BONDING level (valence shell) of an element,

are involved.
Chemical bonding is one of the
most basic fundamentals of
chemistry that explains other Lewis Diagrams
concepts such as molecules
Lewis diagrams are graphical
and reactions. Without it,
representations of elements and
scientists wouldn't be able to
their valence electrons. Valance
explain why atoms are
electrons are the electrons that form
attracted to each other or how
the outermost shell of an atom. In a
products are formed after a
Lewis diagram of an element, the
chemical reaction has taken
symbol of the element is written in
place.
the center and the valence electrons
are drawn around it as dots. The

Introduction position of the valence electrons

drawn is unimportant. However, the
A common atom contains a nucleus
general convention is to start from
composed of protons and neutrons,
12o'clock position and go clockwise
with electrons in certain energy
direction to 3 o'clock, 6 o'clock, 9
levels revolving around the nucleus.
o'clock, and back to 12 o'clock
In this section, the main focus will be
positions respectively. Generally the
on these electrons. Elements are
Roman numeral of the group
distinguishable from each other due
corresponds with the number of
to their "electron cloud," or the area
valance electrons of the element.
where electrons move around the
nucleus of an atom. Because each Below is the periodic table

element has a distinct electron cloud, representation of the number of

this determines their chemical valance electrons. The alkali metals

properties as well as the extent of of Group IA have one valance

their reactivity (i.e. noble gases are electron, the alkaline-earth metals of

inert/not reactive while alkaline Group IIA have 2 valance electrons,

metals are highly reactive). In Group IIIA has 3 valance electrons,

chemical bonding, only valence and so on. The nonindicated

electrons, electrons located in transition metals, lanthanoids, and

the orbitals of the outermost energy actinoids are more difficult in terms
of distinguishing the number of

1
valance electrons they have; Oxygen (O)--Group VIA: therefore,
however, this section only introduces there are 6 valance electrons
bonding, hence they will not be
Hydrogen (H)--Group IA: therefore,
covered in this unit.
there is 1 valance electron

NOTE: There are TWO hydrogen

atoms, so multiply 1 valance electron
X 2 atoms

Total: 6 + 2 = 8 valance electrons

2) If the molecule in question is an

ion, remember to add or subract the
respective number of electrons to
the total from step 1.

For ions, if the ion has a negative

Lewis diagrams for Molecular charge (anion), add the

corresponding number of electrons to
Compounds/Ions
the total number of electrons (i.e. if
To draw the lewis diagrams for NO3- has a negative charge of 1-,
molecular compounds or ions, follow then you add 1 extra electron to the
these steps below (we will be using total; 5 + 3(6)= 23 +1 = 24 total
H2O as an example to follow): electrons). A - sign mean the

1) Count the number of valance molecule has an overall negative

electrons of the molecular compound charge, so it must have this extra

or ion. Remember, if there are two or electron. This is because anions have

more of the same element, then you a higher electron affinity (tendency

have to double or multiply by to gain electrons). Most anions are

however many atoms there are of composed of nonmetals, which have

the number of valance electrons. high electronegativity.

Follow the roman numeral group If the ion has a positive charge
number to see the corresponding (cation), subtract the corresponding
number of valance electrons there number of electrons to the total
are for that element. number of electrons (i.e. H3O+ has a

Valance electrons: positive charge of 1+, so

you subtract 1 extra electron to the
total; 6 + 1(3) = 9 - 1 = 8

2
total electrons). A + sign means the
molecule has an overall positive
charge, so it must be missing one
electron. Cations are positive and
have weaker electron affinity. They
are mostly composed of metals; their
atomic radii are larger than the
nonmetals. This consequently means
that shielding is increased, and
electrons have less tendency to be Octet Rule
attracted to the "shielded" nucleus.
Most elements follow the octet rule
From our example, water is a neutral in chemical bonding, which means
molecule, therefore no electrons that an element should have contact
need to be added or subtracted from to eight valence electrons in a bond
the total. or exactly fill up its valence shell.
Having eight electrons total ensures
3) Write out the symbols of the
that the atom is stable. This is the
elements, making sure all atoms are
reason why noble gases, a valence
accounted for (i.e. H2O, write out O
electron shell of 8 electrons, are
and 2 H's on either side of the
chemically inert; they are already
oxygen). Start by adding single
stable and tend to not need the
bonds (1 pair of electrons) to all
transfer of electrons when bonding
possible atoms while making sure
with another atom in order to be
they follow the octet rule (with the
stable. On the other hand, alkali
exceptions of the duet rule and other
metals have a valance electron shell
elements mentioned above).
of one electron. Since they want to
4) If there are any leftover electrons, complete the octet rule they often
then add them to the central atom of simply lose one electron. This makes
the molecule (i.e. XeF4 has 4 extra them quite reactive because they
electrons after being distributed, so can easily donate this electron to
the 4 extra electrons are given to Xe: other elements. This explains the
like so. Finally, rearrange the electron highly reactive properties of the
pairs into double or triple bonds if Group IA elements.
possible.
Some elements that are exceptions
to the octet rule include

3
Aluminum(Al), Phosphorus(P),
Sulfur(S), and Xenon(Xe).

Hydrogen (H) and Helium (He) follow

the duet rule since their valence
shell only allows two electrons. There
are no exceptions to the duet rule;
hydrogen and helium will always hold
a maximum of two electrons.

Ionic Bonding Another example of ionic bonding is

the crystal lattice structure shown
Ionic bonding is the process of not
above. The ions are arranged in such
sharing electrons between two
a way that shows unifomity and
atoms. It occurs between a nonmetal
stablity; a physical characteristic in
and a metal. Ionic bonding is also
crystals and solids. Moreover, in a
known as the process in which
concept called "the sea of electrons,"
electrons are "transferred" to one
it is seen that the molecular
another because the two atoms have
structure of metals is composed of
different levels of electron affinity. In
stabilized positive ions (cations) and
the picture below, a sodium (Na) ion
"free-flowing" electrons that weave
and a chlorine (Cl) ion are being
in-between the cations. This
combined through ionic bonding.
attributes to the metal property of
Na+ has less electronegativity due to
conductivity; the flowing electrons
a large atomic radius and essentially
allow the electric current to pass
does not want the electron it has.
through them. In addition, this
This will easily allow the more
explains why strong electrolytes are
electronegative chlorine atom to gain
good conductors. Ionic bonds are
the electron to complete its 3rd
easily broken by water because the
energy level. Throughout this
polarity of the water molecules shield
process, the transfer of the electron
the anions from attracting
releases energy to the atmosphere.
the cations. Therefore, the ionic
compounds dissociate easily in
water, and the metallic properties of
the compound allow conductivity of
the solution.

4
 There are three types of covalent
bonds: single, double, and triple
bonds. A single bond is composed of
2 bonded electrons. Naturally, a
double bond has 4 electrons, and a
triple bond has 6 bonded electrons.
Because a triple bond will have more
strength in electron affinity than a
single bond, the attraction to the
Covalent Bonding positively charged nucleus is

Covalent bonding is the process of increased, meaning that the distance

sharing of electrons between two from the nucleus to the electrons is

atoms. The bonds are typically less. Simply put, the more bonds or

between a nonmetal and a nonmetal. the greater the bond strength, the

Since their electronegativities are all shorter the bond length will be. In

within the high range, the electrons other words:

are attracted and pulled by both Bond length: triple bond < double
atom's nuceli. In the case of two bond < single bond
identical atoms that are bonded to
each other (also known as a nonpolar
bond, explained later below), they Polar Covalent Bonding
both emit the same force of pull on
Polar covalent bonding is the process
the electrons, thus there is equal
of unequal sharing of electrons. It is
attraction between the two atoms
considered the middle ground
(i.e. oxygen gas, or O2, have an equal
between ionic bonding and covalent
distribution of electron affinity. This
bonding. It happens due to the
makes covalent bonds harder to
differing electronegativity values of
break.
the two atoms. Because of this, the
more electronegative atom will
attract and have a stronger pulling
force on the electrons. Thus, the
electrons will spend more time
around this atom.

5
 electronegativity values of the
molecules.

If the difference is between 0.0-0.3,

then the molecule has a non-polar
bond.

If the difference is between 0.3-1.7,

The symbols above indicate that on
then the molecule has a polar bond.
the flourine side it is slightly negitive
and the hydrogen side is slightly If the difference is 1.7 or more, then
positive. the molecule has an ionic bond.

Polar and Non-polar molecules

Polarity is the competing forces

between two atoms for the electrons.
It is also known as the polar covalent
bond. A molecule is polar when the
electrons are attracted to a more
electronegative atom due to its
greater electron affinity. A nonpolar
STOICHIOMETRY
molecule is a bond between two Stoichiometry is the study of
identical atoms. They are the ideal the relationship between the
example of a covalent bond. Some quantity of reactants and
examples are nitrogen gas (N2), products in a chemical
oxygen gas (O2), and hydrogen gas reaction. German chemist
(H2). Jeremias Benjamin Richter was
the first to define
[1-4]
stoichiometry in 1792 .

One way to figure out what type of

bond a molecule has is by
determining the difference of the

6
Theory Balancing Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents a
Stoichiometry is based on the
chemical reaction with reactants on
principle of the law of conservation
the left side and products on the
of mass. According to this law, the
right side. Numbers are placed
total mass of the reactants is equal
before each reactant and product to
to that of the product.
balance the reaction [1-5].
Since chemical reactions neither
create nor destroy matter, the To illustrate this concept, let us take
amount of each element is the same the following example of a chemical
throughout the reaction. The number reaction. Ethanol (C2H5OH) reacts
of atoms of a particular element on with oxygen (O2) to
the reactant side is equal to the produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and
number of atoms of that element on water (H2O).
[1,2]
the product side . C2H5OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O

The relationship among the The equation is not balanced. Let us

quantities of the reactants and proceed to balance the equation.

products is a positive integral ratio. If

First, we must ensure that the
the amounts of each reactant are
number of carbon atoms is equal on
known, each product’s quantity can
both sides. We multiply CO2 by 2.
be easily determined. In this context,
C2H5OH + O2 → 2 CO2 + H2O
we refer to a stoichiometric amount
Next, we ensure that the number
of a reactant, which is an optimum
of hydrogen atoms is equal. We
amount where the following
multiply H2O by 3.
happens:
C2H5OH + O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
 The reaction proceeds to a Finally, we balance the oxygen by
completion multiplying O2 by 3.
C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O
 All the reactants are
Therefore, 1 mole of C2H5OH reacts
consumed
with 3 moles of O2 to produce 2
 There is no deficiency of moles of CO2 and 3 moles of H2O.
reagents

 There is no excess of reagents Stoichiometric Coefficients

Stoichiometric coefficients are the
numbers before an atom, ion, or
molecule in a chemical reaction.

7
They are essential because they the solved problems below to
establish the mole ratios between understand this concept.
the reactants and products. In the
Example Problems
above example, the mole ratio
Problem 1. According to the
between C2H5OH and CO2 is 1:2, and
following chemical equation, how
that between C2H5OH and H2O is 1:3.
many moles of nitrogen (N2) must be
Therefore, if we know the number of
used to produce 5 moles of ammonia
moles of C2H5OH present in the
(NH3)?
reaction, we can quickly determine
N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3
the quantities of CO2 and H2O
Solution
produced in the reaction.
2 moles of NH3 can be produced by 1
So far, we have discussed
mole of N2. Therefore, 5 moles of
quantifying a chemical equation in
NH3 can be produced by
moles. We can easily convert from
(½) x 5 = 2.5 moles of N2.
moles to mass in grams by
multiplying it with the molecular
Problem 2. Propane (C3H8) burns in
weight of the substance.
the presence of oxygen as follows:
Converting Moles to Grams C3H8 + 5 O2 → 4 H2O + 3 CO2
Suppose 0.5 moles of C2H5OH is If 100 g of propane is burned, how
present in the above reaction. The many grams of carbon dioxide (CO2)
molar mass of C2H5OH is = 2 x 12 g is produced?
+ 6 x 1 g + 16 g = 46 g. The Solution
quantity of C2H5OH in grams is = 0.5 Molar mass of propane (C3H8) = 3 x
M x 46 g M-1 = 23 g. 12 g + 8 x 1 g = 44 g
Number of moles in 100 g of propane
Converting Grams to Moles = 100 g/ 44 g M-1 = 2.27 M

Suppose 50 g of CO2 is produced in 1 mole of propane produces 3 moles

the reaction. The molar mass of of CO2. Therefore, 2.27 M of propane

CO2 is = 12 g + 2 x 16 g = 44 g. The produces 2.27 x 3 = 6.82 M of CO2.

number of moles of CO2 produced is Molar mass of CO2 = 12 g + 2 x 16 g

= 50 g / 44 g M-1 = 1.14 M. = 44 g

The mole ratio can convert the 6.82 moles of CO2 = 6.82 M x 44 g M-
1
amounts of any two substances in a = 300 g

chemical reaction from moles to

grams and vice versa. Let us look at

8
NAMING COMPOUNDS elements it contains and how
many atoms of each, which
In chemistry, a compound is a
can help predict its properties
substance formed when two or
and reactivity.
more elements are chemically
bonded in a fixed ratio. These  Improves learning and

compounds are everywhere— classification: A systematic

from the water we drink (H2O) naming approach helps

to the salt we eat (NaCl). organize chemical substances

into groups, making it easier
to study and understand them.
Why It Is Important to Name
Chemical Compounds

 Promotes clear
communication: A
standardized naming system
helps students, teachers, and
scientists identify compounds
correctly and avoid confusion
in classrooms, labs, and
research settings.

 Ensures safe handling:

Knowing the proper name of a 1. Naming Ionic Compounds
substance helps prevent
Ionic compounds are made of
accidents, especially when
positively charged ions (cations) and
dealing with toxic, corrosive,
negatively charged ions (anions).
or reactive chemicals.
They can be either binary (made of
 Supports chemical writing: two elements) or contain polyatomic
Correct names make it easier ions (groups of atoms with a
to write and interpret chemical charge). [1-4]

formulas and equations

For Binary Ionic Compounds:
accurately.
 Name the metal (cation) first,
 Reveals chemical
then the nonmetal (anion) with
structure: A compound’s
name often tells you what

9
 an “-ide” ending. For example,  The second element ends in “-
NaCl is sodium chloride. ide” (e.g., oxygen becomes
oxide).
 Use Roman numerals if the
metal has a variable charge,  Prefixes like “mono-,” “di-,”
such as iron. For example, and “tri-” show how many
FeCl2 is iron(II) chloride, and atoms of each element are
FeCl3 is iron(III) chloride. present (e.g., CO2 is carbon
dioxide).
For Polyatomic Ionic Compounds:

 Name the cation first (metal

or ammonium), then the Table of Naming Prefixes
anion. Names of polyatomic
anions can be found in any
reference table. For example,
KNO3 is potassium nitrate.

2. Naming Covalent Compounds

Covalent compounds are made when

two or more nonmetals share
electrons. Binary covalent
compounds, which contain just two
elements, follow specific naming
rules. [1-4] 3. Naming Acids

 The first element keeps its Acids are compounds that

regular name (e.g., carbon). release hydrogen ions (H+) in water.

10
They are named based on the chain), and suffix (type of bond
elements or ions they contain and or functional group). Among the
[1-4]
are grouped into two main types. organic compounds are
hydrocarbons, functional groups,
Binary acids contain hydrogen and a
cycloalkanes, and bicyclic
nonmetal. Their names begin with
compounds. [6]
“hydro-”, use the root of the
nonmetal, and end in “-ic acid” (e.g., Hydrocarbons can be alkanes,
HCl → hydrochloric acid). This alkenes, or alkynes and are named
naming applies only when the by identifying the longest chain and
compound is in aqueous form. numbering to assign positions to
branches or double/triple bonds.
Oxyacids contain hydrogen, oxygen,
Functional groups follow a priority
and a polyatomic ion and follow the
system, with the highest-priority
following rules:
group determining the suffix.
 If the ion ends in “-ate”, the Cycloalkanes are ring compounds
acid name ends in “-ic acid” named with the “cyclo-” prefix and
(e.g., HNO3 → nitric acid). numbered to give substituents the

 If the ion ends in “-ite”, the lowest positions.

acid name ends in “-ous acid”

(e.g., HNO2 → nitrous acid).

Bicyclic compounds are organic

4. Naming Organic Compounds compounds made up of two rings

Organic compounds are named using sharing one or more atoms. These

IUPAC rules, which divide the name compounds are classified as fused,

into a prefix (side groups and their bridged, or spiro based on how the

positions), root (length of the carbon rings are connected.

11
The IUPAC naming system for cyclic structures and functions of
compounds follows a structured organic compounds.
format. It begins with a prefix—either
The Role of Carbon in Organic
“bicyclo-” or “spiro-“—to indicate the
Chemistry
type of ring structure. This is
followed by bracketed numbers that At the core of organic chemistry is

represent the number of carbon carbon. Carbon atoms can bond with

atoms in each path or ring, not other carbon atoms to form long

counting the atoms shared between chains or rings, and they can bond

them. Finally, the parent name is with a variety of other elements like

based on the total number of carbon hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,

atoms in the entire molecule. and halogens. This versatility allows

for the creation of an incredibly wide
An example of an organic
range of molecules, each with unique
compound with a functional group is
properties and behaviors.
butan-2-ol. It is a 4-carbon straight-
chain compound with a hydroxyl What sets carbon apart from other

group (-OH) at carbon 2. elements is its ability to form four

covalent bonds, creating stable,
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY flexible, and complex structures. This

Organic chemistry is the study characteristic enables carbon atoms

of carbon compounds, to form chains, branches, and rings,

specifically the molecules that as well as multiple bonds with other

contain carbon-hydrogen (C-H) elements, resulting in a vast variety

bonds. These molecules range of organic compounds.

from simple structures like For example, when carbon atoms

methane (CH₄) to incredibly bond with hydrogen atoms, they
complex compounds like DNA form hydrocarbons—molecules that
and proteins. The reason are the foundation of many organic
carbon is so central to organic compounds, including fuels and
chemistry is that it has a plastics. When carbon bonds with
unique ability to form strong oxygen or nitrogen, it leads to
covalent bonds with other functional groups that give
atoms, including itself. This molecules specific properties. This
makes carbon the backbone of flexibility and diversity make carbon
all organic molecules, allowing an essential building block of life.
for immense diversity in the

12
Functional Groups in Organic preservative. Aldehydes are highly
Chemistry reactive and are often used in the
synthesis of other organic
One of the key features of organic
compounds, such as alcohols and
chemistry is the concept of
acids.
functional groups. These are specific
groups of atoms that are responsible Ketones (C=O)
for the characteristic reactions and
Ketones are similar to aldehydes but
properties of organic compounds.
differ in that they have two carbon
Functional groups are the foundation
atoms attached to the carbonyl
for understanding how organic
group. Acetone (CH₃COCH₃), a
molecules behave in chemical
common solvent, is one of the most
reactions, and they are central to
well-known examples of a ketone.
classifying organic compounds.
Ketones are widely used in the
Some of the most common functional manufacture of plastics,
groups in organic chemistry include: pharmaceuticals, and fragrances.

Alcohols (–OH) Carboxylic Acids (–COOH)

Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group (- Carboxylic acids contain a carboxyl

OH) bonded to a carbon atom. The group (–COOH), which consists of a
simplest alcohol, methanol (CH₃OH), carbonyl group (C=O) attached to a
is a liquid commonly used as a hydroxyl group (–OH). Acetic acid
solvent, fuel, and antifreeze. Ethanol (CH₃COOH), the acid found in
(C₂H₅OH), the type of alcohol found vinegar, is one of the simplest
in alcoholic beverages, is another examples. Carboxylic acids are
example. Alcohols can undergo important in organic chemistry
various reactions, such as because they can undergo reactions
dehydration to form alkenes or like esterification to form esters,
oxidation to form aldehydes and which are used in fragrances and
carboxylic acids. flavors.

Aldehydes (–CHO) Amines (–NH₂)

Aldehydes contain a carbonyl group Amines contain a nitrogen atom

(C=O) attached to a hydrogen atom bonded to one or more carbon
(–CHO). The simplest aldehyde is atoms. They are the basic building
formaldehyde (HCHO), which is used blocks of amino acids and proteins,
in embalming fluids and as a which are essential for life.

13
Methylamine (CH₃NH₂) and aniline the presence of the double bond, and
(C₆H₅NH₂) are examples of amines they undergo a variety of reactions,
that are used in the synthesis of such as addition reactions and
drugs, dyes, and plastics. polymerization.

Hydrocarbons: The Building Organic Reactions: How Organic

Blocks of Organic Chemistry Molecules Interact

Hydrocarbons are organic Organic chemistry is all about

compounds made entirely of carbon understanding how molecules react
and hydrogen. They are the simplest with one another. These reactions
and most fundamental class of occur when organic molecules
organic compounds, and they serve interact with other molecules or
as the foundation for more complex reagents, often leading to the
organic molecules. There are two formation of new compounds.
main types of hydrocarbons: alkanes Organic reactions are central to the
and alkenes. synthesis of pharmaceuticals,
polymers, and other industrial
Alkanes
products.
Alkanes, also known as saturated
Addition Reactions
hydrocarbons, are composed of
carbon and hydrogen atoms Addition reactions occur when two
connected by single bonds. The molecules combine to form a larger
simplest alkane is methane (CH₄), molecule. For example, in the
which is a key component of natural addition of hydrogen (H₂) to an
gas. Alkanes are relatively unreactive alkene, the double bond is broken,
compared to other organic and new single bonds are formed
compounds, but they are important with the hydrogen atoms. This type
as fuels and solvents. of reaction is common in the
production of plastics and synthetic
Alkenes
rubber.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that
Substitution Reactions
contain at least one carbon-carbon
double bond (C=C). Ethene (C₂H₄), In substitution reactions, one atom or
commonly known as ethylene, is the group of atoms is replaced by
simplest alkene and is used in the another. For example, in the reaction
production of plastics. Alkenes are of a halogen (such as chlorine or
more reactive than alkanes due to bromine) with an alkane, one

14
hydrogen atom is replaced by the impact nearly every aspect of our
halogen. Substitution reactions are lives. From the drugs that cure
important in the synthesis of many diseases to the plastics that make
organic compounds, such as our everyday products, organic
pharmaceuticals and agricultural chemistry is behind it all.
chemicals.
Pharmaceuticals
Elimination Reactions
One of the most important
Elimination reactions involve the applications of organic chemistry is
removal of a small molecule, such as in the field of pharmaceuticals. Many
water or hydrogen chloride, from a life-saving drugs, such as aspirin,
larger molecule. One common penicillin, and chemotherapy agents,
example is the dehydration of are organic compounds. Chemists
alcohols to form alkenes. Elimination use their knowledge of organic
reactions are important in the reactions and functional groups to
synthesis of unsaturated compounds, design and synthesize new drugs
which have a wide range of that can treat a wide range of
applications in organic chemistry. illnesses, from infections to cancer.

Rearrangement Reactions Polymers and Plastics

Rearrangement reactions involve the Organic chemistry also plays a

reorganization of atoms within a crucial role in the production of
molecule to form a different polymers and plastics. Polymers are
structure. These reactions are often large molecules made up of
seen in the conversion of one repeating smaller units called
functional group into another or the monomers. The process of
transformation of a molecule into a polymerization, in which monomers
more stable form. Rearrangement are chemically bonded together, is
reactions are important in organic central to the creation of synthetic
synthesis and in the formation of materials such as polyethylene,
complex natural products. polystyrene, and nylon. These
materials are used in countless
Applications of Organic
applications, from packaging to
Chemistry
clothing to medical devices.
Organic chemistry is not just a
Agriculture
theoretical discipline—it has
numerous practical applications that

15
Organic chemistry is also used in for diseases, including personalized
agriculture, particularly in the medicine and gene therapy.
development of pesticides,
As we move forward, organic
herbicides, and fertilizers. These
chemistry will continue to be a
chemicals help control pests,
driving force in the development of
improve crop yields, and ensure the
new materials, medicines, and
safety and efficiency of food
technologies that improve the quality
production. Organic chemists design
of life for people around the world.
these compounds to target specific
biological processes in plants and
animals, minimizing harm to the
environment.

The Future of Organic Chemistry

The field of organic chemistry is

constantly evolving, with new
discoveries and innovations taking
place all the time. Advances in
organic synthesis are allowing
chemists to create more efficient,
sustainable, and environmentally
friendly compounds. The
development of green chemistry,
which focuses on reducing the
environmental impact of chemical
processes, is a growing area of
research.

Organic chemistry is also at the PERCENT COMPOSITION

forefront of cutting-edge
A chemical compound consists
technologies like nanotechnology,
of two or more elements. The
where tiny organic molecules are
percent composition tells us
used to create new materials with
what percent of an element is
unique properties. In the field of
present by mass in a
biotechnology, organic chemists are
compound. Its value is given
working to develop new treatments
as a percent. Percent

16
 composition helps estimate How to Find Percent
the relative abundance of a Composition
specific element in different
To determine the percent
compounds of known
[1-4]
composition, let us take the example
formulas .
of water. Water has the formula H2O.
Percent composition is an It has two hydrogen (H) atoms and
extensive property. It means one oxygen (O) atom. Below are the
that it is independent of size. steps to find the percent composition
For instance, if you have a of all the elements in a compound [1]
.
bucket of sand or a spoonful,
Step 1: Find the molar mass of all
the percent composition will
elements in the compound in terms
always be the same.
of grams per mole (g mol-1).

For H2O, the molar masses are as

follows:

H: 1 g

O: 16 g

Percent Composition Step 2: Find the molar mass of the

entire compound.

Molar mass of H2O = 2 x 1 g + 16 g

Percent Composition Formula = 18 g

The following equation gives the Step 3: Divide the element’s mass
[2]
percent composition by mass . by the compound’s molar mass.

Percent composition = (mass of the H: (2 x 1 g)/18 g = 0.111

element in 1 mole of the
O: 16 g/18 g = 0.889
compound) / (molar mass of the
compound) x 100% Step 4: Multiply the results from
Step 3 by 100 to obtain the percent
The masses are expressed in grams.
mass.
Therefore, percent composition is
often called percent mass. H: 0.111 x 100 = 11.1%

O: 0.889 x 100 = 88.9%

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Note Step 3. Divide each value obtained
in step 2 by the smallest of all
 The sum of the percent
values.
compositions of each element
adds up to 100. Step 4. If any result from step 3
comes out as a fraction, multiply it
 In the case of binary
by an integer to convert the
compounds, it is possible to
fractional value into a whole number.
calculate the percent
composition of the second Example Problem
element by subtracting the
An acid commonly used in the
percent composition of the
automotive industry is shown to be
first element from 100.
31.6% phosphorous, 3.1% hydrogen,
and 65.3% oxygen. Determine the
empirical formula of this acid.
How to Determine Empirical
Formula from Percent Solution

Composition Step 1

The empirical formula of a compound P: 31.6 g

is the most straightforward formula
H: 3.1 g
that gives the proportion of elements
comprising the compound. In other O: 65.3 g
words, it is the simplest whole-
Step 2
number ratio of each element in the
P: 31.6 g / 30.97 g mol-1 = 1.02 mol
compound. It can be determined
using the percent composition of the H: 3.1 g / 1.00 g mol-1 = 3.1 mol
individual elements. Here are the
O: 65.3 g / 16.00 g mol-1 = 4.08 mol
steps.
Step 3
Step 1: Express the percent
composition of each element in P: 1.02 mol/1.02 mol = 1
grams by assuming that the mass of
H: 3.1 mol/1.02 mol = 3
the compound is 100 g.
O: 4.08 mol/1.02 mol = 4
Step 2. Convert the mass of each
element into moles. The empirical formula is H3PO4.

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Applications of Percent O: (2 x 16 g)/44 g x 100 = 72.7%
Composition in Daily Life Problem 2: What is the percent

Chemists use percent composition to composition of KMnO4?

determine the composition of Solution

unknown substances. It is also used
The following table gives the percent
in the food and beverage industry to
composition of the individual
determine nutritional facts. One can
elements in KMnO4.
find them on the label.

For instance, peanut butter contains

protein, sodium, carbohydrate, and
fat. Sugar falls under carbohydrates.
Suppose one serving of peanut
butter contains 3 grams of sugar,
and each serving is 32 grams. Then,
the percent composition of sugar in
Problem 3: A 100 gram of a
peanut butter is 9.38%.
particular compound is 80.0% carbon
(C) and 20% hydrogen (H) by mass.
Use this information to find out the
Example Problems
compound’s empirical formula.
Problem 1: Find the percent
Solution
composition of all the elements in
one mole of carbon dioxide (CO2). Step 1

Solution C: 80 g

The molar masses of carbon and H: 20 g

oxygen are: Step 2
C: 12 g C: 80 g/12 g = 6.67 mol
O: 16 g H: 20 g/1 g = 20 mol
Molar mass of CO2 is = 12 g x 2 x 16 Step 3
g = 44 g
C: 6.67 mol/ 6.67 mol = 1
The percent compositions are as
H: 20 mol/ 6.67 mol = 3
follows:
The empirical formula is CH3.
C: 12 g / 44 g x 100 = 27.3%

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