designing computer power management system plan
Designing a computer power management system plan involves several critical steps to
ensure efficiency, effectiveness, and user satisfaction.
Here’s a structured approach to developing such a plan:
Step1. Define Objectives and Scope
• Identify Goals: Determine the primary objectives of the power management
system, such as reducing energy consumption, minimizing costs, or enhancing
user convenience.
• Scope: Define the scope of the project, including which devices (desktops,
laptops, servers) will be managed and the extent of control (e.g., scheduling,
remote management).
Step2. Conduct a Needs Assessment
• User Requirements: Gather input from stakeholders (IT staff, end-users) to
understand their needs and expectations.

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 • Current System Evaluation: Analyze existing power management practices and
identify areas for improvement.
Step3. Research and Select Technologies
• Power Management Software: Evaluate available software solutions that can
automate power management tasks (e.g., ManageEngine, Microsoft
Configuration Manager).
• Hardware Integration: Consider any necessary hardware components, such as
smart plugs or energy monitoring devices, that can enhance the system's
capabilities.
Step4. Develop a System Architecture
• Design Framework: Create a detailed architectural design that outlines how
different components will interact (e.g., software interfaces with hardware).
• Central Control Unit: Plan for a central control unit that can manage power
settings across all devices.
Step5. Implement Power Schemes
• Create Power Policies: Develop customized power schemes based on usage
patterns (e.g., sleep mode after inactivity, hibernation settings).
• Automation Features: Incorporate automated features that adjust power
settings based on time of day or user activity.
• Step6. Testing and Validation
• Pilot Testing: Run a pilot program with a small group of users to test the system’s
functionality and gather feedback.
• Adjustments: Make necessary adjustments based on pilot results to optimize
performance and user experience.
Step7. Deployment
• Rollout Plan: Develop a phased rollout plan to implement the system across all
targeted devices.
• User Training: Provide training sessions for users to familiarize them with new
features and benefits.
Step8. Monitor and Optimize

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 • Performance Monitoring: Continuously monitor system performance and energy
savings through analytics tools.
• Feedback Loop: Establish channels for ongoing user feedback to identify issues
or areas for further improvement.
Step9. Maintenance and Support
• Regular Updates: Schedule regular updates for software and hardware
components to ensure compatibility and security.
• Technical Support: Provide accessible technical support for users encountering
issues with the power management system.
Step10. Evaluate Impact
• Review Metrics: After implementation, assess the impact of the power
management system on energy consumption, cost savings, and user satisfaction.
• Report Findings: Document findings and share them with stakeholders to
demonstrate the value of the system.

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 Points to Remember

• Description of Assessment and requirements gathering

Power requirement refers to the specific amount of computing power, in terms of either
microprocessors and their speed or the peak watts from the computing power supply,
needed for a particular project or task in the field of computer science.

The evaluation of power requirements in a computer power management system

depends on several key factors such as hardware configuration, software efficiency,
usage patterns, power management settings, environment factors and components
interactions

• Analysis of Power usage pattern.

Power usage patterns in a computer power supply system refer to the variations in
electricity consumption based on different operational states and tasks performed by
the computer.
Analyzing the power usage pattern of a computer system involves understanding how
power is consumed across different components and under various conditions. The
pattern can vary based on workload, system configuration, and user behavior.
• Identify Critical Components
Identifying the critical components that contribute to energy consumption in computer
power systems is essential for optimizing efficiency and reducing operational costs.
• Document Findings and Requirements
After evaluating the system’s power needs and identifying critical components,
document the key findings and establish the requirements for optimizing power
consumption. The goal is to create a comprehensive report that outlines current power
usage, areas for improvement, and potential solutions for more efficient power
management.
• Identification of computer power management techniques
Power management: is how power is efficiently directed to different components of a
system. Power management is especially important for portable devices that rely on battery
power.

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Sleep mode is a power saving state that stops all actions on the computer. Any open
documents and applications are moved to the system memory (RAM) and the computer goes
to a low-power state.

• Processor power states

Processor power states are mechanisms that allow CPUs to manage their energy
consumption efficiently by adjusting operational parameters based on workload and
activity levels.
These states are categorized into P-states (performance states) and C-states (idle
states).

• Software optimization
Software optimization refers to the process of improving the efficiency and performance
of software applications, particularly in terms of resource usage, speed, and energy
consumption.

• Identify Power Saving Strategies.

Power saving strategies are essential for optimizing energy consumption in computer
systems, enhancing efficiency, and reducing operational costs. These strategies can be
categorized into hardware-based and software-based approaches.

Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS) is a power management technique that
optimizes energy consumption in computing systems by dynamically adjusting the voltage
and frequency of processors and other components based on workload requirements.

• Smart power Management Policies.

Smart power management policies are essential components of computer power

management systems designed to optimize energy consumption while maintaining system
performance.

• Description of battery management system

A battery is a device that stores electrical energy in chemical form and converts it into
electrical energy when needed. It consists of one or more electrochemical cells that
generate voltage through chemical reactions.

Batteries are characterized by their capacity (measured in ampere-hours or milliampere-

hours), voltage, energy density, and cycle life, which indicates how many charge-discharge
cycles they can undergo before significant capacity loss occurs.

• Categories of battery

Rechargeable vs. Non-Rechargeable: Batteries can be classified as primary (non-

rechargeable) or secondary (rechargeable). Primary batteries, like alkaline batteries, can
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only be used once, while secondary batteries, such as lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries,
can be recharged and reused multiple times.

✓ Types of battery

Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries: Li-ion batteries are the predominant choice for laptops and
other portable electronics due to their high energy density, lightweight, and low self-
discharge rates.

Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) Batteries: Ni-MH batteries are a more environmentally

friendly alternative to Ni-Cd batteries, providing higher capacity and less susceptibility to
memory effects.

Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Batteries: Once the standard for portable devices, Ni-Cd batteries
have largely fallen out of favor due to their weight, toxicity, and memory effect issues.

Lithium Polymer (Li-Po) Batteries: Li-Po batteries use a polymer electrolyte instead of
liquid, allowing for thinner and lighter designs. They are increasingly popular in high-end
laptops and mobile devices.

Lead-Acid Batteries: While not commonly used in laptops, lead-acid batteries are
prevalent in larger power systems like UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) due to their
robustness and cost-effectiveness.

✓ Battery Management System (BMS)

A Battery Management System (BMS) is an electronic system that manages and monitors
rechargeable battery packs or cells to ensure their safe and efficient operation.

✓ Types of Battery Management Systems are

Centralized BMS: A single controller oversees all cells in a battery pack.

Modular BMS: Multiple smaller units monitor individual modules within a battery pack.

Distributed BMS: Each cell has its own management unit connected through a
communication bus to a central controller.

A lithium battery bank is a collection of lithium-ion batteries connected together to store

electrical energy for backup power or renewable energy applications. Lithium battery
banks are known for their high energy density, longer life cycles, and improved efficiency
compared to traditional lead-acid batteries.

Redundant power supply refers to the inclusion of additional power supply units (PSUs)
or backup systems to ensure uninterrupted power delivery in critical applications. The
concept of redundancy is crucial in systems where power availability is essential for
operation, such as data centers, hospitals, and industrial environments.

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✓ Designing computer power management system plan

Here’s a structured approach to developing such a plan:

Step1. Determine the primary objectives of the power management system,

Step2. Gather input from stakeholders to understand their needs and expectations.

Step3. Evaluate available software solutions that can automate power management
tasks

Step4. Create a detailed architectural design that outlines how different components will
interact

Step5. Develop customized power schemes based on usage patterns

Step6. Run a pilot program with a small group of users to test the system’s functionality
and gather feedback.

Step7. Develop a phased rollout plan to implement the system across all targeted
devices.

Step10. After implementation, assess the impact of the power management system on
energy consumption, cost savings, and user satisfaction.

Application of learning 4.1.

You are an electronics technician in a computer repair shop. The goal of the company is to
repair the faulty computer power supplies and designing new power supplies for their clients.

As part of the company, you have been tasked to design an effective computer power
management plan and policies for a new power supply unit to be designed.

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 Indicative content 4.2: Integration of Power Backup System Components

Duration: 6 hrs

Theoretical Activity 4.2.1: Description of power backup concepts

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of computer power backup

system.

i. What do you understand by Power backup?

ii. Identify the types of power backup system

iii. Why is protection necessary in power backup system?

iv. What are the power back up technologies?

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 4.2.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.2.1.:

Description of power backup
1. Definition
Power backup refers to the methods and systems used to provide a temporary or
uninterrupted power supply during outages or fluctuations in the main power source.
Power backup solutions are critical for ensuring that essential equipment, systems, and
operations remain functional even when the grid power is unavailable or unstable. They
can vary in capacity, duration, and technology, ranging from small portable devices to
large-scale industrial solutions. Power backup systems help maintain operational
continuity, protect sensitive electronics, and prevent data loss, making them vital for
both residential and commercial applications.

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 2. Overview of Power Backup Systems
Power backup systems automatically switch to battery or generator power when the
main power supply fails, preventing disruptions in service. They are crucial for homes,
businesses, and facilities that require continuous power for safety, productivity, and data
integrity.
3. Types of Power Backup Systems
3.1 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Provides immediate backup power to critical
equipment during outages.
• Use Cases: Commonly used for computers, servers, and medical equipment to
prevent data loss and damage.
3.2 Battery Backup Systems: Store electricity in batteries for use during outages.
They typically include a battery (often lithium-ion), charger, inverter (to convert DC to
AC), and outlets for connecting devices.
• Applications: Suitable for homes and small businesses needing short-term power.
3.3 Generator Systems categorized as:
• Standby Generators: Automatically start during an outage and provide power
through fuel sources like diesel or natural gas.
• Portable Generators: Manually operated units that can be moved to provide power
where needed.
 Use Cases: Ideal for larger loads or prolonged outages.
3.4 Solar Backup Systems: Utilize solar panels to charge batteries, providing an eco-
friendly backup option.
• Advantages: Low operating costs and sustainability; suitable for remote areas with
limited grid access.
3.5 Components of Power Backup Systems
• Energy source: Store energy for later use; common types include lead-acid and
lithium-ion or generators which Provide backup power by converting fuel (diesel,
gasoline, or natural gas) into electrical energy
• Inverters (for battery source): Convert stored DC energy from batteries into AC
power for household appliances.

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 • Chargers (for battery source): Manage the charging of batteries from the main
power supply or solar panels.
• Transfer Switches: Automatically switch between main power and backup power
sources.
• Cooling Systems: Used in larger systems to dissipate heat generated during
operation, ensuring that batteries and other components remain within safe
temperature ranges.
• Monitoring Systems, this ncludes:
User Interface: Displays real-time information about the status of the power backup
system, including battery charge level, load, and health indicators.
Remote Monitoring Systems: Allow users to track system performance and receive
alerts about potential issues from a distance.
3.6 Benefits of Power Backup Systems
• Continuous Power Supply: Ensures that essential devices remain operational during
outages, preventing disruptions in service.
• Protection Against Surges: UPS systems protect against voltage spikes that can
damage sensitive electronics.
• Cost Savings: Reduces downtime costs for businesses by maintaining operations
during outages.
• Improved Safety: Critical facilities (e.g., hospitals) can continue functioning without
interruption, enhancing safety for patients and staff.
• Scalability: Many systems can be expanded by adding more batteries or integrating
solar panels as needs grow.
4. Protection in Power Backup Systems.
Protection in power backup systems is essential for several reasons:
a) Safety: To prevent electrical hazards, including short circuits, fires, or explosions that
can occur during power fluctuations or failures.
b) Equipment Integrity: Protecting sensitive electronics from voltage spikes, surges, and
dips is crucial for preventing damage and ensuring reliable operation.

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 c) Battery Longevity: Effective management and protection of batteries (e.g.,
overcharging, over-discharging) can significantly extend their lifespan and performance.
d) Operational Continuity: Ensuring that backup systems operate correctly and reliably
during an outage is vital for maintaining business operations and protecting critical
processes.
e) Regulatory Compliance: Many industries are subject to regulations that require
proper safeguards to protect equipment and personnel from power-related risks.
5. Power Backup Technologies
Power backup technologies refer to the various methods and systems employed to
provide backup power and ensure continuity during outages.
Key technologies include:
a) Battery Technologies:
➢ Lead-Acid Batteries: Widely used for UPS systems and backup power due to their
affordability and reliability.
➢ Lithium-Ion Batteries: Increasingly popular due to higher energy density, longer
lifespan, and faster charging capabilities.
➢ Flow Batteries: Suitable for larger scale storage, offering long-duration backup
and scalability.
b) Inverter Technology: Converts direct current (DC) from batteries into alternating
current (AC) for use in most household and industrial applications.
c) Generator Technology: Combustion engines (diesel, gasoline, natural gas) that
generate electricity for backup power.
d) Flywheel Systems: Utilize kinetic energy stored in a rotating mass to provide
immediate backup power.
e) Supercapacitors: Provide rapid bursts of power for short periods, used in conjunction
with batteries for enhanced performance.
f) Smart Grid Technology: Integrates renewable energy sources, energy storage, and
advanced monitoring to enhance power reliability and efficiency.
g) Microgrid Systems: Localized grids that can operate independently or in conjunction
with the main grid, providing backup power and integrating renewable sources.

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 h) Energy Management Systems: Software solutions that monitor and control energy
use, optimizing the operation of backup systems based on demand and available
resources.

Theoretical Activity 4.2.2: Identification backup power sources

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to the identification of computer power

backup sources.

i. What do you understand by Power backup sources?

ii. Identify the types of power backup sources.

iii. What do you understand by lithium battery bank?

iv. Discuss about the redundant power supply.

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 4.2.2 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.2.2.:

Identification of backup power sources

1. Introduction
Backup power sources are systems designed to provide uninterrupted electrical power
in case of failure of the primary sources of electricity. They allow for continuous power
supply at any time, regardless of whether the grid is functioning or not.
Identifying backup power sources is crucial for ensuring continuous operation during
power outages.

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 2. Types of backup power sources
Here are the primary types of backup power sources along with their characteristics and
applications:
2.1. Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
A UPS provides immediate backup power using batteries when the main power source
fails. It ensures a seamless transition without interrupting the power supply to critical
devices.
A UPS is a device that provides immediate backup power to connected equipment when
the main power source fails. It is designed to protect hardware such as computers and
networking equipment from power interruptions and surges. UPS systems can vary in
size and capacity, offering features like surge protection and battery backup.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
• Types of UPS:
✓ Offline/Standby UPS: Activates during a power failure, suitable for low-power
devices.
✓ Line Interactive UPS: Provides protection against minor fluctuations and can handle
moderate loads.
✓ Online UPS: Always on, providing clean and stable power, ideal for sensitive
equipment like servers.
2.2. Lithium Battery Bank
Description: Use batteries to store electricity and automatically switch on during outages
to provide power to critical systems.
• Types of Batteries:
✓ Lead-Acid Batteries: Cost-effective but shorter lifespan.
✓ Lithium-Ion Batteries: Higher upfront cost but longer lifespan and better
performance.
✓ Applications: Effective for homes, small businesses, and industries needing short-
term backup.
A lithium battery bank consists of multiple lithium-ion batteries configured to store
energy for longer durations. These systems are known for their high energy density,
efficiency, and longevity compared to traditional lead-acid batteries. They are suitable
for larger setups requiring extended backup times.
2.2.1. Parallel Battery Bank Connections: In a parallel circuit, components are connected
across common points, creating multiple paths for current to flow.
There are four ways to correctly wire a parallel battery bank:

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 Use busbars.

Connect using positive

and negative positions,
Ensure equal cables

Connect halfway.
Ensure all cables have
the same thickness.

Connect diagonally.
Note that while
connecting the battery
this way is simple and
effective; it is not
perfect. There may still
be slight differences in
the individual battery
currents.

2.2.2. Battery Bank Connected in Series: A series circuit is a configuration where all
components are connected end-to-end in a single path.

Combined Series/Parallel Battery Connections

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 2.2.3. The difference between battery bank and power bank
Power banks typically have capacities ranging from 2,000mAh to 20,000mAh, while
battery packs can have capacities up to 50,000mAh. A larger capacity means the device
can charge your smartphone multiple times without needing to be recharged. Power
banks tend to be slower than battery packs in terms of charging speed.

2.3. Standby Generators: These are permanently installed units that automatically
activate during outages. They can run on various fuels, including diesel, natural gas, or
propane.
• Applications: Commonly used in homes, businesses, hospitals, and data centers
where continuous power is critical.

2.4. Portable Generators: These generators are movable and can be used in various
locations. They typically run on gasoline or propane.
• Applications: Ideal for outdoor events, construction sites, or as emergency backup
at homes during outages.
2.5. Solar Power Backup Systems: These systems store solar energy in batteries for use
during outages. They are environmentally friendly and have low maintenance costs.

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 • Applications: Suitable for homes and businesses in sunny regions or remote
areas without reliable grid access.

2.6. Diesel Generators: These generators use diesel engines to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy. They are known for their reliability and efficiency.
• Applications: Commonly used in industrial settings, hospitals, and remote
locations where consistent power is essential.

2.7. Gas Turbines: Operate on natural gas or biogas to generate electricity. They are
often used in larger installations due to their scalability.
• Applications: Suitable for industrial applications requiring substantial backup
power capacity.

3. Redundant Power Supply

3.1 Definition

Redundant power supply refers to the inclusion of additional power supply units (PSUs)
or backup systems to ensure uninterrupted power delivery in critical applications. The
concept of redundancy is crucial in systems where power availability is essential for
operation, such as data centers, hospitals, and industrial environments.

3.2 Key Features of Redundant Power Supply:

3.2.1. Dual Power Supply Units: Systems may be equipped with two or more PSUs, which
can operate simultaneously or take over automatically if one fails.
If one PSU fails, the other(s) continue to provide power without interruption.
3.2.2. Hot-Swap Capability: Many redundant power supplies are designed to be hot-
swappable, allowing users to replace a failed unit without shutting down the entire
system.

This feature minimizes downtime and maintains operational continuity.

3.2.3. Load Balancing: Redundant power supplies can distribute the load between
multiple units, enhancing overall system efficiency and reliability.
If one supply is under heavy load, the other can share the burden, preventing
overheating and wear.
3.2.4. Monitoring and Alerts: Advanced systems often include monitoring capabilities
that track the status of each power supply unit.
Alerts can be generated to notify operators of failures or maintenance needs, enabling
proactive management.

3.3 Applications:
a. Data Centers: To ensure servers remain operational even during power outages or
equipment failures.

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 b. Telecommunications: To provide continuous service availability for critical
communication systems.
c. Healthcare: In hospitals, where power outages can jeopardize patient care and safety.

Practical Activity 4.2.3: Calculating power backup size

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.
As technician, you are asked to go in the working environment to calculate the power
backup size by following given computer system: Desktop Computer: 0.3 kW, Monitor:
0.2 kW, Router: 0.05 kW. If a backup system is rated at 1 kW and is expected to run the
system for 4 hours:

a) Calculate the power delivered by the backup system

b) Provide a summation of power consumed by the system components
c) Calculate power backup duration of the backup system
2: Present your work to the trainer and whole class
3: Ask questions if any for clarification
4: Read key reading 4.2.3 from your manual to get more clarifications and perform the task
provided in application of learning 4.2

Key readings 4.2.3

Calculating power backup size

Calculating the size of a power backup system involves several steps to ensure that the
system can provide sufficient energy to meet the needs during a power outage.
Here’s a structured approach to determine the appropriate size of a power backup
system:
Step1. Determine the Total Load
• List All Devices: Identify all the devices and equipment that need to be powered
during an outage (e.g., computers, servers, lights, HVAC systems).

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 • Power Ratings: Check the power ratings (in watts) of each device, typically found
on the device's label or in the manufacturer’s specifications.
To calculate the power delivered by each device in the backup system, use the formula:
Power Delivered =Voltage (V) × Current (I)_in Watts (W)
• Calculate Total Power: Sum the power ratings of all devices to find the total load:

Total Load (W)=∑Power of Each Device (W)

Step2. Estimate Usage Duration
• Determine Required Backup Time: Decide how long you need the backup power
to last (in hours). This duration will influence the size of the battery bank or
generator capacity required.

Step3. Calculate Energy Requirements

• Calculate Total Energy Consumption: Convert the total load into energy
requirements based on the estimated usage duration:
Total Energy (Wh)=Total Load (W)×Usage Duration (h)

Step4. Select the Type of Backup System

• Choose Backup System Type: Decide whether you will use batteries, generators,
or a combination of both for your power backup solution.
• Consider System Efficiency: Account for the efficiency of the chosen system (e.g.,
UPS systems may have an efficiency rating, typically around 90-95%).

5. Calculate Battery Size (if applicable)

If you are using batteries for backup, follow these additional steps:
• Adjust for Efficiency: Account for the efficiency of the battery system. Use a
derating factor to calculate the effective capacity:

Adjusted Energy Requirement(Wh)= Total Energy (Wh)/Efficiency

• Determine Battery Capacity: Calculate the required battery capacity in amp-
hours (Ah):
Battery Capacity(Ah)= Adjusted Energy Requirement(Wh)/ Battery Voltage(V)
• Choose the nominal voltage of the battery bank (commonly 12V, 24V, or 48V).
If using a generator:
• Generator Sizing: Ensure the generator can handle the total load, including surge

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 power needs (start-up power for devices such as refrigerators or air
conditioners). A common rule of thumb is to size the generator for 1.2 to 1.5
times the total load to accommodate surge demands.

Step6. Consider Additional Factors

• Future Expansion: Consider potential future loads when sizing the backup system
to ensure it can accommodate growth.
• Environmental Factors: Account for the environment where the backup system
will be used, as temperature and humidity can affect battery performance and
lifespan.
• Regulations and Standards: Check local codes and regulations that may affect
sizing requirements or installation standards.

Step7. Finalize and Document Findings: Record all calculations, assumptions, and
chosen specifications for future reference and maintenance.
Example:
Given thefollowing givev computer system components: Desktop Computer: 0.3 kW,
Monitor: 0.2 kW, Router: 0.05 kW. If a backup system is rated at 1 kW and is expected
to run the system for 4 hours:

a) Calculate the power delivered by the backup system

b) Provide a summation of power consumed by the system components

c) Calculate power backup duration of the backup system

Solution:
a) Total power consumption by system
To determine the total power consumption of your computer system, sum up the
power ratings of all components that will be running during the backup period. This
includes:

• Desktop or Laptop Computer: Typically ranges from 0.1 kW to 0.5 kW depending

on specifications.
• Monitor: Usually around 0.1 kW to 0.3 kW.
• Networking Equipment: Routers, switches, etc., can add another 0.05 kW to 0.1
kW.
• Peripherals: Printers or external drives may add additional power consumption.

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 Example Calculation

Let’s say you have the following components in your computer system:

• Desktop Computer: 0.3 kW

• Monitor: 0.2 kW
• Router: 0.05 kW
b) Total Power Consumption Calculation

Total Power Consumption=Power of Desktop+Power of Monitor+Power of Router

Total Power Consumption=0.3 kW+0.2 kW+0.05 kW=0.55 kW

Total energy Delivered Calculation

Assuming you have a backup system rated at 1 kW and you want it to run for 4 hours:

Total Power Delivered=1 kW×4 hours=4 kWhTotal Power Delivered=1kW×4hours=4kW

h

c) Backup Duration Calculation

To find out how long your backup can sustain your computer system:

Backup Duration (hour) =Total Power Delivered divided by the

Total Power Consumption in one hour = 4 kWh/ 0.55 kW ≈ 7.27 hours

Theoretical Activity 4.2.4: Description of battery charging system

Task:

1: Answer the following questions related to the description of computer power backup
sources.

i. What do you understand by charging method?

ii. Discuss about charging profile
iii. What is the charging controller?
iv. What do you understand by Managing temperature?
v. What is the Monitoring and control of batteries?

2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

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 3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 4.2.4. from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.2.4.

Description of battery charging system

1. Apply charging method
Developing a proper battery charging method is an essential part of the BMS. The
method is based on accurate battery estimations for state of charge (SOC), state of
health (SOH) and temperature.
There are four commonly used and popular charging methods:
• Constant current (CC) charging
• Constant-voltage (CV) charging
• Constant-current-constant-voltage (CC-CV) charging
• Multi-stage constant-current (MCC) charging

CC charging is a simple method that uses a small constant current to charge the battery
during the whole charging process. CC charging stops when a predefined value is
reached. This method is widely used for charging NiCd or NiMH batteries, and Li-ion
batteries.

CV charging, which regulates a predefined constant voltage to charge batteries. Its main
advantage is that it circumvents over voltages and irreversible side reactions, thus
prolonging battery life. Since the voltage is constant, the charging current decreases as
the battery charges.

The CC-CV charging method uses CC charging in the first charging stage, and when the
voltage reaches the maximum safe threshold value, the charging process shifts to the CV
charging method. The charging process is complete when the current levels off or when
full battery capacity is reached. The charging time is mainly defined by the constant
current value (CC mode), while the capacity utilization is predominantly influenced by
the constant voltage value (CV mode).

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 Figure: A graph of the battery current and voltage in CC-CV charging mode.

The MCC charging method includes several constant current stages, where the current
is gradually decreased as the terminal voltage reaches a default voltage threshold. The
charging process continues until the battery reaches the terminal conditions. The MCC
method is shown in Figure below.

Figure 2: A graph of the battery current and voltage in MCC charging mode.
The MCC method is suitable for charging the following battery types: lead-acid, NiMH,
and Li-ion batteries.
Comparison of Charging Methods
Table below summarizes the features of the four traditional charging methods.

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 Table 2. Comparison of the traditional charging methods.

2. Design charging controller

The charge controller in a system is to protect the battery from overcharge and over
discharge. Any system that has unpredictable loads, user intervention, optimized or
undersized battery storage (to minimize initial cost), or any characteristics that would
allow excessive battery overcharging or over discharging requires a charge controller
and/or low-voltage load disconnect.

3. Testing efficiency and power factor

Testing the efficiency and power factor of battery charger controllers is crucial for
ensuring optimal performance and compliance with industry standards. This process
involves a series of systematic evaluations that assess how effectively a charger converts
input power into usable output while minimizing losses.

3. 1. Efficiency Testing
Efficiency in battery chargers is defined as the ratio of output power to input power,
typically expressed as a percentage. The formula used to calculate efficiency (η) is:

Where:
• Pout is the output power (in watts).
• Pin is the input power (in watts).
To conduct efficiency testing:

• Setup: Connect the battery charger to a controlled load, which can be resistive
or a combination of batteries and resistors.
• Measurements: Measure the input voltage and current using a calibrated power

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 meter to determine Pin. Simultaneously, measure the output voltage and current
to calculate Pout.
• Calculations: Use the above formula to compute efficiency and compare it
against manufacturer specifications to ensure it meets acceptable ranges

3. 2. Power Factor Testing

Power factor (PF) is another critical parameter that indicates how effectively electrical
power is being converted into useful work output. It is defined as the ratio of real power
(P) in kilowatts (kW) to apparent power (S) in kilovolt-amperes (kVA):

Where:
• Real Power (P) is the actual power consumed by the circuit.
• Apparent Power (S) is the product of the current and voltage in the circuit.

Procedure for Power Factor Testing

• Measurement Tools: Utilize a power quality analyzer capable of measuring both
real and apparent power.
• Testing Conditions: Conduct tests under various load conditions to assess how
PF varies with different charging scenarios.
• Analysis: A PF below 0.95 may indicate inefficiencies, potentially leading to
increased operational costs due to higher current requirements and penalties
from utility providers.

4. Combined Testing Approach

For comprehensive evaluation:
• Perform both efficiency and power factor tests simultaneously under identical
conditions.
• Ensure that testing adheres to established protocols, such as those outlined by
energy commissions or industry standards, which may specify temperature
limits, voltage ranges, and acceptable measurement uncertainties

5. Factors affecting the efficiency of a battery charger controller

The efficiency of a battery charger controller is influenced by several key factors that
can significantly affect its performance and longevity. Here are the primary
considerations:

5.1. Design and Technology

• Charger Type: Different types of chargers, such as Switch Mode Power Supplies
(SMPS) and Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controllers, exhibit varying
efficiencies. SMPS typically offers higher efficiency due to reduced heat

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 generation, while PWM provides precise control over charging rates but may
generate electromagnetic interference.

• Control Algorithms: The effectiveness of the charging process is largely

determined by the controller's algorithm. Advanced algorithms can optimize
energy transfer from the power source to the battery, enhancing overall
efficiency.

5.2. Compatibility with Battery Types

• Battery Chemistry: The type of battery being charged (e.g., lead-acid, lithium-
ion) affects efficiency. For instance, lithium-ion batteries generally perform
better in terms of efficiency compared to lead-acid batteries under similar
conditions.

• Voltage Matching: Ensuring that the charger’s voltage matches that of the
battery bank is critical. Mismatched voltages can lead to inefficient charging and
potential damage.

5.3. Environmental Conditions

• Temperature Effects: Temperature plays a significant role in charging efficiency.
Higher temperatures can decrease battery voltage and charging rates,
particularly for lead-acid batteries, while lower temperatures may reduce overall
system efficiency. Some controllers include temperature compensation features
to adjust charging parameters based on ambient conditions

5.4. Installation Environment: Factors such as humidity, dust, and exposure to elements
can affect the performance and reliability of charge controllers. Proper installation and
maintenance are essential for optimal operation

5.5. System Sizing and Configuration

• Proper Sizing: The charge controller must be appropriately sized for the system's
voltage and current requirements. An undersized or oversized controller can lead
to inefficiencies, overcharging, or undercharging.

• Load Management: Effective load management features in a charger can prevent

deep discharges and maintain battery health, which indirectly contributes to
overall efficiency.

5.6. Power Quality Factors

• Power Factor: The power factor reflects how effectively the charger uses
electricity. A low power factor indicates inefficiencies in energy use, which can
lead to increased operational costs and reduced charger performance.

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 • Harmonic Distortion: Nonlinear loads can introduce harmonic distortion into the
system, negatively impacting both efficiency and power quality. Chargers
designed to minimize these effects will perform better overall

6. Managing temperature
Temperature is a dominant factor affecting battery charging performance. High
temperature decreases the life cycle of Li-ion batteries, and charging is not
recommended in below freezing conditions. Table below shows the influence of
temperature on charging performance for different battery types.

Managing temperature in battery charger controllers is essential to ensure optimal

performance, safety, and longevity of the batteries being charged. Effective thermal
management systems (TMS) are designed to maintain battery temperatures within a
specified range, typically between 20°C and 45°C, as extreme temperatures can
adversely affect battery efficiency and lifespan.

6.1 Key Components of Temperature Management

a. Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS)
A BTMS is integral to regulating the temperature of battery packs. It employs various
methods to either cool or heat the batteries as needed:

• Cooling Systems: These systems use liquid or air cooling methods to dissipate
heat generated during charging and discharging. Liquid cooling systems are
particularly effective as they can absorb heat more efficiently than air.
• Heating Systems: In colder conditions, heating elements may be employed to
raise the temperature of the battery pack, facilitating better performance during
charging.

b. Sensors and Controllers

Precision temperature sensors play a crucial role in monitoring battery temperatures.
These sensors provide real-time data to a thermal management controller, which adjusts

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 cooling or heating mechanisms accordingly. This dynamic response helps maintain
optimal operating conditions for the battery.

7. Monitoring and control of batteries

Monitoring and controlling batteries is essential for ensuring their safety, efficiency, and
longevity. Battery Management Systems (BMS) play a crucial role in this process by
providing real-time data on battery performance, health, and environmental conditions.
Here’s an overview of the key aspects involved in battery monitoring and control.

7.1 Key Functions of Battery Management Systems (BMS)

7.1.1. Monitoring
A BMS continuously monitors various parameters to ensure optimal battery operation:
• Voltage: Measures total voltage and individual cell voltages to detect imbalances
and prevent overcharging or deep discharging.
• Temperature: Monitors the temperature of the battery cells to prevent
overheating, which can lead to thermal runaway.
• Current: Tracks the current flowing in and out of the battery to manage charging
and discharging cycles effectively.
• State of Charge (SoC): Estimates the remaining charge in the battery, which is
critical for determining when to recharge.
• State of Health (SoH): Assesses the overall condition of the battery, indicating its
ability to hold charge compared to its original capacity.

7.1.2. Control
The BMS not only monitors but also controls various functions:
• Balancing: Ensures that all cells within a battery pack are charged evenly, which
helps prolong battery life.
• Protection: Engages protective measures against overvoltage, undervoltage,
overcurrent, and excessive temperatures.
• Charging Control: Adjusts charging parameters based on real-time data to
optimize charging efficiency and safety.

7.1.3. Communication
Modern BMS solutions often include communication capabilities that allow for:
• Data Reporting: Sending performance data to external systems for analysis and
decision-making.
• Remote Monitoring: Enabling users to monitor battery status from remote
locations through IoT connectivity.

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 7.2 Types of Battery Monitoring Systems
7.2.1. Wired vs. Wireless Systems

• Wired Systems: Provide reliable connections in environments with high

electromagnetic interference. They are often used in stationary applications like
data centers or utility installations.
• Wireless Systems: Offer flexibility in installation and are suitable for applications
where wiring is impractical. They typically use RF signals for communication.

7.2.2. Specialized Monitoring Solutions

Different systems cater to specific needs:
• Electrolyte Level Monitoring: For lead-acid batteries, monitoring electrolyte
levels is crucial for performance.
• Temperature Monitoring Solutions: Some systems focus specifically on
temperature management, essential for lithium-ion batteries used in electric
vehicles.

7.3 Benefits of Effective Battery Monitoring and Control

Implementing a robust BMS provides numerous advantages:
• Increased Reliability: Continuous monitoring helps identify potential issues
before they lead to failures, improving overall system reliability.
• Cost Savings: Proactive maintenance enabled by real-time data can reduce
operational costs associated with unexpected downtime or battery
replacements.
• Enhanced Safety: By preventing conditions that could lead to thermal runaway
or other hazardous situations, a BMS significantly enhances safety

Practical Activity 4.2.5: Designing battery charging controller

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

As technician, you are asked to go in Computer Lab design and simulate a battery
charging controller to manage the charging process of a 12V rechargeable battery. The
controller must ensure safe and efficient charging, including overcharge protection,
current regulation, and automatic cutoff once the battery is fully charged.
2:Present your work to whole class.

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 3: Read key reading 4.2.5 and perform the task provided in application of learning 4.2

Key readings 4.2.5.

Designing battery charging controller

To design and simulate a Battery charger controller using Proteus, follow these steps:

Step1. Start a New Project: Open Proteus and create a new project. Set up your
workspace for schematic design.

Step2. Add Components: Begin by adding the necessary components to your schematic.
This includes the TL431 voltage reference, resistors, transistors (such as BD140), diodes,
and any other components required for your specific BMS design.

Step3. Configure the TL431: Connect the TL431 according to its typical application
circuit. Ensure that you set up the feedback network with resistors to establish the
desired reference voltage (usually around 2.5V or adjustable to 4.2V for lithium-ion
batteries).

Step3. Connect the Power Supply: Add a DC power source to simulate the battery or
power supply input for your circuit. Ensure that the voltage levels are appropriate for
your design.

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 Step4. Set Up Load Balancing: If your BMS includes load balancing features, configure
additional components like shunt resistors and indicators (LEDs) to monitor the charging
status of each cell.

Step5. Wire the Circuit: Carefully wire all components together, ensuring that
connections are correct according to your schematic design.

Step6. Simulate the Circuit: Once everything is connected, run the simulation in Proteus.
Monitor the behavior of the circuit, particularly how the TL431 regulates voltage and
how transistors control charging and discharging processes.

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 Insert the DC Ammeter (3) in the circuit to indicate if the battery is charging, Press the
Simulation Button (1) then the Charging LED is glowing whereas Ammeter is reading,
indicating the charging process.

Once the battery is full charged, the Ammeter (2) stop reading and Green LED (4) glows.

Step7. Adjust Parameters: If necessary, adjust component values (like resistor values for
voltage division) to achieve optimal performance based on simulation results.

Step8. Finalize Design: After successful simulation and adjustments, finalize your design
by saving the project (by clicking on File>Save once the project was saved of Save as
when it is the first time to save it) and preparing any documentation needed for further
development or physical implementation.

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 Points to Remember

• Description of power backup concepts

Power backup refers to the methods and systems used to provide a temporary or
uninterrupted power supply during outages or fluctuations in the main power source.
Power backup systems automatically switch to battery or generator power when the main
power supply fails, preventing disruptions in service.

They are crucial for homes, businesses, and facilities that require continuous power for
safety, productivity, and data integrity. Power backup systems automatically switch to
battery or generator power when the main power supply fails, preventing disruptions in
service. They are crucial for homes, businesses, and facilities that require continuous
power for safety, productivity, and data integrity.
• Types of Power Backup Systems includes Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS),
Battery Backup Systems, Generator Systems and Solar Backup Systems

Protection in Power Backup Systems.

Protection in power backup systems is essential for several reasons: Safety,
Equipment Integrity, Battery Longevity, Operational Continuity, Regulatory Compliance
and Power Backup Technologies

Power backup technologies refer to the various methods and systems employed to
provide backup power and ensure continuity during outages.
Key technologies include: Battery Technologies, Inverter Technology, Generator
Technology, Flywheel Systems, Supercapacitors, Smart Grid Technology, Microgrid
Systems and Energy Management Systems

• Identification of backup power sources

✓ Definition
Backup power sources are systems designed to provide uninterrupted electrical power in
case of failure of the primary sources of electricity.
✓ Types of backup power sources
Here are the primary types of backup power sources along with their characteristics and
applications:
 Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): A UPS provides immediate backup power
using batteries when the main power source fails.
 Lithium Battery Bank: Use batteries to store electricity and automatically switch
on during outages to provide power to critical systems.
 Standby Generators: These are permanently installed units that automatically
activate during outages.

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  Portable Generators: These generators are movable and can be used in various
locations.
 Solar Power Backup Systems: These systems store solar energy in batteries for
use during outages.
 Diesel Generators: These generators use diesel engines to convert mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
 Gas Turbines: Operate on natural gas or biogas to generate electricity.
 Redundant Power Supply refers to the inclusion of additional power supply units
(PSUs) or backup systems to ensure uninterrupted power delivery in critical
applications.
• Calculating power backup size
✓ Definition
Calculating the size of a power backup system involves several steps to ensure that
the system can provide sufficient energy to meet the needs during a power outage.
✓ Here’s a structured approach to determine the appropriate size of a power
backup system:
Start by identifying all the devices and equipment that need to be powered during an
outage, then decide how long you need the backup power to last (in hours). Convert the
total load into energy requirements based on the estimated usage duration also Decide
whether you will use batteries, generators, or a combination of both for your power
backup solution. Consider potential future loads when sizing the backup system to
ensure it can accommodate growth. And finally, record all calculations, assumptions,
and chosen specifications for future reference and maintenance.
• Description of battery charging system
 Apply charging method: Developing a proper battery charging method is an
essential part of the BMS. The method is based on accurate battery estimations
for state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH) and temperature.
 There are four commonly used and popular charging methods:
 CC charging is a simple method that uses a small constant current to charge
the battery during the whole charging process.
 CV charging, which regulates a predefined constant voltage to charge
batteries.
 The CC-CV charging method uses CC charging in the first charging stage, and
when the voltage reaches the maximum safe threshold value, the charging
process shifts to the CV charging method.
 Charging controller: The charge controller in a system is to protect the battery
from overcharge and over discharge.

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 • Testing efficiency and power factor
 Testing the efficiency and power factor of battery charger controllers is crucial
for ensuring optimal performance and compliance with industry standards.
 Factors affecting the efficiency of a battery charger controller
 The efficiency of a battery charger controller is influenced by several key
factors that can significantly affect its performance and longevity, as:
 Design and Technology, Compatibility with Battery Types, Environmental
Conditions, System Sizing and Configuration, Power Quality Factors,
Monitoring and control of batteries
 Types of Battery Monitoring Systems are: Wired system, Wireless System and
Specialized Monitoring Solutions.
 Benefits of Effective Battery Monitoring and Control
 Implementing a robust BMS provides numerous advantages as: Increased
Reliability, Cost Savings and Enhanced Safety,
• Designing battery charging controller
To design a battery charging controller using Proteus, start by opening the software and
creating a new project to set up your schematic workspace. Next, add essential
components such as the TL431 voltage reference, resistors, transistors, and diodes,
tailoring your selection to the specific requirements of your Battery Management
System (BMS) design. Configure the TL431 according to its typical application circuit,
ensuring that the feedback network with resistors establishes the desired reference
voltage, typically around 2.5V or adjustable to 4.2V for lithium-ion batteries.

Incorporate a DC power source to simulate the battery or power supply input,

confirming that the voltage levels align with your design specifications. If your BMS
includes load balancing features, set up additional components like shunt resistors and
indicators (LEDs) to monitor each cell's charging status. Carefully wire all components
together according to your schematic, then run the simulation in Proteus to observe
circuit behavior, focusing on how the TL431 regulates voltage and how transistors
manage charging and discharging processes. Adjust component values as needed based
on simulation results to optimize performance, and finally, save your project by clicking
on File > Save or Save As for future reference and documentation preparation.

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 Application of learning 4.2.

The company that code, test and deploy applications needs a reliable power backup solution
that ensures uninterrupted operation of all computer systems during power outages. The
existing setup lacks sufficient backup capabilities, which can lead to significant delays in
project timelines and affect client satisfaction.

You are part time hired by the company to design and install the backup system to facilitate
the company continuing its activities even if the main supply fails for a period of 1 hour.

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 Indicative content 4.3: Integration of Power Backup System Components

Duration: 8 hrs

Theoretical Activity 4.3.1: Description of component placement compatibility

and consideration assessment

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to the description of component placement

compatibility and consideration assessment.
i. What do you understand by the following terms?
a. Voltage compatibility
b. communication protocols
c. physical dimensions
d. power rating and capacities
e. Environmental compatibility
f. Space utilization
g. cable management
h. heat dissipation
i. Weight distribution
j. Future expansion and scalability
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

3: Present your findings to the class.

4: Ask questions for more clarifications.

5: Read the key reading 4.3.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.3.1.:

Description of component placement compatibility and consideration assessment

Introduction
In the context of power backup systems, particularly uninterruptible power supplies
(UPS) and battery management systems (BMS), several critical terms are essential for
effective design and implementation.
Below is an explanation of each term:

a. Voltage Compatibility: Voltage compatibility refers to the ability of a power backup

system to operate within a specified voltage range. This ensures that the UPS or BMS

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 can accept input from various power sources and deliver appropriate output to
connected devices without causing damage or operational issues. For example, a UPS
may support input voltages ranging from 120V to 240V AC, accommodating different
regional standards.
Input and Output Voltage Matching

Battery Systems: Common battery voltages include 12V, 24V, 36V, and 48V. For
instance, a 12V battery system is often used in smaller applications, while 48V systems
are preferred for larger installations due to improved efficiency in power transmission.

Power Ratings and Current Draw

Power Requirements: The total power requirements of connected loads must be

calculated. For example, if a device requires 1000W at 120V, the current draw can be
calculated using the formula: I=P/V

Thus, I=1000W/120V=8.33A

Adjusting for Voltage Fluctuations: If the input voltage drops to 100V during a
brownout, the current draw increases: I=1000W/100V=10A

This increase in current necessitates ensuring that the wiring and components can
handle higher currents without overheating or causing failures.

Battery Charging Voltages

Batteries typically require a higher voltage for charging than their nominal voltage. For
example, a 12V lead-acid battery usually requires a charging voltage of about 13.8V to
14.4V to ensure proper charging. This difference is crucial for maintaining battery health
and performance.

b. Communication Protocols: Communication protocols are standardized methods that

allow different devices within a power backup system to exchange information. Common
protocols include Modbus, CAN bus, and Ethernet-based protocols like EtherCAT. These
protocols facilitate monitoring and control functions, enabling the UPS to communicate
status updates, battery health data, and operational commands to external systems or
devices.

Compatibility Assurance: Ensure that both systems can communicate effectively,

allowing for monitoring and management of power conditions during outages.

RS-485 Cables: Often used for communication between the power backup system and
monitoring devices or control systems.

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 Ethernet Cables (Cat5e/Cat6): Used for network connectivity in smart backup systems
that require remote monitoring and control.

c. Physical Dimensions: Physical dimensions refer to the size and shape of the power
backup system, which can impact installation and integration into existing infrastructure.
Understanding these dimensions is crucial for ensuring that the device fits within
designated spaces and complies with safety regulations regarding airflow and
accessibility.

Space Measurement: Measure the physical dimensions of the power backup system and
compare them with the available installation space. This ensures that the system fits well
without obstructing other equipment or creating safety hazards.

Installation Considerations: Consider any additional space required for ventilation or

access to maintenance points.

Power Cables:

H07 R-NF: A rubber-insulated cable suitable for outdoor use, often used in installations
requiring flexibility and resistance to weather conditions.

NYCWY: A multi-core cable designed for use in electrical installations where moisture
and mechanical damage are concerns.

RV 0.6/1kV: A PVC-insulated cable suitable for low voltage applications, often used in
residential and commercial setups.

d. Power Rating and Capacities: Power rating indicates the maximum amount of power
(in watts or kilowatts) that a backup system can deliver continuously. Capacities often
refer to the total energy storage available in a battery (measured in amp-hours or watt-
hours). Selecting an appropriate power rating ensures that the system can handle the
load requirements of connected devices during an outage.

Load Calculation: Calculate the total power requirements of all connected loads to
determine the necessary capacity of the backup system. This involves assessing peak
loads and continuous operating requirements.

System Selection: Choose a power backup system with a sufficient power rating and
capacity to meet these demands during outages, ensuring it can handle both normal and
peak loads effectively.

e. Environmental Compatibility: Environmental compatibility involves assessing how

well a power backup system can operate under specific environmental conditions, such
as temperature extremes, humidity, and exposure to dust or corrosive elements.

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 Systems designed for harsh environments may include protective enclosures or
specialized cooling mechanisms.

Operating Conditions: Evaluate the environmental conditions where the power backup
system will be installed, including temperature, humidity, and altitude. Systems must be
rated for these specific conditions to operate reliably.

Durability Requirements: Consider whether additional protective measures are needed

based on environmental factors, such as dust or moisture ingress.

f. Space Utilization: Space utilization refers to how efficiently the physical space
occupied by the power backup system is used. This includes considerations for vertical
stacking, modular designs, or compact configurations that maximize available space
while maintaining accessibility for maintenance.

Available Space Assessment: Determine the total available space for installing the
power backup system components, including generators, inverters, batteries, and
control units.

Physical Dimensions: Measure the dimensions of each component. For instance, a

typical UPS may have dimensions of approximately 19 inches wide x 3.5 inches high x 24
inches deep for rack-mounted units. Plan layouts that allow efficient use of space while
ensuring accessibility for maintenance.

g. Cable Management: Cable management encompasses strategies for organizing and

securing cables associated with the power backup system. Proper cable management
reduces clutter, minimizes interference, and enhances safety by preventing tripping
hazards or accidental disconnections.

Routing Requirements: Assess the routing needs for power and communication cables.
Ensure that cables from the backup system to connected loads are organized to prevent
clutter and interference.

Implement cable trays or conduits to manage cable runs effectively, reducing tripping
hazards and maintaining a clean installation environment.

Organize cables in a way that promotes airflow around heat-generating components

such as inverters and batteries. Avoiding Cable Bundling Near Heat Sources

h. Heat Dissipation: Heat dissipation is critical in ensuring that electronic components

within a power backup system do not overheat during operation. Effective heat
management strategies may include heat sinks, fans, or liquid cooling systems that
maintain optimal operating temperatures and prolong equipment lifespan.

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 Ventilation and Cooling: Ensure adequate ventilation is provided around components.
This may involve installing fans or vents to maintain optimal operating temperatures,
typically between 20°C to 25°C (68°F to 77°F).

i. Weight Distribution: Weight distribution refers to how weight is balanced across the
structure of the power backup system. Proper weight distribution is essential for stability
during operation, especially in mobile or rack-mounted systems, where uneven weight
can lead to tipping or mechanical failure.

Component Weight Consideration: Assess the weight of each component; for instance,
a typical lead-acid battery can weigh between 40 kg to 100 kg (88 lbs to 220 lbs)
depending on its capacity.
Structural Stability: Distribute weight evenly across the supporting structure to prevent
sagging or structural damage. Use racks or shelves designed to support heavy equipment
safely.

j. Future Expansion and Scalability: Future expansion and scalability involve designing a
power backup system that can accommodate increased loads or additional features
without requiring complete replacement. This could include modular designs that allow
for adding extra batteries or upgrading components as technology advances or as energy
demands grow.

Growth Potential Assessment: Evaluate potential future needs for additional loads or
upgrades to the power backup system. For example, if current requirements are for a 5
kW system, consider whether there is space and capacity to expand to a 10 kW system
later.

Flexible Component Placement: Design the layout with flexibility in mind, allowing for
easy addition of components like extra batteries or larger inverters without requiring
significant reconfiguration.

Practical Activity 4.3.2: Installing electrical power backup

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

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 As a technician, you are asked to go in the electrical workshop install electrical power
back up for a computer system.

2: Present your work to the trainer and whole class

3: Ask questions if any for clarification

4: Read key reading 4.3.2 and perform the task provided in application of learning 4.3 for
more understanding.

Key readings 4.3.2:

Installing electrical power backup

Installing an electrical power backup system in a computer power system, such as a UPS
(Uninterruptible Power Supply), involves several key steps to ensure reliability and
efficiency.

To install the electrical power backup, follow the following steps:

Step1. Determine Power Requirements: Identify the devices that will be connected to
the backup system and calculate their total power consumption (in watts or kilowatts).
Consider both running and starting power requirements for devices like servers and
workstations.

Prioritize which devices need backup power during an outage, ensuring that essential
equipment is covered.

Step2. Choose the Right Backup System

• Select Appropriate System: Based on your power needs, choose between

different types of backup systems.

• Consider Features: Look for features such as automatic transfer switches (ATS),
monitoring capabilities, and expandability.

Step3. Prepare for Installation: Ensure you have all necessary tools (screwdrivers, pliers,
multimeter) and safety gear (gloves, goggles) and choose a suitable location for the UPS
or generator that allows for proper ventilation, easy access, and minimal exposure to
moisture or heat.

Step4. Install the Backup System

• Physical Installation:

For a UPS, mount it securely in a designated area close to the devices it will support.

For generators, follow manufacturer guidelines for placement and ensure it is on a stable

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 surface.

• Wiring Connections:

Screw-Connectors and Crimping Ferrules: Ensure that the connectors used for the
power backup system are compatible with the specific cable types and sizes being
utilized.

Reliability and Durability: Choose connectors designed to withstand environmental

stresses such as moisture, temperature fluctuations, and mechanical strain.

Connect the UPS to the main power supply and to the devices needing backup power.

If using a generator, install an Automatic Transfer Switch, ATS to manage the switch
between utility and generator power seamlessly.

Step5. Cable Management

Wire Routing: Cables should be routed along walls or ceilings where possible, avoiding
high-traffic areas, tripping or interference.

Cable Trays or Conduits: Mesh cable trays can be particularly effective in industrial
settings, allowing for good ventilation while keeping cables accessible for maintenance.

Step6. Wire Termination

Proper Termination: Ensure that all wires are terminated correctly at both the power
backup system and the connected loads.

Stripping Tools and Crimpers: Use high-quality wire stripping tools and crimpers
designed for specific wire gauges (e.g., suitable for 6 mm² wires) to ensure a secure
connection without damaging the wire insulation.

Step 7. Protection Devices

IP Rated Junction Boxes: For outdoor installations, use junction boxes with an IP rating
of at least IP55 to protect against dust and water ingress.

Surge Protectors: Implement surge protection devices to safeguard the power backup
system and connected equipment from voltage surges caused by lightning or other
electrical disturbances.

Step 8. Grounding

Green/Yellow Insulated Cables: complying with electrical standards to ensure safety.

Grounding Electrode: a ground rod or grounding plate, ensuring that all components of
the power backup system are properly grounded.

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 Step9. Test the Backup System

• Power-On Self-Test: Conduct initial tests to ensure that the system powers on
correctly.

• Load Testing: Simulate a power outage by disconnecting from the main supply
and verify that all critical devices receive power as intended.

• Check Transfer Mechanisms: For systems with ATS, confirm that it switches
between power sources smoothly without interruption.

Step10. Regular Maintenance Plan

• Routine Checks: Schedule regular maintenance checks to inspect battery health

(for UPS), fuel levels (for generators), and overall system performance.

• Update Software/Firmware: Keep any software associated with monitoring or

managing the backup system up to date.

Step11. Documentation and Training

• Label Circuits: Clearly label circuits in your electrical panel that are connected to
the backup system for easy identification during emergencies.

• User Training: Train relevant personnel on how to operate the backup system,
including how to perform manual overrides if necessary.

Practical Activity 4.3.3: Applying communication interface

Task:

1. Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.
As technician, you are tasked to go onto the workshop to apply communication
interfaces for power back up system.
2. Read key reading 4.3.3 then perform the activity.
3. Present your work to the trainer and whole class
4. Ask questions if any for clarification
5. Perform the task provided in application of learning 4.3

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 Key readings 4.3.3
Applying communication interface
Introduction
When implementing a communication interface for power backup systems, it is essential
to identify communication needs, select appropriate protocols, configure interfaces, and
integrate with Battery Management Systems (BMS).
Applying a communication interface for a power backup system, such as an
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS), is essential for effective monitoring, management,
and integration within modern electrical systems.
Here’s the steps and considerations involved in implementing communication interfaces
for power backup systems:

Step1. Identify Communication Needs

• Determine Requirements: Assess the specific communication needs based on
the application. Consider factors like remote monitoring, control capabilities,
data logging, and integration with existing systems (e.g., SCADA).
• Critical Parameters: Identify which parameters need to be monitored (e.g.,
battery status, load levels, input/output voltage).

Step2. Choose Appropriate Communication Protocols

• Common Protocols: Select suitable communication protocols based on
compatibility and performance:
✓ Modbus TCP/IP: Widely used for industrial applications; allows for easy
integration with various devices.
✓ Ethernet/IP: Suitable for real-time control and monitoring in automation
systems.
✓ PROFINET: Ideal for high-speed data exchange in industrial environments.
✓ IEC 61850: A standard for communication in substations and power systems,
ensuring interoperability and vendor independence.

Step3. Integrate Communication Interfaces

• Hardware Setup: Install communication modules or interfaces on the UPS or
backup power system. This may include Ethernet ports, RS-232/RS-485
interfaces, or wireless modules.
• Wiring and Connections: Ensure proper wiring between the UPS and the
communication network. Use appropriate cabling to prevent interference and
ensure reliable data transmission.
Step4. Configure Monitoring and Control Systems

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 • Setup Monitoring Software: Implement software that can interface with the UPS
to monitor key parameters in real-time. Many advanced UPS systems come with
proprietary software for this purpose.
• Data Visualization: Create dashboards or user interfaces that display critical
information such as battery health, load status, and event logs.
Step5. Implement Automated Control Features
• Remote Management: Enable features that allow remote shutdown or
management of connected devices during power failures. This helps ensure data
integrity and prevents damage to equipment.
• Alerts and Notifications: Configure alerts for critical events (e.g., low battery,
power failure) to notify users via email or SMS.

Step6. Test the Communication System

• Conduct Functionality Tests: Verify that the communication interface works
correctly by simulating power outages and ensuring that all monitoring functions
operate as expected.
• Check Data Accuracy: Ensure that the data reported by the system is accurate
and reflects real-time conditions.

Step7. Regular Maintenance and Updates

• Software Updates: Keep communication software updated to enhance security
and functionality.
• Routine Checks: Regularly test the communication interfaces to ensure they are
functioning correctly and troubleshoot any issues promptly.

Step8. Documentation and Training

• User Manuals: Provide documentation detailing how to use the communication
interface effectively.
• Training Sessions: Conduct training for relevant personnel on how to monitor
and manage the power backup system using the communication interface.

Practical Activity 4.3.4: Integrating power backup to power supply unit

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.

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 You are tasked to go in the Electrical Workshop and Computer Lab and assess the
compatibility between the computer system and power backup system by performing
electrical connection, configuring the communication interface and protocols, labelling
the components according to the performance, functionality and connectivity and test
the system
2: Present your work to the trainer

3: Ask questions if any for clarification

4: Read the key reading 4.3.4 to get more clarifications and pperform the task provided
in application of learning 4.3

Key readings 4.3.4

Integrating power backup to power supply unit
Integrating a power backup system, such as an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS), into
a power supply unit involves several critical steps.
Below are steps for Integrating Power Backup into a Power Supply Unit:
Step1. Planning and Assessment
• Determine Power Requirements: Calculate the total wattage of the devices that
need backup power. This includes considering peak loads and the duration for
which backup power is needed.
• Select Backup Type: Choose between different types of UPS systems (e.g.,
Standby, Online) based on your needs. Standby UPS is suitable for non-critical
loads, while Online UPS provides continuous power without interruption.
Step2. Equipment Selection
• Choose the Right UPS: Select a UPS model that meets your calculated power
requirements. Consider factors like battery capacity and additional features such
as monitoring capabilities.
• Battery Selection: Decide on the type of battery (e.g., lead-acid, lithium-ion)
based on your budget and maintenance preferences. Ensure compatibility with
the chosen UPS.
Step3. Installation Preparation
• Site Assessment: Identify an appropriate location for the UPS installation,
ensuring it has adequate ventilation and space for maintenance access. The
environment should be cool and dry to prolong battery life.
• Cabling Requirements: Plan for necessary cabling, including AC input/output and

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 DC battery connections. Ensure that cables are appropriately rated for the load
they will carry.
Step4. Physical Installation
• Elevate the UPS: If necessary, place the UPS on a sturdy platform to facilitate
cable management and prevent overheating.
• Connect Cables:
 Connect the AC input and output cables.
 Connect the DC battery cables according to manufacturer specifications.
 Ensure proper grounding of the unit.
Step5. Configuration
• Set Up Control Circuits: Configure any control circuitry required for monitoring
and managing power flow between the grid and the UPS.
• Testing: Conduct a dry run of all UPS functions to ensure proper operation. Use
manufacturer-provided testing software if available.
Step6. Maintenance Planning
• Regular Testing and Monitoring: Schedule periodic testing of battery health,
including conductance and impedance tests, to ensure reliability during outages.
• Filter and Fan Maintenance: Regularly clean or replace filters and fans to
maintain optimal operating conditions.
Step7. Documentation and Training
• User Training: Provide training for personnel on how to operate the UPS,
including emergency procedures during power failures.
Maintain Documentation: Keep detailed records of installation procedures, equipment
specifications, and maintenance schedules for future reference.

Points to Remember

• Description of Power Backup Systems concepts

a. Voltage Compatibility: Voltage compatibility refers to the ability of a power
backup system to operate within a specified voltage range.
b. Communication Protocols: Communication protocols are standardized methods
that allow different devices within a power backup system to exchange information.

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 d. Power Rating and Capacities: Power rating indicates the maximum amount of
power (in watts or kilowatts) that a backup system can deliver continuously.
e. Environmental Compatibility: Environmental compatibility involves assessing
how well a power backup system can operate under specific environmental
conditions, such as temperature extremes, humidity, and exposure to dust or
corrosive elements.
f. Space Utilization: Space utilization refers to how efficiently the physical space
occupied by the power backup system is used.
g. Cable Management: Cable management encompasses strategies for organizing
and securing cables associated with the power backup system.
h. Heat Dissipation: Heat dissipation is critical in ensuring that electronic
components within a power backup system do not overheat during operation.
i. Weight Distribution: Weight distribution refers to how weight is balanced across
the structure of the power backup system.
j. Future Expansion and Scalability: Future expansion and scalability involve
designing a power backup system that can accommodate increased loads or
additional features without requiring complete replacement.
• To install the electrical power backup, follow the following steps:
Start by identifying the devices that will be connected to the backup system and
calculate their total power consumption, Choose the Right Backup System, Prepare
for Installation, Install the Backup System, cables should be routed along walls or
ceilings where possible, avoiding high-traffic areas, tripping or interference, ensure
that all wires are terminated correctly at both the power backup system and the
connected loads, then implement surge protection devices to safeguard the power
backup system and connected equipment from voltage surges caused by lightning or
other electrical disturbances. Finally ensure that all components of the power backup
system are properly grounded.
• Applying communication interface
Implementing a communication interface in a power backup system enhances
monitoring capabilities, facilitates proactive maintenance, and ensures
seamless integration with existing infrastructure. By following these steps—
identifying needs, choosing protocols, integrating hardware, configuring
systems, testing functionality, maintaining updates, and providing training—
organizations can optimize their power backup solutions for reliability and
efficiency.
• Integrating power backup to power supply unit

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 Integrating a power backup system, such as an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS),
into a power supply unit involves several critical steps to ensure reliability and
efficiency. The process begins with planning and assessment, where you determine
the total wattage of devices requiring backup power and select the appropriate UPS
type, whether Standby or Online, based on your needs. Next, in the equipment
selection phase, you choose a UPS model that meets these power requirements and
decide on the battery type, considering factors like capacity and maintenance
preferences.

The installation preparation stage involves assessing the site for adequate ventilation
and planning necessary cabling for both AC and DC connections. During physical
installation, the UPS is securely mounted, cables are connected according to
specifications, and proper grounding is ensured. Following
this, configuration includes setting up control circuits and conducting tests to verify
functionality. Maintenance planning is essential for ongoing reliability, involving
regular testing of battery health and cleaning of equipment. Finally, documentation
and training are crucial; personnel should be trained on UPS operation and
emergency procedures while maintaining detailed records of installation and
maintenance activities. This structured approach ensures that the power backup
system operates effectively, safeguarding critical equipment during outages.

Application of learning 4.3.

You are an electronics engineer working for a company that designs high-performance
custom gaming PCs. The company's latest project is to design a Power Supply backup system
and integrate it onto an existing system which is currently having intermittent blackouts,
various electrical components and batteries.
As a technician of the company, you are tasked with the following tasks:
a) Assess the component placement and compatibility
b) Install electrical power backup
c) Apply communication interface
d) Integrate power backup to power supply unit

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 Indicative content 4.4: Maintaining Power Backup

Duration: 4 hrs

Practical Activity 4.4.1: Implementing monitoring capabilities

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to read the given task
below. The task should be done individually.
As technician, go in the work environment to implement monitoring capabilities in a
Battery Management System (BMS), focusing on real-time data collection and analysis
for battery health and performance.
2: Perform the activity provided above

3: Present your work to whole class.

4: Read the key reading 4.4.1 from your manual to get more clarifications and perform
the task provided in application of learning 4.4

Key readings 4.4.1

Implementing Monitoring Capabilities

Introduction

Implementing monitoring capabilities for maintaining power backup systems, such as

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), is essential for ensuring reliability and preventing
potential failures. One effective approach is to utilize remote monitoring systems that
leverage Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) to provide real-time insights
into UPS performance metrics, including battery charge, load levels, and voltage
readings.

These systems can send automated alerts via SMS or email when issues arise, such as a
failing battery or abnormal temperature readings, allowing for prompt corrective actions
before problems escalate.

Steps for Implementing Monitoring Capabilities for Power Backup

Implementing monitoring capabilities for power backup systems, particularly

Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), is essential for ensuring reliability and minimizing
downtime.

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 Here’s a structured approach to effectively establish these monitoring capabilities.

Step1. Assessment of Current Infrastructure

• Evaluate Existing Systems: Begin by assessing the current UPS infrastructure to

identify areas where monitoring can provide value. Consider factors such as the
criticality of loads, frequency of outages, and maintenance needs.

Step2. Selecting the Monitoring Solution

• Choose Appropriate Tools: Select a monitoring solution that aligns with your
specific requirements such as Power Quality Meters to Measure voltage, current,
frequency, and harmonics to ensure power quality and also track individual cell
voltages, temperature, and overall battery health using battery monitors.

Step3. Deployment and Integration

• Install Monitoring Equipment: Deploy compatible hardware or software, which

may involve installing sensors, network adapters, or dedicated monitoring
software on the UPS system

• Network Configuration: Integrate the monitoring system into your existing

network infrastructure. Configure necessary network settings such as IP
addresses and gateways to facilitate communication between the UPS and
monitoring devices

Step4. Data Collection and Transmission

• Real-Time Data Monitoring: Once the system is operational, it should begin

collecting data on key parameters like input/output voltage, battery health, load
levels, and temperature in real-time

• Secure Data Transmission: Transmit the collected data securely to a central

monitoring platform using Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or cellular networks

Step5. Analysis and Visualization

• Data Interpretation: Analyze the transmitted data to visualize it in an accessible

format. This allows users to quickly assess the health and performance of their
UPS systems.

• Establish Alert Mechanisms: Set up alerts and notifications for any anomalies
detected by the monitoring system. This will enable proactive intervention
before issues escalate

Step6. Testing and Optimization

• Conduct Thorough Testing: After installation, conduct tests to verify functionality

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 and reliability. Fine-tune settings as needed to optimize performance and
minimize false alarms

Step7. Training and Documentation

• Train Personnel: Ensure that relevant staff are trained on how to use the
monitoring system effectively. Provide documentation that outlines procedures
for troubleshooting and maintenance

Step8. Continuous Monitoring and Improvement

Ongoing Evaluation: Regularly review the performance of the monitoring system to

ensure it captures accurate data. Update software/firmware as necessary and
incorporate feedback from maintenance activities to enhance reliability.

Practical Activity 4.4.2: Establishing Routine Maintenance Procedures

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.
After the work installing and integrating power backup about computer power system,
you are tasked to establish a frequent monitoring schedule that would provide real time
maintenance.

2: Read the key reading 4.4.2 from your manual to get more clarifications.

3: Perform the activity provided

4. Present your work to whole class.

5. Perform the task provided in application of learning 4.4

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 Key readings 4.4.2.
Establishing Routine Maintenance Procedures
Introduction
Establishing routine maintenance procedures involves creating a systematic approach to
regularly scheduled tasks aimed at keeping equipment and facilities in optimal working
condition. This proactive strategy is essential for preventing unexpected breakdowns
and ensuring operational efficiency.

Maintaining power backup systems, such as Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS) and
backup generators, is essential to ensure reliability during power outages.
Here are the key steps to establish effective routine maintenance procedures.
Step 1 : Scheduled Inspection

Frequency: Determine inspection frequency based on system size and criticality. For
example, larger systems may require monthly inspections, while smaller systems might
be inspected quarterly.

Create a detailed inspection checklist that includes:

• Visual inspection of physical components

• Checking connections for corrosion or wear
• Verifying battery health and charge levels
• Testing UPS functionality under load conditions.
Documentation: Document results of each inspection in a maintenance log. Record any
issues found and corrective actions taken to maintain a history of system performance.

Step 2 : Battery Maintenance

Regular Testing: Conduct regular tests to assess battery capacity using methods such as
load testing or impedance testing. This helps identify weak cells before they fail.

Equalization: Perform equalization cycles periodically to ensure all battery cells are
charged uniformly, which helps prolong battery life and efficiency.

Cleaning: Clean battery terminals and connections regularly to prevent corrosion. Use
appropriate cleaning agents and ensure connections are tight after cleaning.

Step 3 : Safety Precautions Sticker

Place safety precaution stickers on the power backup system to warn personnel of

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 potential hazards (e.g., high voltage) and provide instructions for safe operation.

Step 4 : Cleaning and Housekeeping

Regular Cleaning: Maintain cleanliness around the power backup system to prevent dust
accumulation, which can affect performance. Schedule routine cleaning sessions as part
of maintenance procedures.

Step 5 : Documentation and Record-Keeping

• Keep detailed maintenance logs that record all inspections, repairs,

replacements, and any changes made to the system configuration.
• Document all maintenance procedures and guidelines for future reference. This
ensures consistency in maintenance practices over time.
Step 6 : Training and Personnel Development

• Regular Training: Provide ongoing training for personnel responsible for

maintaining the power backup system. Training should cover operational
procedures, troubleshooting techniques, and safety protocols.
• Certification: Consider obtaining certifications for personnel involved in power
backup system maintenance. Certifications can enhance skills and ensure
compliance with industry standards

Points to Remember

• Implementing Monitoring Capabilities

Here’s a structured approach to effectively establish these monitoring capabilities.
Step1. Begin by assessing the current UPS infrastructure to identify areas where
monitoring can provide value.
Step2. Select a monitoring solution that aligns with your specific requirements such as
Power Quality Meters to Measure voltage, current, frequency, and harmonics
Step3. Deploy compatible hardware or software, which may involve installing sensors,
network adapters, or dedicated monitoring software on the UPS system
Step4. Once the system is operational, it should begin collecting data on key parameters
like input/output voltage, battery health, load levels, and temperature in real-time
Step5. Analyze the transmitted data to visualize it in an accessible format. This allows
users to quickly assess the health and performance of their UPS systems.

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 Step6. After installation, conduct tests to verify functionality and reliability.
Step7. Ensure that relevant staff are trained on how to use the monitoring system
effectively.
Step8. Regularly review the performance of the monitoring system to ensure it captures
accurate data.

• Establishing Routine Maintenance Procedures

Here are the key steps to establish effective routine maintenance procedures.
Step1. Schedule inspections based on manufacturer recommendations and specific
system needs.
Step2. Check for signs of wear, corrosion, or leaks in all components.
Step3. Implement regular battery load tests to assess health and capacity.
Step4. Ensure proper airflow around the UPS and generator to prevent overheating.
Step5. Regularly simulate a power failure by applying a full load to the backup systems.
Step6. Regularly check for updates from manufacturers to enhance performance and
security.
Step7. Keep detailed records of all maintenance activities, including inspections, repairs,
and replacements.
Step8. Develop a plan outlining actions to take during power outages or equipment
failures.
Step9. Regularly review maintenance procedures to adapt to changes in technology or
operational requirements.

Application of learning 4.4.

You are an electronics engineer working for a company that designs high-performance
custom gaming PCs. The company's latest project is to maintain the power backup
system of a small data center. The power backup system includes a UPS (Uninterruptible
Power Supply) and a battery bank.
As a technician of the company, you are tasked with implementing a monitoring system
for the power backup and establishing a routine maintenance checklist to ensure its
optimal performance.

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 Indicative content 4.5: Estimation of Power System Cost

Duration: 6 hrs

Theoretical Activity 4.5.1: Description of cost estimation

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of cost estimation.

i. Define cost estimation
ii. Describe the types of cost estimation
iii. Describe the models of cost estimation.
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.
3: Present your findings to the class.
4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 4.5.1 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.5.1.:

Description of cost estimation
• Description of cost estimation
1. Definition of Cost Estimation
Cost estimation is the process of predicting the financial resources required to complete
a project or task. It involves analysing historical data, performance metrics, and technical
specifications to derive an estimate of future costs associated with materials, labour,
overhead, and other expenses. The accuracy of a cost estimate is crucial for budgeting,
financial planning, and project feasibility assessments.

2. Types of Cost Estimation

2.1 Analogous Estimating: This technique uses historical data from similar projects to
estimate costs. It is quick but less accurate, making it suitable for initial project phases.
2.2 Parametric Estimating: This method relies on statistical relationships between
historical data and project parameters (e.g., cost per square foot). It provides more
accurate estimates than analogous estimating.
2.3 Bottom-Up Estimating: This detailed approach involves breaking down the project
into smaller components and estimating costs for each part before aggregating them for
a total estimate. It is time-consuming but highly accurate.

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 2.4 Three-Point Estimating: This technique considers three scenarios—optimistic,
pessimistic, and most likely—to account for uncertainty in cost estimates.
2.5 Factor Estimating: This method uses predefined factors to estimate costs based on
certain parameters or characteristics of the project.
3. Models of Cost Estimation
3.1 Least Squares Regression: A statistical method used to find the best-fit line for
variable and fixed costs, facilitating future cost predictions based on production levels.
3.2 High-Low Method: This simple approach identifies the highest and lowest costs
incurred to provide a preliminary cost range.
3.3 Statistical Modelling: This sophisticated method incorporates multiple economic
factors affecting cost estimation, resulting in highly accurate projections but requiring
extensive data.
4. Process of Cost Estimation
4.1 Define Project Scope: Clearly outline the objectives, deliverables, and requirements
of the project.
4.2 Gather Historical Data: Collect relevant historical cost data from similar projects to
inform estimates.
4.3 Select Estimation Method: Choose an appropriate estimation technique based on
the project's complexity and available data.
4.4 Perform Cost Analysis: Analyse all components involved in the project, including
labour, materials, overheads, and any other relevant costs.
4.5 Compile Estimates: Aggregate the individual component estimates into a
comprehensive total cost estimate.
4.6 Review and Revise: Validate the estimates through peer review or expert judgment
and make necessary adjustments based on feedback or new information.
4.7 Document Results: Maintain detailed records of the estimation process for future
reference and auditing purposes.

Theoretical Activity 4.5.2: Description of bill of quantity

Tasks:

1: Answer the following questions related to description of cost estimation.

i. Define bill of quantity
ii. Describe elements of bill of quantity.
2: Write the findings/answers on papers or flipchart.

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 3: Present your findings to the class.
4: Ask questions for more clarifications.
5: Read the key reading 4.5.2 from your manual to get more clarifications.

Key readings 4.5.2.:

• Description of bill of quantity
1. Definition of Bill of Quantity

A Bill of Quantities (BoQ) is a detailed document used in the construction industry that
itemizes all materials, labour, and associated costs necessary for completing a project.
It serves as a vital tool during the tendering process, providing contractors with a clear
understanding of the work required and enabling them to submit competitive bids. The
BoQ typically includes precise measurements and descriptions of each item, ensuring
that all bidders are pricing the same quantities, which promotes fairness and accuracy
in the tendering process.

2. Elements of Bill of Quantity

2.1 Item Number: A unique identifier for each entry in the BoQ.
2.2 Item Description: Detailed information about the work to be performed or
materials to be supplied, ensuring clarity on what is required.
2.3 Quantity: The measured amount of each item, which can be in various units such
as square meters, cubic meters, or number of units.
2.4 Unit of Measurement: The standard unit used to quantify each item (e.g., kg for
weight, m² for area).
2.5 Unit Rate: The cost assigned per unit of measurement for each item, based on
market rates or historical data.
2.6 Total Cost: The overall cost for each item, calculated by multiplying the quantity by
the unit rate.
2.7 Remarks: Additional notes or specifications related to particular items that may
require further clarification or context

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 Practical Activity 4.5.3: Design bill of quantity

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below. The task should be done individually.
As a technician, you are tasked to establish a bill of quantity for a computer power system
development project.
2: Perform the activity provided above
3: Present your work to whole class.
4: Read the key reading 4.5.3 from your manual to get more clarifications and perform the
task provided in application of learning 4.5

Key readings 4.5.3

• Design bill of quantity

Introduction

Designing a Bill of Quantities (BoQ) is a structured process that ensures accurate

estimation of costs and resources for construction projects.

Steps of Designing a Bill of Quantities:

Ste1. Initial Project Documentation: Collect all relevant project documents, including
architectural plans, engineering drawings, and specifications. This foundational step is
crucial for understanding the scope and requirements of the project.

Step2. Define Scope of Work: Clearly outline the work to be performed, including
detailed descriptions of tasks and materials needed. This helps ensure that all parties
have a common understanding of project expectations.

Step3. Itemization and Categorization: Review the project documents to itemize all
required materials and labour. Categorize these items as either materials or labour to
facilitate clear differentiation in the BoQ.

Step4. Quantity Take-off: Measure and quantify each item based on project
specifications. This involves calculating the total quantities needed for materials and
estimating labour hours required for each task.

Step5. Cost Estimation: Determine the unit rates for each item based on market surveys,
historical data, or current pricing schedules. Multiply these rates by the quantities to

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 calculate total costs for each item.

Step6. Quality Control: Review and cross-check the BoQ thoroughly for accuracy and
consistency. It’s advisable to have multiple stakeholders review the document to
minimize errors.

Step7. Compliance with Standards: Ensure that the BoQ adheres to relevant industry
standards and guidelines, such as the New Rules of Measurement (NRM) in the UK or
other applicable regulations.

Step8. Final Compilation: Organize the BoQ in a clear format, typically in tabular form,
including all necessary details like item numbers, descriptions, quantities, unit rates, and
total costs. Include a cover page with project details if required.

Step9. Documentation and Distribution: Document the final BoQ comprehensively and
distribute it to relevant stakeholders for review and use in tendering processes.

Sample Bill of Quantities

Here’s a simplified example of a Bill of Quantities for a small construction project:

It Description Unit Quanti Unit Total Remarks

e ty Rate Cost ($)
m ($)
N
o.
1 Excavation Cubic 10 50 500 Includes
for Meters disposal
foundation
2 Concrete Cubic 8 100 800 Mix
for Meters design
foundation specified
3 Brickwork Square 50 30 1500 Standard
for walls Meters bricks
4 Roofing Square 40 25 1000 Includes
installation Meters insulatio
n
5 Electrical Linear 200 2 400 Basic
wiring Meters wiring
T $3200
ot
al

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 Practical Activity 4.5.4: Applying cost estimation

Task:

1: Referring to the instruction from your trainer, you are requested to perform the given
task below.
As a technician, go in the working environment then you are tasked to design a powered
battery charger for portable devices and also you are responsible for providing a cost
estimation for building 10 prototypes of the charger. The goal is to present this
estimation to potential investors, demonstrating the affordability and feasibility of the
project.
2: Present your findings to the trainer

3: Read key readings 4.5.4 from trainee’s manual and perform the application of learning
4.5

Key readings 4.5.4

Applying cost estimation

Introduction

Cost estimation in computer power systems involves a systematic approach to predict

the financial resources required for projects such as system upgrades, new installations,
or expansions.

Here are the steps to apply cost estimation in a project:

Step1. Define the Scope of the Project

• Clearly outline what the project entails, including the deliverables and objectives.
• Identify the work to be completed, the timeline, and the quality expectations.
• Define the quantity of products or services needed if applicable (e.g., the number
of units to be produced).

Step2. List the Resources and Components Required

• Identify all the materials, tools, equipment, and resources needed for the project.
• Include direct materials (e.g., components, raw materials) and indirect materials

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 (e.g., office supplies, utilities).
• Consider any software, licenses, or technical support needed.

Step3. Determine the Cost of Each Resource

• Material Costs: Research the price of materials from suppliers, considering

factors like shipping, bulk order discounts, and taxes.
• Labor Costs: Estimate labor costs by calculating the hourly rate or salary of
workers multiplied by the number of hours needed for each task.
• Fixed Costs: These are costs that remain constant throughout the project (e.g.,
rent, equipment).
• Variable Costs: Costs that change based on the scale of production (e.g., material
usage, energy consumption).

Step4. Estimate Time and Effort

• Estimate the time required to complete the project tasks and activities.
• Break down the tasks into smaller, manageable activities, and assign durations to
each task.
• This is critical for labor cost calculation and scheduling.

Step5. Calculate Overhead Costs

• Include indirect costs such as administrative fees, utilities, and general office
expenses.
• Consider factors like facility maintenance, support staff, and equipment
depreciation.
• Overhead is often calculated as a percentage of labor or material costs.

Step6. Add Contingencies for Risk

• Include a contingency cost (usually 5–15%) to account for unexpected expenses,

such as delays, material price fluctuations, or supply chain disruptions.
• This helps buffer the project from financial risks.

Step7. Summarize Total Costs

• Add up the material costs, labor costs, overhead, and contingency to get the total
estimated project cost.
• If the project is large, break down costs by phase, activity, or deliverable.

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 Step8. Analyze the Cost Estimate

• Review the cost estimation to ensure its accuracy and completeness.

• Look for areas where costs can be optimized without sacrificing quality.
• Compare with similar past projects to validate estimates.

Step9. Present and Document the Cost Estimate

• Create a detailed cost estimation report that summarizes all costs and
assumptions made.
• Include breakdowns of individual components, materials, labor, overhead, and
contingencies.
• Provide explanations or justifications for any significant costs or assumptions.

Step10. Monitor and Adjust as Needed

• Once the project is underway, track actual expenses against your estimates.
• Adjust the cost estimation as the project progresses, especially if there are
changes in scope, material costs, or unexpected delays.

Sample of cost estimation report:

Here’s a simplified example of a cost estimation for upgrading a computer power system:

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 Ite Description Unit Quant Unit Total Remar
m ity Rate Cost ($) ks
No ($)
1 UPS Each 2 1,200 2,400 10 kVA
(Uninterrupti capaci
ble Power ty
Supply)
2 Power Each 1 800 800 Includ
Distribution es
Unit install
ation
3 Backup Each 4 150 600 For
Batteries UPS
4 Installation Hours 20 50 1,000 Estima
Labor ted
hours
5 Testing and Each 1 500 500 Final
Commissioni syste
ng m
check
Tot $5,300
al

Points to Remember

Description of cost estimation

• Cost estimation is the process of forecasting the financial resources required to
complete a project within a defined scope. It involves calculating the total costs
associated with all elements necessary for the project, including materials, labor, and
overheads. A cost estimate serves as a critical tool for decision-making, allowing
organizations to evaluate project feasibility, secure funding, and establish budgets.
• Types of Cost Estimation
The types of cost estimation are: Analogous Estimating, Parametric Estimating, Bottom-
Up Estimating, Three-Point Estimating and Factor Estimating.
• Models of Cost Estimation
✓ Least Squares Regression: A statistical method used to find the best-fit line for
variable and fixed costs, facilitating future cost predictions based on production
levels.
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 ✓ High-Low Method: This simple approach identifies the highest and lowest costs
incurred to provide a preliminary cost range.
✓ Statistical Modeling: This sophisticated method incorporates multiple economic
factors affecting cost estimation, resulting in highly accurate projections but
requiring extensive data.
• Process of Cost Estimation
✓ Clearly outline the objectives, deliverables, and requirements of the project.
✓ Collect relevant historical cost data from similar projects to inform estimates.
✓ Choose an appropriate estimation technique based on the project's complexity
and available data.
✓ Analyze all components involved in the project, including labor, materials,
overheads, and any other relevant costs.
✓ Aggregate the individual component estimates into a comprehensive total cost
estimate.

Description of bill of quantity

• Bill of Quantities (BOQ) is a detailed document that itemizes all the materials,
labor, and other costs involved in an engineering project. It is commonly used in
the construction industry to provide a clear breakdown of work that needs to be
done, allowing contractors to price projects more accurately and fairly.

• Elements of Bill of Quantity

The elements of BoQ are: Item Number, Item Description, Quantity, Unit of
Measurement, Unit Rate, Total Cost and Remarks.
• Designing a Bill of Quantities

The process of designing a Bill of Quantities involves several critical steps: gathering
initial documentation, defining the scope of work, itemizing materials and labor,
quantifying needs, estimating costs, ensuring quality control, complying with
standards, compiling the final document, and distributing it to stakeholders. Following
these steps ensures that the BoQ serves as an effective tool for accurate cost
estimation and project management in construction.

• Applying cost estimation

Applying cost estimation involves a structured approach that begins with establishing
a clear basis for estimation and collecting comprehensive project documentation. It
progresses through quantifying scope, estimating direct and indirect costs, peer
reviewing estimates, finalizing documentation, and obtaining approval. Continuous
monitoring ensures that estimates remain relevant throughout the project lifecycle,
facilitating effective financial management and decision-making.

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 Application of learning 4.5.

You are working as a project manager for a company tasked with developing a computer
power system for a new computer lab in a technical secondary school. The lab requires a
backup power system that can provide uninterrupted power to all computers and network
equipment during outages. The solution will include UPS units, battery backups, and an
energy monitoring system.
Your task is to establish the project’s cost, perform a sensitivity analysis to assess the impact
of fluctuating costs, and submit a report with your findings and recommendations.

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 Learning outcome 4 end assessment

Theoretical assessment

Q1. Multiple Choice Questions: Encircle the letter corresponding the correct answer.

1. What is the primary goal of a computer power management system?

a) To increase processing speed
b) To efficiently manage power consumption
c) To enhance graphics performance
d) To improve internet connectivity

2. Which of the following is NOT a power-saving technique?

a) Sleep mode
b) Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling (DVFS)
c) Overclocking
d) Processor power states

3. What does the term "Hibernate" refer to in power management?

a) A low-power state where the system retains memory
b) A state where the system saves its state to disk and powers down
c) A full shutdown of the system
d) A mode where the system is fully operational
4. Which component is essential for monitoring battery health in a battery
management system?
a) UPS
b) Power supply unit
c) Battery Management Unit (BMU)
d) Generator

5. In power management, what does DVFS stand for?

a) Dynamic Voltage and Frequency Scaling
b) Direct Voltage Frequency Standardization
c) Dynamic Variable Frequency Switching
d) Digital Voltage Frequency Scaling

6. What is a common method for calculating total power consumption in a computer

system?
a) Total voltage multiplied by current
b) Sum of all components' wattage ratings
c) Average power consumption during idle state

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 d) Total number of devices multiplied by usage hours

7. Which of the following statements about UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) is

true?
a) It provides backup power only during long outages.
b) It can deliver immediate power during outages.
c) It is not necessary for critical systems.
d) It only protects against voltage spikes.

8. What is the purpose of an Automatic Transfer Switch (ATS)?

a) To monitor battery health
b) To switch between main and backup power sources automatically
c) To provide additional processing power
d) To optimize software performance

9. When estimating costs for a power management system, which of the following
should be included?
a) Only hardware costs
b) Installation and maintenance costs only
c) Both hardware and software costs, including installation and maintenance
d) Only software costs

10. Which state indicates that the system is fully operational?

a) S1
b) S3
c) S0
d) S4

Q2. Matching Questions

a. Match the following terms with their correct descriptions:
Term Description
1. Sleep Mode A. System saves its state to disk
2. Hibernate B. Low-power state with RAM retention
3. ACPI C. Standard for power management in computers
4. Power Consumption D. Amount of energy used by a system
5. Battery Health Monitoring E. Process of assessing battery performance
b. Match the following power management techniques with their descriptions:
Term Description

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 1. Dynamic Voltage Scaling A. Adjusts voltage based on workload
2. Processor Power States B. Defines different levels of CPU activity
3. Smart Power Management C. Policies that optimize energy use
4. Energy Star Certification D. Label indicating energy-efficient products
5. Battery Management System E. Monitors and controls battery performance
c. Match the following components of cost estimation with their definitions:
Term Description
1. Fixed Costs A. Costs that remain constant regardless of output
2. Variable Costs B. Costs that fluctuate with production levels
3. Direct Costs C. Expenses directly tied to project execution
4. Indirect Costs D. Overhead costs not directly linked to a project
5. Contingency Fund E. Reserve funds set aside for unforeseen expenses
d. Match the following battery charging methods with their characteristics:
Term Description
1. Constant Current Charging A. Maintains a steady current until a set voltage is
reached
2. Constant Voltage Charging B. Maintains a steady voltage until the current drops
below a threshold
3. Trickle Charging C. Low-rate charging to maintain battery charge over
time
4. Fast Charging D. Rapid charging method to quickly replenish
battery energy
5. Equalization Charging E. Balances charge across all cells in a battery bank
e. Match the following components of a power backup system with their roles:
Term Description
1. UPS A. Provides immediate backup power
2. Generator B. Supplies power for extended outages
3. Lithium Battery Bank C. Stores energy for later use
4. Automatic Transfer Switch D. Switches between main and backup power sources
5. Redundant Power Supply E. Offers an alternative source in case of failure
f. Match the following monitoring tools with their functions:
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 Term Description
1. Power Meter A. Measures electrical consumption
2. Battery Monitor B. Tracks battery health and status
3. Energy Management Software C. Analyses overall energy usage
4. Environmental Sensors D. Monitors temperature and humidity levels
5. Load Tester E. Evaluates performance under specific loads

Q3. If a computer system consumes 400W during operation and requires a backup time of
5 hours during an outage, what is the total energy required from the backup system in
watt-hours (Wh)?

Q4. A server has a total power consumption of 600W and is connected to a UPS that can
deliver 2400Wh of energy. How long can the UPS support the server during an outage?

Q5. If a lithium battery bank has a capacity of 8000mAh at 12V, what is its total energy
capacity in watt-hours (Wh)?
Q6. True/False Questions
i. The sleep mode stops all actions on the computer.
ii. In hibernate mode, the system consumes more power than in sleep mode.
iii. DVFS can help extend battery life by reducing energy consumption.
iv. The UPS provides backup power only during short outages.
v. The ACPI standard defines how computers manage power consumption.
vi. Battery Management Systems are not necessary for lithium batteries.
vii. The total power delivered by a backup system is always greater than its total
capacity.
viii. Smart Power Management Policies can help reduce energy costs.
ix. Redundant power supplies are used to increase system reliability.
x. Regular maintenance procedures are unnecessary for effective power
management systems.

Q7. Scenario Question1:

A company has implemented a new computer power management system that includes
DVFS and sleep modes to save energy during non-peak hours. After six months of
operation, they notice that their energy costs have decreased significantly, but some
employees complain about slower performance during peak hours due to aggressive
power-saving settings.
Question: What steps should the company take to balance energy savings with
performance needs?

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Q8. Scenario Question2:
A data centre relies on multiple UPS units and lithium battery banks for backup during
outages but has recently experienced several failures due to poor monitoring practices and
lack of routine maintenance. What monitoring capabilities and maintenance procedures
should be established to ensure reliable operation of the backup systems?

Practical assessment

You are part of a team tasked with designing and implementing a comprehensive computer
power management system for a mid-sized software development company. The company
has been facing issues with high energy costs and inefficient power usage, especially during
peak hours when employees are engaged in resource-intensive tasks such as software
development and testing. Your team will also need to provide an accurate cost estimation
for the implementation of this system.
As one of the team, at the end of this assessment, you are tasked with the following:
a) Design computer power management system architecture
b) Design charging controller
c) Integrating a power backup system into power supply unit
d) Implement user interface to monitoring and control of batteries
e) Elaborate system cost estimation

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 References

Books:

Intel®. (2022). Difference between deep and deeper sleep states for processors: ACPI
power management states.

Ardito, L., Antonio, V., & Giuseppe, G. P. (2011, August). Profiling power consumption on
desktop computer systems. Conference Paper.

Lee, K. T., Chuang, C. C., & Wang, Y. H. (2016). A low temperature increases
transcutaneous battery charger for implantable medical devices. Journal of Mechanics in
Medicine and Biology, 16(5), 1650069.

Liu, K., Li, K., Peng, Q., & Zhang, C. (2018). A brief review on key technologies in the battery
management system of electric vehicles. Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering.
Web links:

RIB. (2024, September 24). Bill of quantities – Everything you need to know. Retrieved
from [Link]

Liu, J. (2024). Mokoenergy: A guide to designing a BMS circuit diagram for Li-ion batteries.
Retrieved October 14, 2024, from [Link]
diagram-for-li-ion-batteries/

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Mm, YYY2024

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