PSE 2101

MAKERERE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND EXTERNAL STUDIES
PSE 2101
PSYCHOLOGY OF HUMAN LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION
YEAR II SEMESTER ONE

AN
LECTURER: DR. GRACE NIGHT
These notes were adapted from MUELE by Julius N.

G
RE
CE
IN
PR
BY
ED
AR
SH

Tent is the Goal

1 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

COURSE JUSTIFICATION
As teacher trainees, you need to receive training that emphasizes psychological concepts,
learning theories and fundamentals of learning as they apply to teaching and learning and the
systematic design of instruction.
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course introduces you to the nature of learning. IT examines how learning takes place

AN
through the major theories and modes of learning and how these theories and modes may be
applied to the classroom setting. It also explores the fundamentals of learning in relation to the

G
teaching/learning situation.

RE
Course Aim
This course aims at equipping you with knowledge and understanding of theories, modes and
fundamentals of learning and their application to teaching and learning.
CE
Course Learning Outcomes
IN
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Describe the nature and theories of learning.
PR

2. Compare the two forms of associative learning: classical and operant conditioning
3. Explain the occurrence, types, conditions and effects of observational learning
BY

4. Describe the two forms of cognitive learning.

5. Discuss how memory and forgetting occurs
6. Illustrate the types and theories of transfer of learning as well as teaching for and fostering
ED

learning transfer
7. Demonstrate an understanding of the types, dimensions and theories of motivation and
AR

strategies for motivating learners.

Course Content
SH

1. The nature and theories of learning

1.1 Definition of learning
1.2 Features OF LEARNING
1.3 The relevancy of studying the course
1.4 Forms of learning
1.5 Theories of learning
2. Learning by association

2 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

 2.1 What is associative learning?
2.2 Classical conditioning
2.3 Operant conditioning
3. Observational learning
3.1 Description of observational learning
3.2 Types of observational learning

AN
3.3 Processes of Observational Learning
3.4 Effects of observational learning

G
3.5 Using Social Learning Theory to Enhance Teaching and Learning

RE
4. Cognitive learning
4.1 Definition and Forms of Cognitive Learning
4.2 Latent Learning CE
4.2.1 What is Latent Learning?
IN
4.2.2 How Latent Learning was experimented
4.3 Insight learning
PR

4.3.1 Description of Insight Learning

4.3.2 How Insight Learning was experimented
BY

4.3.3 Theories representing insight

4.3.4 Laws of insight learning
4.3.5 Educational Implications of insight Learning
ED

5. Memory AND forgetting 5.1 Processes, systems and types of memory.

5.2 Nature and causes of forgetting4.
AR

5.3 Strategies for enhancing memory

6. Transfer of learning
SH

6.1 Definition of transfer of learning

6.2 Types and dimensions of transfer of learning
6.3 Theories of transfer of learning
6.4 Teaching for transfer
6.5 Fostering positive transfer
7. Students’ motivation
7.1 Definition and components of motivation
7.2 Types of Motivation
3 | Shared by Julius Nasasira
 7.3 Dimensions of Students’ Motivation
7.4 Theories of motivation
7.5 Techniques FOR MOTIVATING LEARNERS
Mode of Delivery
The teaching-learning process shall be a blended one, involving face-to-face sessions and
online learning, involving e-activities.

AN
Mode of Assessment
Assessment of learning will be through (a) online assessment, collaborative activities and

G
continuous assessment that will account for 30% and (b) university examination which will

RE
account for 70% of the final mark respectively. The pass mark will be 50% as per the university
policy.
References CE
Filgona, J., Sakiyo, J., Gwany, D. M., & Okoronka, A. U. (2020). Motivation in learning.
IN
Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 10(4), 16-37.
https://doi.org/10.9734/AJESS/2020/v10i430273
PR

Lim, A. (2020). Schedules of reinforcement. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/schedules-of-reinforcement.html
BY

Lopez-Garrido, G. (2021). Self-determination theory and motivation. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-determination-theory.html
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved from
ED

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Four Types of Contingencies - Abnormal Psychology. Retrieved 19th
AR

August 2021 from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/abnormalpsychology/four-typesof-

contingencies
SH

Seifert, K. & Sutton, R. (2009). Educational Psychology (3rd ed.) the Saylor Foundation.
Available at https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Educational-
Psychology.pdf
Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., Lovett, M. D., Aruguete, M., Bryant, L., Chappell, B.,
Dumper, C., Lacom be, A., Lazzara, J., McClain, T., Oswald, B. B., Perlmutter, M., & Thomas,
M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e. Rice University.
https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology-2e

4 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Thompson, P. (2018). Foundations of educational technology. Retrieved from
https://epress.library.okstate.edu/catalog/foundations-of-educational-
technology/foundationsof-educational-technology-2018.pdf
Topic 1

1.0 NATURE AND THEORIES OF LEARNING

AN
1.1. Definition of Learning
Learning is defined by Seifert and Sutton (2009) as relatively permanent changes in behaviour,
skills, knowledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences.

G
This definition has three important elements: (a) learning is a change in behaviour, better or

RE
worse, (b) it is a change that takes place through practice or experience, and (c) this change in
behaviour must be relatively permanent and must last a fairly long time. Behaviour theorists
CE
define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behaviour based on environmental
conditions (Funderstanding LLC, 2011). Behaviourists equate learning with changes in either
IN
the form or frequency of observable performance (Ertmer & Newby2018). Learning is
accomplished when a proper response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific
PR

environmental stimulus. For example, when presented with a math flashcard showing the
equation “2 + 4 = ?” the learner replies with the answer of “6.” The equation is the stimulus and
BY

the proper answer is the associated response. The key elements are the stimulus, the response,
and the association between the two. Of primary concern is how the association between the
ED

stimulus and response is made, strengthened, and maintained.

Constructivists define learning as changes in thinking (Seifert and Sutton, 2009). They equate
AR

learning with creating meaning from experience (Ertmer & Newby2018). For cognitivists, they
define learning as storing and organizing information and concepts in the mind
SH

1.2 Features of Learning

The process of learning has certain distinctive characteristics (Studytution. (n.d.). Learning
Class 11 Psychology Notes – StudyTution, 2018). The first characteristic is that learning
always involves some kinds of experience.

experience an event occurring in a certain sequence on a number of occasions. If an event

happens, then, it may be followed by certain other events. For example, one learns that if the

5 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

bell rings in the hostel after sunset, then dinner is ready to be served. Repeated experience of
satisfaction after doing something in a specified manner leads to the formation of habit.
Sometimes a single experience can lead to learning. For example, a child strikes a matchstick
on the side of a matchbox, and gets her/his fingers burnt. Such an experience makes the child
learn to be careful in handling the matchbox in future.
Another key feature of learning is permanence (Seifert and Sutton, 2009). Behavioural changes

AN
do not count as learning if they are temporary. For example, changes in behaviour often occur
due to the effects of fatigue, habituation, and drugs. Suppose you are reading your notes of

G
psychology for some time, or you are trying to learn how to drive a motor car, a time comes

RE
when you will feel tired. You stop reading or driving. This is a behavioural change due to
fatigue, and is temporary. It is not considered learning. Also, you do not “learn” a phone
number if you forget it the minute after you dial the number; you do not “learn” to eat
CE
vegetables if you only do it when forced. The change has to last.
IN
Thirdly, learning is an inferred process; it is often inferred from changes in the external
behaviour called performance. Performance is a person’s observed behaviour or response or
PR

action. Learning is not directly observable. Once something has been learnt, it can be exhibited
by performance of a behaviour. For instance, suppose you are asked by your teacher to
BY

memorize a poem. You read that poem a number of times. Then you say that you have learned
the poem. You are asked to recite the poem and you are able to recite it. The recitation of the
poem by you is your performance. On the basis of your performance, the teacher infers that
ED

you have learned the poem. Thus, changes in performance of some bit of behaviour are the
indication of learning. Note, however, that sometimes changes in behaviour are observed due
AR

to motivation, adaptation and fatigue.

Fourthly, learning is a connection between a stimulus and a response. A stimulus is something
SH

in the environment to react to (e.g., food, heat, noise), and a response is the reaction to the
stimulus (e.g., salivation, complaining, shutting doors). A person is said to have learnt
something when he responds to a stimulus in more or less the same way every time.
Last but not the least, learning results in change in memory. Once something has been learnt,
the organism must retain it and be able to remember it later alone. If what is learnt is forgotten,
then, no learning will have taken place.
1.3 Relevance of learning the course

6 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

1) All learning is intended to enable the individual develop competencies in life situations e.g.
to solve problems; to fit in well in the community; to perceive the world in a realistic manner.

2) Most behaviour is learned. Therefore, studying “Psychology of Human Learning and

Instruction” helps you understand the role of learning in behaviour.
3) The topic “learning” helps teachers know the factors that promote learning
1.4 Forms of learning

AN
Learning takes place in many ways. There are some methods that are used in acquisition of
simple responses while other methods are used in the acquisition of complex responses.

G
These methods include the following.

RE
1.4.1 Conditioning
Conditioning involve learning associations between environmental events or stimuli and
CE
responses. It is a learning process that involves association (creating a bond) between an
environmental stimulus and the organism’s response. Specifically, people become conditioned,
IN
or molded, to respond in certain predetermined ways based on stimuli such as praise and
rewards. There are two kinds of conditioning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning
PR

(Funderstanding LLC, 2011). Two forms of conditioning are classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.
BY

1.4.2 Cognitive learning

Cognitive learning can be defined as a change in the way the information is processed as a
ED

result of experience a person has had. Cognitive Learning makes use of perception and the way
the information is processed through sense experience. Cognitive learning may take various
AR

forms some of which include latent learning and learning by insight.

14.3 Verbal learning
SH

Verbal learning is the process of learning language. It involves a person’s verbal skills which
are mostly used in learning a language. It is related with the language which we use to
communicate and various other forms of verbal communication such as symbols, words,
languages, sounds, figures and signs.
1.4.4 Concept learning
Concept learning is learning that involves recognizing and identifying things. It is about
developing categories of objects and events. This form of learning is associated with higher

7 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

order cognitive processes like intelligence, thinking and reasoning, which we learn right from
our childhood.

1.4.5 Skill learning

This involves acquiring of skills. A sill is an ability to perform some complex task smoothly
and efficiently. Car driving, airplane piloting, ship navigating, shorthand writing, and writing
and reading are examples of skills. Such skills are learned by practice and exercise. A skill

AN
consists of a chain of perceptual motor responses or as a sequence of stimulus-response
associations.

G
1.4.6 Motor learning

RE
Motor learning involves a person’s physical strength, or muscular coordination, to perform
physical/motor activities (e.g., walking, running, driving, climbing, playing tennis and
football).
CE
1.4.7 Problem-solving
IN
Problem-solving involves trial and error or argumentation or discussion to solve or overcome
difficulty problems. It is a high order learning process that requires the use of cognitive abilities
PR

(e.g., observation, imagination, thinking, reasoning, etc.).

1.4.8) Discrimination learning
BY

Discrimination learning is learning that differentiates between various stimuli and with their
appropriate and different responses (e.g., sounds of different vehicles like car, bus and
ED

ambulance).
1.4.8 Learning of principles
AR

This is learning based on principles. Individuals learn principles related to science,

mathematics and grammar in order to manage their work effectively. These principles always
SH

show the relationship between two or more concepts (e.g., formulae, correlation, laws and
associations).
1.5 Dimensions of learning
Dimensions of learning is a comprehensive model that uses what researchers and theorists
know about learning to define the learning process (Chakma, 2021). There are five dimensions
of learning that are essential to successful learning and which help you, as a teacher, achieve a
major goal of education, that is ‘to enhance learning’ (Chakma, 2021).
These five dimensions of learning discussed below.

8 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

a) Attitudes and Perceptions:
A key element of effective teaching is helping learners to establish positive attitudes and
perceptions about the classroom and about learning because these affect learners’ abilities to
learn. If learners find the classroom as an unsafe and disorderly place, their learning
Understanding Learning will be negatively affected. Also, learners’ positive attitude about
classroom tasks helps in learning.

AN
b) Acquire and Integrate Knowledge:
Providing new knowledge by integrating the previous knowledge helps in learning. When

G
learners are learning new information, they must be guided in relating the new knowledge to

RE
what they already know, organizing that information, and then making it part of their longterm
memory.
c) Extend and Refine Knowledge: CE
Learning does not stop with acquiring and integrating knowledge. Learners develop an indepth
IN
understanding through the process of extending and refining their knowledge (e.g. by making
new distinctions, clearing up misconceptions, and reaching conclusions). Various reasoning
PR

processes, like: comparing, classifying, abstracting, inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning,

constructing support, analyzing errors, analyzing perspectives, etc. are used by learners to
BY

analyze for extending and refining their knowledge. d) Use Knowledge Meaningfully:
The most effective learning occurs when we use knowledge to perform meaningful tasks. So,
making sure that learners have the opportunity to use knowledge meaningfully is one of the
ED

most important parts of planning a teaching activity. For this, reasoning processes, like:
decision making, problem solving, invention, experimental inquiry, investigation, systems
AR

analysis, etc. may be used. e) Habits of Mind:

A learner becomes an effective learner by developing powerful habits of mind that enable
SH

her/him to think critically, do thing creatively, and regulate her/his behaviour. The mental
habits for critical thinking are being accurate and seeking accuracy, being clear and seeking
clarity, maintaining an open mind, restraining impulsivity, taking a position when the situation
warrants it and responding appropriately to others feeling and level of knowledge. Habit of
preserving, pushing the limits of own knowledge and abilities, generating, trusting and
maintaining own standards of evaluation enable in thinking creatively. Self-regulated thinking
is enabled by the habits of monitoring own thinking, planning appropriately, identifying and

9 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

using necessary resources, responding appropriately to feedback and evaluating the
effectiveness of own actions.

These five dimensions of learning do not operate in isolation but work together. All learning
takes place against the back drop of learners’ attitudes and perceptions and their use of
productive habits of minds. Having positive attitudes and perceptions and using productive
habits of mind makes learning easier and helps in learning more. When positive attitudes and

AN
perceptions are in place and productive habits of mind are being used, learners can more
effectively do the thinking required in the other three dimensions- that is, acquiring and

G
integrating knowledge, extending and refining knowledge, and using knowledge

RE
meaningfully. 1.6 Theories of learning
Several ideas and priorities affect how we, teachers, think about learning, including the
CE
curriculum, the difference between teaching and learning, sequencing, readiness, and transfer.
The ideas form a “screen” through which to understand and evaluate whatever psychology has
IN
to offer education. As it turns out, many theories, concepts, and ideas from educational
psychology do make it through the “screen” of education, meaning that they are consistent with
PR

the professional priorities of teachers and helpful in solving important problems of classroom
teaching. In the case of issues about classroom learning, educational psychologists have
BY

developed various theories, including behaviourism, cognitivism and constructivism.

1.5.1 Behaviourism
ED

Behaviourism is a theory of learning which states that all behaviours are learned through
interaction with the environment through a process called conditioning (McLeod, 2017). The
AR

learner is characterized as being reactive to conditions in the environment as opposed to taking

an active role in discovering the environment. It focuses on the importance of the consequences
SH

of those performances and contends that responses that are followed by reinforcement are more
likely to recur in the future (Ertmer & Newby2018). It also focuses on objectively observable
behaviours and discounts any independent activities of the mind (Funderstanding LLC, 2011).
There are three major tenets/basic Assumptions of the behaviourism (Brau, Fox & Robinson,
n.d.; McLeod, 2017):
1. All behaviour is learned from the environment: Behaviourism emphasizes the role of
environmental factors in influencing behaviour, to the near exclusion of innate or inherited

10 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

factors. We learn new behaviour through classical or operant conditioning (collectively known
as 'learning theory').
2. Behaviourism is primarily concerned with observable behaviour, as opposed to internal
events like thinking and emotion.

3. Behaviour is the result of stimulus-response: All behaviours are a product of the

formula stimulus-response. A stimulus is any feature of the environment that affects behaviour.

AN
A response is the behaviour elicited by the stimulus.
1.5.2 Cognitivism

G
Cognitivism focuses on unobservable change in mental knowledge; it focuses on internal

RE
stimulants instead of external stimulants in learning. It stresses the internal mental structures
and knowledge acquisition, which is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding
CE
and structuring by the learner. Coggnitivism assumes that the learner uses cognitive processes
as an active participant in the learning process (Michela, n.d.). The learner is viewed as a very
IN
active participant in the learning process (Ertmer & Newby2018). It claims that observable
behaviours are not sufficient to describe learning because the internal thought processes are
PR

also part of learning. According to cognitivism, a primary goal is to transfer knowledge to the
learner in the most efficient way by allowing the learner to use the most effective cognitive
BY

strategies to encode information (Michela, n.d.). According to cognitivists:

(a) Learning is defined as storing and organizing information and concepts in the mind
ED

(b) Mental processes are important rather than stimulant-reaction connection in learning. (c)
Learning is facilitated by factors within a person (e.g., interests, IQ, mental status, and
AR

cognitive processes).
(d) Individuals are actively involved in the learning process. Therefore, learning should
SH

encourage learner participation and involvement.

e) Learning is a process of relating the new information being learnt to previously learnt
information. So, new information is easily acquired when people can associate with things they
have already learnt.
(f) People control their own learning. They have the capacity to influence learning. They design
what they want to learn.
1.5.3 Constructivism

11 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Behaviourist models of learning may be helpful in understanding and influencing what students
do, but teachers usually also want to know what students are thinking, and how to enrich what
students are thinking. For this goal of teaching, some of the best help comes from
constructivism. Constructivism is a learning theory which holds that knowledge is best gained
through a process of reflection and active construction in the mind (Brau, n.d.) and people
actively construct or make their own knowledge and that reality is determined by the

AN
experiences of the learner (McLeod, 2019). Its proponents believe that learning occurs as an
individual interacts with the environment and constructs meaning by making sense of his or

G
her experience (Thomson, 2018). It is based around the idea that learners are active participants

RE
in their learning journey; knowledge is constructed based on experiences (Kurt, 2021).
According to constructivism, knowledge is a function of how the individual creates meaning
from his or her own experiences (Ertmer & Newby2018).
CE
The theory of constructivism has many elements that are principles that outline the theory as a
IN
whole and how they affect the learning of the students (Kurt, 2021). They include the
following.
PR

1) Knowledge is constructed. Every student begins the learning journey with some
preexisting knowledge and then continues to build their understanding on top of that. They
BY

will select which pieces of the experience to add, making everyone’s knowledge unique. 2)
Learning is a social activity. Interacting with others is vital to constructing knowledge.
ED

Group work, discussions, conversations, and interactions are all important to creating
understanding. When we reflect on our past experiences, we can see how our relationship
AR

with others is directly connected to the information learned.

3) Learning is an active process. Students must actively engage in discussions and activities
SH

in order to construct knowledge. It is not possible for students to take on a passive role and
retain information. In order to build meaningful ideas, there must be a sensory response. 4)
Learning is contextual. Isolation is not the best way to retain information. We learn by forging
connections between what we believe and the information we have already. Learning also
occurs in the situation within the context of our lives, or alongside the rest of our
understanding. We reflect on our lives and classify the new information as it fits into our
current perspective.

12 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

5) People learn to learn, as they learn. As each student moves through the learning journey, they
get better at selecting and organizing information. They are able to better classify ideas and
create more meaningful systems of thought. They also begin to recognize that they are learning
multiple ideas simultaneously, for example, if they are writing an essay on historical events,
they are also learning elements of written grammar. If they are learning about important dates,
they are also learning how to chronologically organize important information. 7) Learning exists

AN
in the mind. Hands-on activities and physical experience are not enough to retain knowledge.
Active engagement and reflection are critical to the learning journey. In order to develop a

G
thorough understanding, students must experience activities mentally as well.

RE
7) Knowledge is personal. Because every person’s perspective is unique, so will be the
knowledge gained. Every individual comes into the learning activity with their own
experiences and will take away different things as well. The theory of constructivist learning
CE
is based entirely around each individual’s own perspective and experiences.
IN
8) Motivation is key to learning. Similar to active participation, motivation is key to
making connections and creating understanding. Students cannot learn if they are unwilling to
PR

reflect on preexisting knowledge and activate their thought process. It is crucial that educators
work to motivate their students to engage in the learning journey.
BY

Seifert and Sutton (2009) divide constructivism into psychological constructivism and social
constructivism. Both types focus on individuals’ thinking rather than their behaviour.
Psychological constructivism focuses on changes in thinking resulting from individual
ED

experiences. It’s about how much a learner constructs knowledge independently. On the other
hand, social constructivism focuses on changes in thinking due to assistance from others. Social
AR

constructivism is about how much a student takes cues from people who may be more of an
expert and who help the learner’s efforts. It sees abstract thinking emerging from a dialogue
SH

between a relative novice (a child or youth) and a more experienced expert (a parent or teacher).
From this point of view, the more such dialogue occurs, then the more the child can acquire
facility with it. Social constructivists, such as Vygotsky, emphasize the importance of social
interaction in stimulating learning. According to social constructivism, instructors have to
adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers (Brau, n.d.). A facilitator helps the learner to
get to his or her own understanding of the content instead of simply explaining a principle.
TOPIC1 CONCLUSION

13 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

In this topic, we have defined learning and discussed the relevance of learning which helps us
understand why it is important for us to study the psychology of human learning and
instruction. We have also explained the various forms of learning, discussed five dimensions
of learning, and analyzed three major theories of learning: behaviourism, cognitivism
andconstructivism.
TOPIC 1 REFERENCES

AN
Brau, B. (n.d.). Constructivism - The Students' Guide to Learning Design and Research.
Retrieved 27th August 2021 from https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/constructivism

G
Brau, B., Fox, N., & Robinson, E. (n.d.). Behaviourism - The Students' Guide to Learning

RE
Design and Research. Retrieved 28 August 2021 from
https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/behaviourism
CE
Chakma, D. (2021). Nature and Dimensions of Learning. Retrieved 3rd September 2021 from
https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com/2021/04/12/n
IN
Ertmer, P. A., Newby, T. J. (2018). Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism –
Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology. Retrieved 27th August 2021
PR

from https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/beha
Funderstanding LLC. (2011). Behaviourism | Learning Theory. Retrieved from
BY

https://www.funderstanding.com/theory/behaviourism
Kurt, S. (2021). Constructivist Learning Theory - Educational Technology. Retrieved from
ED

https://educationaltechnology.net/constructivist-learni
McLeod, S. A. (2019). Constructivism as a theory for teaching and learning. Simply
AR

Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/constructivism.html
McLeod, S. A. (2017). Behaviourist approach. Simply Psychology.
SH

https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviourism.html
Michela, E. (n.d.). Cognitivism - The Students' Guide to Learning Design and Research.
Retrieved 28th August 2021 from https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/cognitivism
Seifert, K. & Sutton, R. (2009). Educational Psychology (3rd ed.) the Saylor Foundation.
Available at https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Educational-
Psychology.pdf

14 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Thompson, P. (2018). Foundations of educational technology. Retrieved from
https://epress.library.okstate.edu/catalog/foundations-of-educational-
technology/foundationsof-educational-technology-2018.pdf

StudyTution. (2018Learning Class 11 Psychology Notes – StudyTution. Retrieved from

https://studytution.com/learning-class-11-psychology

AN
TOPIC 2 ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING

G
2.1 What is associative learning?

RE
Associative learning is learning that involves connecting certain events that occur together in
the environment. Its theorist prefer observable events to cognitive processes. It emphasizes the
establishment of relations between stimuli and responses. Two types of associative learning
CE
exist: Classical and operant conditioning.
2.2 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
IN

2.2.1 Description of classical conditioning

PR

2.2.1.1 Meaning of classical conditioning

Classical conditioning, also known as respondent conditioning, basically means learning via
associating two occurring events. It refers to learning by association that involves the
BY

conditioning of innate bodily reflexes with new stimui (McLeod, 2017). It occurs when a
natural reflex responds to a stimulus (Funderstanding LLC, 2011). Classical conditioning is a
ED

learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally
produces a behaviour. After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is by
AR

itself sufficient to produce the behaviour. It’s a form of learning in which a new, involuntary
response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time. It occurs when
SH

we associate a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally occurs (i.e., that is
unlearned). The two stimuli become associated if they are repeatedly experienced together.
Classical conditioning includes two requirements. First, a natural relationship must exist
between a stimulus, such as an object or an event, and a reaction. Second, the stimulus that
elicits the reaction is paired with a neutral stimulus, typically for several trials. The outcome is
that the previously neutral stimulus will, on its own, elicit the fear reaction.

2.2.1.2 Pavlov’s Classic Experiment

15 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning) was discovered accidentally during the
1890s by the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov when he was researching salivation in dogs in
response to being fed (McLeod, 2018a). In his experiment, Pavlov used a metronome as his
neutral stimulus. By itself, the metronome did not elicit a response from the dogs. Next, Pavlov
began the conditioning procedure, whereby the clicking metronome was introduced just before
he gave food to his dogs. After a number of repeats (trials) of this procedure, he presented the

AN
metronome on its own. As you might expect, the sound of the clicking metronome on its own
now caused an increase in salivation. So the dog had learned an association between the

G
metronome and the food and a new behaviour had been learned. Because this response was

RE
learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response (and also known as a Pavlovian
response). The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus. Pavlov found that for
associations to be made, the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time. He called
CE
this the law of temporal contiguity. If the time between the conditioned stimulus (bell) and
IN
unconditioned stimulus (food) is too great, then learning will not occur.
2.2.1.3 Phases of classical conditioning
PR

Classical conditioning is best described as occurring in three phases (McLeod, 2018b). In phase
1 called before conditioning (or pre-conditioning), the unconditioned stimulus produces an
BY

unconditioned response in an organism. In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the
environment has produced a behaviour / response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and
therefore is a natural response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new behaviour has
ED

been learned yet. For example, a stomach virus (unconditioned stimulus) would produce a
response of nausea (unconditioned response). In another example, a perfume (unconditioned
AR

stimulus) could create a response of happiness or desire (unconditioned response). This stage
also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the neutral stimulus.
SH

The neutral stimulus could be a person, object, place, etc. The neutral stimulus in classical
conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
In Phase 2, known as “during Conditioning”, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., the
neutral stimulus) is associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes
known as the conditioned stimulus. For example, a stomach virus (unconditioned stimulus)
might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate (conditioned stimulus). Also,
perfume (unconditioned stimulus) might be associated with a specific person (conditioned

16 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

stimulus). Often during this stage, the unconditioned stimulus must be associated with the
conditioned stimulus on a number of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. The trial
method on this stage which involves pairing of unconditioned stimulus and conditioned
stimulus might be repeated again and again for the learning to take place.

After condition (or post-conditioning) is the third phase during which the conditioned stimulus
gets associated with the unconditioned stimulus to create a new response, the conditioned

AN
response, from the organism. For example, a person (conditioned stimulus) who has been
associated with nice perfume unconditioned stimulus) is now found attractive (conditioned

G
stimulus). Also, chocolate (conditioned stimulus) which was eaten before a person was sick

RE
with a virus (unconditioned stimulus) now produces a response of nausea (conditioned
response). The unconditioned response now becomes the conditioned response.
2.2.1.4 Components of classical conditioning
CE
In classical conditioning, there are 2 types of stimulus and 2 types of responses. They are
IN
unconditioned stimulus, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, and conditioned
response.
PR

• Unconditioned stimulus is the stimulus that naturally elicits a response'; it’s a stimulus that
can produce the response without any learning. Example: food (Meat) presented to the dogs.
BY

• Unconditioned response is the response which occurs naturally when the unconditioned
stimulus is present; it is the unlearned or inborn reaction to the unconditioned stimulus.
ED

Example: dogs’ Salivation towards food.

• Neutral stimulus is a stimulus that causes no response.
AR

• Conditioned stimulus is the initially neutral stimulus that becomes associated with a naturally
occurring stimulus to bring about a response. The conditioned stimulus acquires the ability
SH

to produce the response because it was paired (associated) with the unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Bell.
• Conditioned response: The response which is elicited by a conditioned stimulus, though it is
not the same as the unconditioned response. This response is usually weaker than the
unconditioned response. Example: dog’s salivation towards the ringing of the bell (though it
does not do it as much as it does to the sight of meat).
2.2.2 Determinants of classical conditioning

17 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

How quickly and strongly acquisition of a response occurs in classical conditioning depends on
three factors that influence learning a conditioned response: 1) time relations between stimuli,
2) type of unconditioned stimuli, and 3) intensity of conditioned stimuli (StudyTution, 2018).
1) Time relations between stimuli (Temporal factors affecting conditioning)
The classical conditioning procedures, discussed below, are basically of four types based on
the time relations between the onset of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

AN
The first three are called forward conditioning procedures, and the fourth one is called
backward conditioning procedure. The basic experimental arrangements of these procedures

G
are as follows:

RE
a) When the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are presented together, it is
called simultaneous conditioning.
b) In delayed conditioning, the onset of the conditioned stimulus precedes the onset of the
CE
unconditioned stimulus. The conditioned stimulus ends before the end of the unconditioned
IN
stimulus.
c) In trace conditioning, the onset and end of the conditioned stimulus precedes the onset
PR

of the unconditioned stimulus with some time gap between the two.
d) In backward conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus precedes the onset of the
BY

conditioned stimulus.
It is now well established that delayed conditioning procedure is the most effective way of
acquiring a conditioned response. Simultaneous and trace conditioning procedures do lead to
ED

acquisition of a conditioned response, but they require greater number of acquisition trials in
comparison to the delayed conditioning procedure. It may be noted that the acquisition of
AR

response under backward conditioning procedure is very rare.

2) Type of unconditioned stimuli
SH

The unconditioned stimuli used in studies of classical conditioning are basically of two types,
i.e. appetitive and aversive. Appetitive stimuli are those that an organism desires and seeks out
while aversive stimuli are readily avoided. Appetitive unconditioned stimuli automatically
elicits approach responses, such as eating, drinking, caressing, etc. These responses give
satisfaction and pleasure. On the other hand, aversive unconditioned stimulus, such as noise,
bitter taste, electric shock and painful injections, are painful, harmful, and elicit avoidance and
escape responses. It would not be surprising to learn that conditioning occurs relatively fast

18 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

when aversive unconditioned stimulus are involved. Since these stimuli could harm or kill us,
learning to avoid them is adaptive and aids our survival. By referring to these appetitive and
aversive stimuli, you can realize that there is appetitive classical conditioning and aversive
classical conditioning. In appetitive classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus would
be something desirable which makes us happy, while in aversive classical conditioning, the
stimulus is not pleasant. It has been found that appetitive classical conditioning is slower and

AN
requires greater number of acquisition trials, but aversive classical conditioning is established
in one, two or three trials depending on the intensity of the aversive US.

G
3) Intensity of conditioned stimuli

RE
This influences the course of both appetitive and aversive classical conditioning. More intense
conditioned stimuli are more effective in accelerating the acquisition of conditioned responses.
It means that the more intense the conditioned stimulus, the fewer are the number of acquisition
CE
trials needed for conditioning.
IN
2.2.3 GENERAL PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Now that you know how classical conditioning works and have seen several examples, let’s
PR

take a look at five of the general processes involved that are described by Dumper et al. (n.d.)
and Spielman et al. (2020, p. ), namely: acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus
BY

discrimination, stimulus generalization and habituation.

In classical conditioning, the initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when an
organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During
ED

acquisition, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned response, and eventually the
neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response
AR

by itself. Timing is important for conditioning to occur. Typically, there should only be a brief
interval between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
SH

Once we have established the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the
conditioned stimulus, how do we break that connection and get the dog, to stop responding?
Pavlov explored this scenario in his experiments with dogs: sounding the tone without giving
the dogs the meat powder. Soon the dogs stopped responding to the tone. Extinction is the
decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented
with the conditioned stimulus. When presented with the conditioned stimulus alone, the dog,
cat, or would show a weaker and weaker response, and finally no response. In classical

19 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

conditioning terms, there is a gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned
response called extinction. As we have just discussed, Pavlov found that when he repeatedly
presented. The bell (conditioned stimulus) without the meat powder (unconditioned stimulus),
extinction occurred; the dogs stopped salivating to the bell. However, after a couple of hours
of resting from this extinction training, the dogs again began to salivate when Pavlov rang the
bell. What do you think would happen. The behaviour of Pavlov’s dogs illustrates a concept

AN
Pavlov called spontaneous recovery: the return of a previously extinguished conditioned
response following a rest period

G
Of course, these processes also apply in humans. For example, let’s say that every day when

RE
you walk to campus, an ice cream truck passes your route. Day after day, you hear the truck’s
music (neutral stimulus), so you finally stop and purchase a chocolate ice cream bar. You take
CE
a bite (unconditioned stimulus) and then your mouth waters (unconditioned response). This
initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when you begin to connect the neutral
IN
stimulus (the sound of the truck) and the unconditioned stimulus (the taste of the chocolate ice
cream in your mouth). During acquisition, the conditioned response gets stronger and stronger
PR

through repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus. Several
days (and ice cream bars) later, you notice that your mouth begins to water (conditioned
BY

response) as soon as you hear the truck’s musical jingle—even before you bite into the ice
cream bar. Then one day you head down the street. You hear the truck’s music (conditioned
ED

stimulus), and your mouth waters (conditioned response). However, when you get to the truck,
you discover that they are all out of ice cream. You leave disappointed. The next few days you
AR

pass by the truck and hear the music, but don’t stop to get an ice cream bar because you’re
running late for class. You begin to salivate less and less when you hear the music, until by the
SH

end of the week, your mouth no longer waters when you hear the tune. This illustrates
extinction. The conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned stimulus (the sound
of the truck) is presented, without being followed by the unconditioned stimulus (chocolate ice
cream in the mouth). Then the weekend comes. You don’t have to go to class, so you don’t
pass the truck. Monday morning arrives and you take your usual route to campus. You round
the corner and hear the truck again. What do you think happens? Your mouth begins to water
again. Why? After a break from conditioning, the conditioned response reappears, which
indicates spontaneous recovery.

20 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Acquisition and extinction involve the strengthening and weakening, respectively, of a learned
association. Two other learning processes—stimulus discrimination and stimulus
generalization—are involved in distinguishing which stimuli will trigger the learned
association. Animals (including humans) need to distinguish between stimuli—for example,
between sounds that predict a threatening event and sounds that do not—so that they can
respond appropriately (such as running away if the sound is threatening).

AN
When an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar, it is called
stimulus discrimination. In classical conditioning terms, the organism demonstrates the

G
conditioned response only to the conditioned stimulus. Pavlov’s dogs discriminated between

RE
the basic tone that sounded before they were fed and other tones (e.g., the doorbell), because
the other sounds did not predict the arrival of food. On the other hand, when an organism
demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus, it
CE
is called stimulus generalization, the opposite of stimulus discrimination. The more similar a
IN
stimulus is to the condition stimulus, the more likely the organism is to give the conditioned
response. Sometimes, classical conditioning can lead to habituation. Habituation occurs when
PR

we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As the
stimulus occurs over and over, we learn not to focus our attention on it. For example, imagine
BY

that your neighbor or roommate constantly has the television blaring. This background noise
is distracting and makes it difficult for you to focus when you’re studying. However, over time,
you become accustomed to the stimulus of the television noise, and eventually you hardly
ED

notice it any longer. 2.3 Operant conditioning

2.3.1 Description of operant conditioning
AR

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which the probability of a response occurring is

increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. It involves learning through the
SH

consequences of behavior (McLeod, 2017). In other words, it’s another form of associative
learning that focuses on consequences that follow a response that we make and whether it
makes a behaviour more or less likely to occur in the future. Operant conditioning is a simple
feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the
response becomes more probable in the future (Funderstanding LLC, 2011). As a learning
model, operant conditioning focuses on the person making some voluntary behaviour for which
there is a consequence.

21 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Operant conditioning is expressed as a 3-phase model consisting of three components: the
antecedent stimulus, a response and a consequence, constituting the three-term contingency
that describes the relationship between a behaviour, its consequence, and the environmental
context (Wikipedia, n.d.a).
1) An antecedent stimulus is a stimulus that occurs first in the contingency and precedes
a particular response. It signals the probable consequence for the response, signaling that

AN
reinforcement or punishment is available on the contingency of a specific behaviour. While the
antecedent stimulus in operant conditioning does not elicit or cause the response (as it does in

G
classical conditioning), it can influence its occurrence. When the antecedent does influence the

RE
likelihood of an operant response occurring, it is technically called a discriminative stimulus.
Discriminative stimuli set the occasion for responses that produce reward or punishment and
signal when reinforcement will occur or not. Consider the rat in the Skinner box. Lever pushes
CE
earn food reinforcers, but what if this is true only if a light above the lever is on? In this case,
IN
the light serves as a discriminative stimuli and signals that reinforcement is possible. If the
light is not on, reinforcement does not occur no matter how many times the lever is pushed.
PR

2) A behaviour is any observable and measurable action a living organism can do. It is a
voluntary response whose execution will lead to a consequence. Voluntary responses occur
BY

when an organism operates on the environment and are, henceforth, called operant behaviours
or simply operants. In the three-term contingency, behaviour being operant means it changes
the environment in some way.
ED

3) A consequence is a stimulus that occurs immediately after the response and changes
the probability of whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. Skinner identified
AR

three types of stimuli that can follow behaviour. These are:

I. Neutral stimuli, which neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behaviour
SH

being repeated;
II. Reinforcers, which increase the probability of a behaviour being repeated; and III.
Punishers, which decrease the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated.
The type of reinforcers or punishers used is important. Some are naturally occurring while
some need to be learned. We describe these as primary and secondary reinforcers and
punishers. Primary refers to reinforcers and punishers that have their effect without having to
be learned; the organism does not require training to respond to them. Food for the hungry,

22 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

water for the thirsty and sexual satisfaction for the adolescent are primary reinforcers because
they satisfy innate biological need; while extreme cold or hot or a punch on the arm are
inherently punishing. Secondary reinforcers and punishers are not inherently reinforcing or
punishing, but must be learnt. Secondary reinforcers or punishers acquire their capacity by
being associated with the primary reinforcers and punisher.
Voluntary behaviours were studied by Skinner. Skinner based his model of operant conditioning

AN
on the law of Effect formulated by Edward Thorndike. The law of effect states that “responses
that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in

G
that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur

RE
again in that situation”. In other words, the law of effect is the idea that if our behaviour
produces a favorable or satisfying consequence, we will be more likely to make the response
again in future when the stimulus occurs, expecting the same favorable consequence.
CE
Likewise, if our behaviour leads to dissatisfying consequence, we
will be less likely to repeat the same behaviour in the future. Using this as his starting point, B.
IN
F. Skinner began to study operant conditioning. Skinner conducted his famous experiment by
PR

placing a hungry rat in a box, called after his name ‘Skinner box’, which was so built that the
rat could move inside but could not come out. In this box, there was a lever and a tray of food
in the corner of the box. It was so arranged that the rat was free to move in the box, but pressing
BY

of the lever would get a pallet of food in the tray. While moving around and pawing the walls
(exploratory behaviour), the hungry rat accidentally pressed the lever and a food pellet was
ED

released. The hungry rat ate it. After a number of repetitions, the rat learnt that getting of food
was associated with pressing of lever. Thus, whenever the rat wanted food, it pressed the lever.
AR

In operant conditioning, therefore, an association is formed between the organism’s response

(behaviour) and the stimulus that follows it (consequence). Thus, operant conditioning is the
SH

learning process in which a behaviour becomes associated with its consequences, or voluntary
responses come to be controlled by their consequences. Because it forms an association
between a response and the stimulus that follows it, it is also called response-stimulus (S-R)
conditioning.
Unlike classical conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
are presented regardless of what the learner does, operant conditioning requires action on the
part of the learner. Therefore, in operant conditioning, the learner must operate, or perform a
certain behaviour, before achieving some outcome. In Skinner’s experiment, the rat could not
23 | Shared by Julius Nasasira
get a pallet of food before pressing the lever. Therefore, in operant conditioning, the response
(such as lever-pressing) is instrumental in obtaining a stimulus (e.g., the food). That is why,
this type of learning is also called instrumental conditioning. Skinner described two types of
behaviours, namely: respondent and operant behaviours. Respondent behaviours describe those
that are involuntary and reflexive in nature. These are the types of behaviours Pavlov described
in his work and can be conditioned to occur in new situations (i.e. the neutral stimulus and

AN
unconditioned stimulus relationship). In contrast, operant responses are those behaviours that
are emitted voluntarily and are under their control. The term operant is used because the

G
organism operates on the environment. NOTE that initially, operant behaviour is emitted

RE
without any identified reference to a particular stimulus. However, during operant
conditioning, operant responses come under the control of stimuli that are present when
behaviour is reinforced. Such stimuli are called "discriminative stimuli". A socalled "three-
CE
term contingency" is the result.
IN
2.3.2 Behavioural Contingencies
As already seen, the basis of operant conditioning is that you make a response for which there
PR

is a consequence. Based on the consequence you are more or less likely to make the response
again. When one thing occurs due to another, it is called a contingency. Think of it as an IfThen
statement. If I do X, then Y will happen. For operant conditioning, this means that if you make
BY

a behaviour, then a specific consequence will follow. What form do these consequences take?
There are two main ways they can present themselves, namely: reinforcement and punishment.
ED

Punishment deals with decreasing the rate of undesired behaviour. Reinforcement deals with
increasing the rate of certain desired behaviour to occur again. Each of the two (reinforcement
AR

and punishment) can be either positive or negative. Therefore, behavioural contingencies result
from combining the two major purposes of operant conditioning (increasing or decreasing the
SH

probability that a specific behaviour will occur in the future), the types of stimuli used (pleasant
or negative/aversive), and the action taken (adding or removing the stimulus).

There are four types of behavioural contingencies: positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, positive punishment and negative punishment. (Lumen Learning, n.d.) Positive
reinforcement consists of the presentation of a stimulus (one that is usually considered pleasant
or rewarding) following a response, which then leads to an increase in the future strength of

24 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

that response. An example of positive reinforcement is if you were to smile at a person on the
street and they return a smile to you.
Negative reinforcement is the removal of a stimulus (one that is usually considered unpleasant
or aversive) following a response that then leads to an increase in the future strength of that
response. It involves two types of behaviour: escape and avoidance behaviours. An escape
behaviour terminates an aversive stimulus, and it occurs when we are presently experiencing

AN
an aversive event and want it to end. When we make a behaviour and the aversive event goes
away, we will repeat the behaviour in the future. This future action is an avoidance behaviour.

G
An avoidance behaviour is behaviour that is maintained by preventing an aversive or

RE
undesirable stimulus, and it occurs before the aversive stimulus is presented and therefore
prevents its delivery. An example of negative reinforcement is if it starts to rain while one is
walking down the street, they open an umbrella to escape the rain.
CE
The rain is being taken out of the situation; therefore, the behaviour has been increased. Positive
IN
punishment consists of the presentation of a stimulus (one that is usually considered unpleasant
or aversive) following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that
PR

response. An instance of positive punishment is when a person swats at a bee or wasp, they get
stung, therefore decreasing the behaviour.
BY

Negative punishment consists of the removal of a stimulus (usually considered pleasant or

rewarding) following a response, which then leads to a decrease in the future strength of that
response. An example of negative punishment would be if a toddler/child were playing with
ED

their food, instead of eating, they would in return not get dessert for that behaviour.
2.3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement
AR

Schedules of reinforcements, which Huitt and Hummel (1997) call the schedules of
consequences, are defined by Wikipedia (n.d.b) as the rules that control the delivery of
SH

reinforcement. Reinforcement schedules can be continuous or partial schedules (Lim, 2020).

In continuous schedules, reinforcement is provided every single time after the desired
behaviour. Due to the behaviour reinforced every time, the association is easy to make and
learning occurs quickly. However, this also means that extinction occurs quickly after
reinforcement is no longer provided. For Example, We can better understand the concept of
continuous reinforcement by using candy machines as an example. Candy machines are
examples of continuous reinforcement because every time we put money in (behaviour), we

25 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

receive candy in return (positive reinforcement). However, if a candy machine were to fail to
provide candy twice in a row, we would likely stop trying to put money in (Myers, 2011). We
have come to expect our behaviour to be reinforced every time it is performed and quickly
grow discouraged if it is not. Unlike continuous schedules, partial Reinforcement Schedules
only reinforce the desired behaviour occasionally rather than all the time. This leads to slower
learning since it is initially more difficult to make the association between behaviour and

AN
reinforcement.

However, partial schedules also produce behaviour that is more resistant to extinction.

G
Organisms are tempted to persist in their behaviour in hopes that they will eventually be

RE
rewarded. For instance, slot machines at casinos operate on partial schedules. They provide
money (positive reinforcement) after an unpredictable number of plays (behaviour). Hence,
CE
slot players are likely to continuously play slots in the hopes that they will gain money the next
round. Partial reinforcement schedules are described as either fixed or variable and as either
IN
interval or ratio (Lim, 2020). In a fixed schedule the number of responses or amount of time
between reinforcements is set and unchanging. The schedule is predictable. In a variable
PR

schedule the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements change randomly.
The schedule is unpredictable. In a ratio schedule reinforcement occurs after a certain number
BY

of responses have been emitted. Interval schedules involve reinforcing a behaviour after a
period of time has passed. Combinations of these four descriptors yield four kinds of partial
ED

reinforcement schedules: fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio and variable-interval.

A. Fixed Interval Schedule
AR

Fixed interval schedule is when reinforcement is given to a desired response after specific
(predictable) amount of time has passed. Such a schedule results in a tendency for organisms
SH

to increase the frequency of responses closer to the anticipated time of reinforcement.

However, immediately after being reinforced, the frequency of responses decreases. The
fluctuation in response rates means that a fixed-interval schedule will produce a scalloped
pattern (refer to figure below) rather than steady rates of responding. An example of a
fixedinterval schedule would be a teacher giving students a weekly quiz every Monday. Over
the weekend, there is suddenly a flurry of studying for the quiz. On Monday, the students take
the quiz and are reinforced for studying (positive reinforcement: receive a good grade; negative

26 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

reinforcement: do not fail the quiz). For the next few days, they are likely to relax after finishing
the stressful experience until the next quiz date draws too near for them to ignore.
B. Variable Interval Schedule
In operant conditioning, a variable interval schedule is when the reinforcement is provided after
a random (unpredictable) amount of time has passes and following a specific behaviour being
performed. This schedule produces a low, steady responding rate since organisms are unaware

AN
of the next time they will receive reinforcers. For Example, a pigeon in Skinner’s box has to
peck a bar in order to receive a food pellet. It is given a food pellet after varying time intervals

G
ranging from 2-5 minutes. It is given a pellet after 3 minutes, then 5 minutes, then 2 minutes,

RE
etc. It will respond steadily since it does not know when its behaviour will be reinforced.

C. Fixed Ratio Schedule

CE
In operant conditioning, a fixed-ratio schedule reinforces behaviour after a specified number
of correct responses. This kind of schedule results in high, steady rates of responding.
IN
Organisms are persistent in responding because of the hope that the next response might be
one needed to receive reinforcement. This schedule is utilized in lottery games. An example
PR

of a fixed-ratio schedule would be a dressmaker being paid $500 after every 10 dresses that
they make. After sending off a shipment of 10 dresses, they are reinforced with $500. They
BY

are likely to take a short break immediately after this reinforcement before they begin
producing dresses again. D. Variable Ratio Schedule
ED

A variable ratio schedule is a schedule of reinforcement where a behaviour is reinforced after

a random number of responses. This kind of schedule results in high, steady rates of
AR

responding. Organisms are persistent in responding because of the hope that the next response
might be one needed to receive reinforcement. This schedule is utilized in lottery games. An
SH

example of a fixed-ratio schedule would be a child being given a candy for every 3-10 pages
of a book they read. For example, they are given a candy after reading 5 pages, then 3 pages,
then 7 pages, then 8 pages, etc. The unpredictable reinforcement motivates them to keep
reading, even if they are not immediately reinforced after reading one page.
2.3.4 Processes of operant conditioning
Like classical conditioning, when operant conditioning takes place, it involves the occurrence
of the processes of extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization and discrimination.
Another procedure for modifying operant behaviour is called "extinction"

27 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Operant Extinction is the disappearance of a learnt response due to removal of reinforcement.
It occurs when a previously reinforced behaviour is no longer reinforced with either positive
or negative reinforcement (Wikipedia, n.d.b). Over a period of time, the response extinguishes
and is not shown. Following a rest period after extinction, spontaneous recovery happens.
Stimulus discrimination is the process of responding in the presence of one antecedent
(discriminative) stimulus and not responding in its absence or in the presence of another

AN
stimulus. -- For instance, after the rat has learnt to press the lever, suppose a light is turned on.
The rat is rewarded when it presses the lever in the presence of light and the lever pressing

G
response is not rewarded in the absence of light. Here light is the signal that tells whether lever

RE
pressing will bring reward or not. Light is the discriminative stimulus. As a stimulus can be
discriminated, so too can it be generalized. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli
that are similar to a CE
previously learnt discriminative stimulus. For example, having been trained to peck at "red" a
IN
pigeon might also peck at "pink", though usually less strongly.
In addition to the above processes, there are the process of shaping and chaining. Shaping
PR

involves the reinforcement of successive approximations of the target behaviour. Successive

approximations are behaviours that, over time, grow increasingly closer to the actual desired
BY

response. The process of shaping includes the following four steps:

• Reinforce any response that resembles the target behaviour.
ED

• Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the target behaviour. You will no
longer reinforce the previously reinforced response.
AR

• Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the target behaviour.
Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the target behaviour.
SH

• Finally, only reinforce the target behaviour.

Through the method of successive approximations, shaping involves constructing more
complex behaviours by starting from an idea similar to the intended behaviour and after it is
learnt. To reach a complex sequence of behaviours, shaping is combined with chaining.
Chaining is a sequence of responses bound together (by the three-term contingencies defined
above). In chaining, the trainer establishes a chain of responses, the last of which leads to
reward. After the last response is learnt, the next-to-last one is reinforced and so on.
2.3.5 THEORIES OF REINFORCEMENT

28 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

2.3.5.1 Hull’s Drive Reduction Theory
Within motivation theory, a need arises when there is a deviation from optimal biological
conditions such as not having enough calories to sustain exercise. This causes a drive which is
an unpleasant state such as hunger or thirst and leads to motivated behaviour. The purpose of
this behaviour, such as going to the refrigerator to get food or taking a drink from a water
bottle, is to reduce or satisfy the drive. When we eat food, we gain the calories needed to

AN
complete a task or take a drink water to sate our thirst. The need is therefore resolved. Hull
(1943) said that any behaviour we engage in that leads to a reduction of a drive is reinforcing

G
and will repeated in the future. So if we walk to the refrigerator and get food which takes away

RE
the stomach grumbles associated with hunger, we will repeat this process in the future when
we are hungry. Eating food to take away hunger exemplifies Negative Reinforcement. Hull
said there were primary and secondary types of drives. Primary drives are associated with
CE
innate biological needs states that are needed for survival such as food, water, urination, sleep,
IN
air, temperature, pain relief, and sex. Secondary drives are learned and are associated with
environmental stimuli that lead to the reduction of primary drives, thereby becoming drives
PR

themselves. Essentially, secondary drives are like neutral stimuli in classical conditioning and
become associated with primary drives which are unconditioned stimuli. They lead to a
BY

reduction in the uncomfortable state of hunger, thirst, being cold/hot, tired, etc. and so in the
future we engage in such behaviour when a need-drive arises. Hull said these SR connections
are strengthened the more times reinforcement occurs, and called this habit strength or
ED

formation (Hull, 1950). He wrote, “If reinforcements follow each other at evenly distributed
intervals, everything else constant, the resulting habit will increase in strength as a positive
AR

growth function of the number of trials…” (pg. 175). Though Hull presents an interesting
theory of reinforcement, it should be noted that not all reinforcers are linked to the reduction
SH

of a drive. Sometimes we engage in a reinforcer for the sake of the reinforcer such as a child
playing a video game because he/she enjoys it. No drive state is reduced in this scenario.
2.3.5.2 The Premack Principle
Operant conditioning involves making a response for which there is a consequence. This
consequence is usually regarded as a stimulus, such as ice cream. But what if the consequence
is actually a behaviour? Instead of seeing the consequence as being presented, such as with the
example of the stimulus of the ice cream, what if we really thought of it as being given the

29 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

chance to eat ice cream which is a behaviour (the act of eating)? This is the basic premise of
the Premack principle. The Premack principle views reinforcers (the consequence) as
behaviours and not stimuli, which leads to high-probability behaviour being used to reinforce
low-probability behaviour. Thus, the premack principle states that the chance to engage in a
more probable behaviour can be used to reinforce a less probable behaviour.
Topic Conclusion

AN
In this topic, we have defined associative learning and its two forms, which are classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. We have also describe how classical conditioning and

G
operant conditioning occur. Additionally, we have explained the phases, components,

RE
determinants and processes of classical conditioning and the behavioural contingencies,
reinforcement schedules and processes of operant conditioning.

TOPIC 2 REFERENCES
CE
Dumper, S., Jenkins, J., Lacombe, A., Lovett, M., and Perimutter, M. (n.d.). 6.3 Classical
IN
Conditioning – Introductory Psychology. Opentext.
https://opentext.wsu.edu/psych105/chapter/classical
PR

Huitt, W., & Hummel, J. (1997). An introduction to operant (instrumental) conditioning.

Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved 20th
BY

August from http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/behavior/operant.html

Lim, A. (2020). Schedules of reinforcement. Simply Psychology.
ED

https://www.simplypsychology.org/schedules-of-reinforcement.html
Lumen Learning. (n.d.). Four Types of Contingencies - Abnormal Psychology. Retrieved 19th
AR

August 2021 from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/abnormalpsychology/four-typesof-

contingencies
SH

McLeod, S. A. (2018a). Pavlov's dogs. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
McLeod, S. A. (2018b). Classical conditioning. Simply Psychology. Retrieved 18th August
2021 from https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html
Studytution. (2018). Learning Class 11 Psychology Notes. Retrieved 17 August 2021 from
https://studytution.com/learning-class-11-psychology-
Spielman, R. M., Jenkins, W. J., Lovett, M. D., Aruguete, M., Bryant, L., Chappell, B.,

30 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Dumper, C., Lacom be, A., Lazzara, J., McClain, T., Oswald, B. B., Perlmutter, M., & Thomas,
M. D. (2020). Psychology 2e. Rice University.
https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology-2e
Team Leverage Edu. (2021). Human memory class 11 notes. Retrieved 17th August 2021
from https://leverageedu.com/blog/class-11-psychology-cha
Wikipedia. (n.d.a). Three-term contingency. Retrieved 19th August 2021 from

AN
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-term_contingency
Wikipedia. (n.d.b). Operant conditioning. Retrieved 20th August 2021 from

G
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning

RE
TOPIC 3: LEARNING BY OBSERVATION
INTRODUCTION
CE
In the previous topic, we have looked at associative learning, which involves the formation of
IN
links between responses and stimuli. Now, let us move to another model of learning that
doesn’t involve stimulus-response connections, called learning by observation or social
PR

learning. In this topic, we will define observational learning and outline its two types with their
features. We will also talk about the steps in the modelling process, the effects of observational
BY

learning, and how you can use the social learning theory to enhance learning.
Topic learning outcomes
ED

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Describe how observational learning occurs
AR

2. Outline the types of observational learning and what they involve.

3. Discuss the conditions that must be met for observational learning to occur
SH

4. Explain the four effects of observational learning

5. Apply Social Learning Theory to improve Teaching and Learning
Topic Outline
3.1 Meaning and occurrence of observational learning
3.2 Types of observational learning
3.3 Processes of Observational Learning
3.4 Effects of observational learning
3.5 Using Social Learning Theory to Enhance Teaching and Learning

31 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

 3.0 LEARNING BY OBSERVATION
3.1 Meaning and occurrence of observational learning
Observational learning is the method of learning that consists of observing and modeling
another individual’s behaviour, attitudes, or emotional expressions (Stone, n.d.). The people
who are being observed are called models (McLeod, 2016). Bandura identified three basic types
of models: a live model, verbal instructional model and symbolic model (Nabavi, 2012). A live

AN
model is an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behaviour. A verbal instructional
model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behaviour. A symbolic model is a real

G
or fictional character displaying behaviours in books, films, television programs, or online

RE
media. In other words, live Models are people who are around the individual and demonstrates
a behaviour in person, symbolic models demonstrate behaviours in the media, and a verbal
instructional model does not perform the behaviour, but instead explains or describes the
CE
behaviour. Observational learning is contrasted with enactive learning, which is learning by
IN
doing.
Observational learning is a major component of Bandura’s social learning theory (Stone, n.d.).
PR

Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via observation, imitation,
and modeling (McLeod, 2017). It emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and
BY

imitating the behaviours, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others (McLeod, 2016). The
theory has often been called a bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theories
because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation (McLeod, 2017). It considers how
ED

both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behaviour
(McLeod, 2016).
AR

3.2 Types of observational learning

Observational learning occurs in two different ways. These are learning through modeling
SH

and vicarious learning. 3.2.1 Learning through Modelling

Modeling is the tendency of individuals to imitate behaviours they observe in others. There
are four types of modeling: direct modeling, cognitive modeling, symbolic modeling and
synthesized modeling.
Direct modeling is where you attempt to directly imitate another person’s behaviour. For
example, Sam saw Mary study and how she studied. He saw that she got A’s on most of her
exams. Sam wanted to be as successful. He began to study in the same way that Mary did.

32 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Symbolic modeling is where you imitate the behaviours of characters in movies, books, video
games, or on television. For example, Philbert began talking and dressing the way characters
do on his favorite TV show. It involves modeled demonstrations and explanations with
verbalizations of the model's thoughts and reasons for performing the actions (Schunk &
Zimmerman, 1997).
Cognitive modeling is an explanation of the skill or action is presented along with the

AN
demonstration of the skill. For instance, a math teacher may use cognitive modeling by showing
how to solve a problem on the board. While doing so, the teacher describes the thought process

G
that he/she used to solve it. By doing this, teachers provide concrete examples of how to think

RE
about and solve problems. This form of modeling gives students the ability to imitate both the
teacher’s behaviour and thinking.
Synthesized modeling occurs when you develop a behaviour by combining portions of
CE
observed acts. It is where you take bits and pieces from a variety of models. For example,
IN
Harvey was a beginning teacher. He took ideas and modeled his teaching style from a variety
of teachers that he observed during student teaching and his first year of teaching. Bandura
PR

explains functions of modelling in three different ways, which are reaction facilitation,
abstention/non-abstention and observational learning.
BY

Reaction Facilitation means facilitating the formation of a behaviour known by the observer
previously through the behaviour of the individual who is taken as a model. Although the
behaviour displayed by the person who is taken as a model ensures a new learning for the
ED

observer, if the observer repeats this behaviour, this is called reaction facilitation. In addition,
as a result of the behaviour of the person who is observed, there may arise an effect of
AR

abstention or non-abstention related to the learnt behaviour realized through observation.

The effect of abstention can be defined as the fact that the observer abstains from displaying
SH

certain behaviour because there is punishment at the end of the behaviour.

On the other hand, non- abstention states that the observers do not abstain from certain
behaviour and tend to display it unless there is a negative result of this observed behaviour.
3.2.2 Vicarious learning
Vicarious learning is learning through observing the consequences of another person’s
behaviour. Learning occurs vicariously (indirectly) as we are only observing the actions of
others and are not the ones who are initially reinforced or punished. A behaviour which is seen

33 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

being rewarded is modelled and the one which is seen being punished is avoided. This
demonstrates that reinforcements don’t have to be given to a person, watching someone else
being reinforced can be enough. In vicarious learning, you can get the learning experience
through other’s indirect experiences. Indirect experiences are divided into four as indirect
reinforcement, indirect punishment, indirect motivation and indirect sensuality.
A. Indirect Reinforcement: Reinforcement carries a meaning not only for the organism

AN
receiving the reinforcement but also for the organisms that observe this. Individuals who
observe that a certain behaviour is reinforced are more likely to display same/similar

G
behaviours. Individuals who observe that the behaviour of taking social responsibilities are

RE
rewarded may behave in the same way.
B. Indirect Punishment: Punishment has a meaning not only for the organism that receives
the punishment but also for the organisms who watch that this behaviour is punished.
CE
Individuals who observe that a certain behaviour is punished are more unlikely to display this
IN
behaviour. When a student is punished because of a negative behaviour, not only the behaviour
of the student who is punished is prohibited, other students are also prevented from doing the
PR

same action.
C. Indirect Motivation: When behaviour observed by an individual ends up with a valuable
BY

product, the individual wishes to display this behaviour. The individual capacity of the one
who observes is influential on motivation. Example: giving certificate of excellence to a
student in front of all other students at school motivate other students to get certificate of
ED

excellence.
AR

D. Indirect Sensuality: Most of the feelings are acquired through observation. People who
are afraid of mice, cats, and snakes although they do not directly injure them are examples of
SH

this situation. A child who sees that his mother is afraid of mice can also be afraid of mice.
The reason of such fears is observing models having similar experiences.
3.3 PROCESSES OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
Of course, we don’t learn a behaviour simply by observing a model. There are specific steps in
the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. Bandura
mentioned four conditions that are needed in observing and modeling behaviour: attention,
retention, reproduction, and motivation (Nabavi, 2012; Stone, n.d.). Attention, retention,
reproduction and motivation are the mediating processes that were proposed by Bandura and

34 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

they occur between observing a behaviour (stimulus & imitating the behaviour (response)
(McLeod, 2016). Mediational processes are mental factors that intervene in the learning
process to determine whether a new response is acquired. Therefore, individuals do not
automatically observe the behaviour of a model and imitate it unless there are some cognitive
processes called mediating processes.
3.3.1 Attention

AN
If an organism is going to learn anything from a model, he or she must be paying attention to
the model and the behaviour the model exhibits (Stone, n.d.). For example, if young children

G
witness gang members gaining status or money, they may imitate those behaviours in an effort

RE
to gain similar rewards. For a behaviour to be imitated, it has to grab our attention (McLeod,
2016). We observe many behaviours on a daily basis, and many of these are not noteworthy.
Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behaviour influences others imitating
CE
it.
IN
3.3.2 Retention
The second requirement of observational learning is being able to remember the behaviour that
PR

was witnessed. If the human or animal does not remember the behaviour, there is a less than
probable chance that they will imitate it. Therefore, it is important that a memory of the
BY

behaviour is formed to be performed later by the observer (McLeod, 2016). One way of
increasing retention is using the technique of rehearsal (Nabavi, 2012).
3.3.3 Reproduction
ED

Reproduction is the ability to perform or replicate the behaviour that the model has just
demonstrated (McLeod, 2016; Nabavi, 2012). This means that the observer has to be able to
AR

replicate the action, which could be a problem with a learner who is not ready developmentally
to replicate the action. This requisite of behaviour concerns the physical and mental ability of
SH

the individual to copy the behaviour he or she observed (Stone, n.d.). For instance, a young
child may observe a college basketball player dunk a ball. Later, when the child has a
basketball, he or she may attempt to dunk a ball just like the college player. However, the
young child is not nearly as physically developed as the older college player and, no matter
how many times he or she tries, will not be able to reach the basket to dunk the ball. An older
child or an adult might be able to dunk the ball but likely only after quite a bit of practice.

3.3.4 Motivation

35 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation, learners must want to
demonstrate what they have learned (Nabavi, 2012). Motivation is the will to perform the
behaviour (McLeod, 2016). Motivation is the most important aspect of observational learning
because if the human or animal does not have a reason for imitating the behaviour, then no
amount of attention, retention, or reproduction will overcome the lack of motivation Stone,
n.d.). Bandura identified several motivating factors for imitation. These include knowing that

AN
the model was previously reinforced for the behaviour, being offered an incentive to perform,
or observing the model receiving reinforcement for the behaviour. According to Bandura,

G
reinforcement has two significant functions. These functions are:

RE
(a) Reinforcement causes the observing individual to expect that she/he will also be
rewarded when she/he displays the behaviour of the model that is rewarded.
(b) Reinforcement functions as an activator in turning what is learnt into performance.
CE
There may be four different types of reinforcement, and these are vicarious reinforcement,
IN
external reinforcement, internal reinforcement and self-reinforcement.
Vicarious reinforcement is our tendency to repeat behaviours for which others are being
PR

rewarded. It occurs when one imitates the behaviour of someone who has been reinforced for
that behaviour. If the model succeeds and is rewarded during the observed behaviour, the
BY

observing individual will imitate this behaviour more often and in a shorter time. Vicarious
reinforcement is the opposite of vicarious punishment, which occurs when the tendency to
engage in a behaviour is weakened after having observed the negative consequences for
ED

another person engaging in the behaviour.

External Reinforcement means that an individual displays the expected behaviour as a result
AR

of being rewarded or appreciated by people around him/her. The individual reinforces his/her
behaviour through positive and negative reactions received from around as a result of his/her
SH

behaviours and she/he is motivated.

Internal Reinforcement means that an individual motivates himself/herself internally. When an

individual achieves his/her goal or comes across a negative situation, he/she motivates
himself/herself by means of reinforcing internally. Examples of internal reinforcers are
personal satisfaction, sense of comfortability, enjoying, liking and pride. For instance, a child
who hits one of his/her friends in nursery school ignores the punishment of sitting given by the
teacher, and feels relaxed by means of saying; “Ohh! I don’t regret hitting him. He made fun

36 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

of me. I gave him the right punishment.” The sense of relaxation experienced by the child is
internal reinforcement. Saying “Oh, I don’t regret hitting. He made fun of me.” is an internal
reinforcer.
Self-reinforcement is a process whereby individuals control their own behaviour by rewarding
themselves when a certain standard of performance has been attained or surpassed (bettered or
exceeded). It occurs when individuals select a reinforcer and reward themselves for reaching

AN
or exceeding a criterion. Have you ever given yourself a reward when you accomplished a task,
like eating a decadent dessert after making a deadline? This is called self-reinforcement.

G
3.4 EFFECTS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

RE
Observational learning has several effects on learners, which include acquisition effect,
response facilitation effect, response inhibition effect, disinhibition effect and creativity.
3.4.1 Observational learning effect CE
Observational learning through modeling occurs when observers display new behaviours that
IN
prior to modeling had no probability of occurrence (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). So,
observational (or acquisition) effect occurs when a person learns new behaviours by watching
PR

others performing or demonstrating those behaviours.

3.4.2 Response facilitation effect
BY

Response facilitation occurs when modeled actions serve to socially prompt behaviour by
observers. For example, new students in a class are likely to follow along and perform actions
comparable to those of classmates as a means of learning the rules and routines (Schunk &
ED

Zimmerman, 1997). Response facilitation effect occurs when an observer displays previously
learnt behaviour more frequently after seeing someone else being reinforced for that behaviour.
AR

3.4.3 Response inhibition effect

Inhibition refers to the weakening of behavioural inhibitions that occur as a result of observing
SH

models (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). For example, students who observe peers punished for
classroom misbehaviour may be less likely to misbehave. Therefore, response inhibition effect
occurs when an observer displays a previously learnt behaviour less frequently after seeing
someone else being punished for that behaviour. --A response that otherwise may be made is
changed when the observer sees a model being punished.
3.4.4 Response disinhibition effect

37 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Disinhibition refers to the strengthening of behavioural inhibitions that occurs as a result of
observing models (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1997). For example, students who are afraid of
math and observe models engage in math activities without negative consequences may
experience less fear and try the activities themselves. Response disinhibition effect, therefore,
occurs when an observer displays a previously forbidden or punished behaviour more
frequently after seeing someone else exhibiting that behaviour without adverse consequences.

AN
3.4.5 Creativity
Creativity involves observing several models performing and then adapting a combination of

G
characteristics or styles.

RE
3.5 USING SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY TO ENHANCE TEACHING AND
LEARNING
Below are four simple ways to use social learning theory to enhance teaching and learning:
CE
. Student demonstrations: Look for students who do a particular skill well. Allow them to
IN
demonstrate to others or teach in small groups.
2. Social interaction: Create learning experienced that utilize social interaction. This could
PR

include structured conversations, cooperative learning, T-talks, moral dilemmas, or problem

solving activities related to curriculum content in which students are able to work together and
BY

hear the thinking and reasoning of others.

3. Multiage classrooms: Multiage classrooms contain two or three grade levels within a
single class. This creates a variety of opportunities for many forms of social learning to occur.
ED

4. Cognitive modeling: Use cognitive modeling to teach complex skills or processes. Here
AR

a teacher thinks aloud while demonstrating a skill. Cognitive modeling is the process of making
your thinking visible. For example, in figure 12.3, Ms. Haroldson is teaching students how to
SH

read a textbook. She thinks out loud as she goes through each step so students know exactly
what she is doing and why.
Topic Conclusion
In this topic, we have looked at a model of learning called learning by observation. We have
defined observational learning and its two types: vicarious learning, in which we observe the
consequences of the behaviour being modelled, and modelling where we just copy and imitate
the modelled behaviour.

38 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Additionally, we have explained observational learning (acquisition), response facilitation,
inhibition, disinhibition and creativity effects of observational learning.
TOPIC 3 REFERENCES
McLeod, S. A. (2017). Behaviourist approach. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/behaviourism.html
McLeod, S. A. (2016). Bandura - social learning theory. Simply Psychology.

AN
https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
Nabavi, R. T. (2012). Bandura’s social learning theory & social cognitive learning theory.

G
Theory of Developmental Psychology, 1-24. Retrieved from

RE
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267750204_Bandura
Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1997). Social origins of self-regulatory competence.
Educational Psychologist, 32, 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3204_1 Stone,
CE
S. M. (n.d.). Oservational learning – psychology. Retrieved from
IN
https://www.britannica.com/science/observational-le
PR

TOPIC 4: COGNITIVE LEARNING

BY

INTRODUCTION
In topics 2 and 3, we looked at two models of learning: learning by association and learning by
observation. However, we learn not only by watching other people’s behaviours and their
ED

consequences or by making associations between stimuli and responses, but also by cognitive
processes that cannot be directly observed. Let us now turn to models of learning that involve
AR

the use of cognitive processes by looking at cognitive learning. In this topic we will discuss
about cognitive learning and two of its forms: latent learning and insight learning. We will
SH

define cognitive learning, latent learning, an insight and learning by insight. We will also look
at the experiments that were conducted to demonstrate both latent learning and learning by
insight. Additionally, we will examine theories representing insight, laws of learning by insight
and educational implications of insight learning
Topic Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define cognitive learning and identify two forms of cognitive learning

39 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

2. Illustrate latent learning
3. Describe Tolman’s experiment on latent learning
4. Explain insight learning
5. Evaluate Kohler’s experiment on learning by insight
6. Review the theories representing insight
7. Contrast the laws of insight learning

AN
8. Discuss the educational implications of learning by insight
Topic Outline

G
4.1 Nature of Cognitive Learning

RE
4.2 Latent Learning
4.2.2 How Latent Learning was experimented
4.3 Insight learning CE
4.3.1 Description of Insight Learning
IN
4.3.2 How Insight Learning was experimented
4.3.3 Theories representing insight
PR

4.3.4 Laws of insight learning

4.3.5 Educational Implications of insight LeaContent
BY

4.0 COGNITIVE LEARNING

4.1 Definition and Forms of Cognitive Learning
Much of our learning is cognitive in nature. The word cognitive is derived from the word
ED

cognition. Cognition refers to the processing of the information about the environment that is
received through the senses. Cognitive learning can be defined as a change in the way the
AR

information is processed as a result of experience a person has had. Cognitive Learning makes
use of perception and the way the information is processed through sense experience.
SH

Cognitive learning may take various forms some of which include latent learning and insight.
4.2 Latent Learning
4.2.1 What is Latent Learning?
Latent learning is the type of learning which is not apparent in the learner's behavior at the time
of learning, but which manifests later when a suitable motivation and circumstances appear
(McLeod, 2018). It’s a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt
behaviour, it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are

40 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

learnt (Lumen Learning, 2020). Therefore, latent learning is not readily apparent because it is
not shown behaviorally until there is sufficient motivation. This type of learning broke the
constraints of behaviorism, which stated that processes must be directly observable and that
learning was the direct consequence of conditioning to stimuli (Lumen learning, 2020).
4.2.2 How Latent Learning was experimented
To demonstrate latent learning, Tolman conducted a maze experiment (Lumen Learning, 2020;

AN
McLeod, 2018). In the maze experiment, three different groups of rats had to find their way
around a complex maze at the end of which

G
was a food box. Each group was made to go through the maze. The first group was rewarded.

RE
Every time the rats came out the other end, they were given food. The second group was offered
delayed reward. During the first 10 days, food was taken away; and for the next seven days,
CE
every time they got to end, given food (i.e. reinforced). Third group wasn’t rewarded at all.
Every time the rats got to end, food was taken out.
IN
The delayed reward group learned the route on days 1 to 10 and formed a cognitive map of the
maze. During this time, the rats were not rewarded. They took longer to reach the end of the
PR

maze because there was no motivation for them to perform. From day 11 onwards, they had a
motivation to perform (i.e. food) and reached the end before the rewarded group. But as the
BY

unreinforced rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map (a mental picture of the
layout of the maze). After 10 sessions in the maze without reinforcement, food was placed in a
ED

goal box at the end of the maze. When the rats became aware of the food, their cognitive map
came into play; they were able to find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as
AR

the comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all along. The question still remained
that “How do investigators demonstrate that latent learning has taken place?” For this,
SH

investigators blocked the usual route, such that the rats had to redirect. The rats then took the
shortest route to come out the other end and claim their reward. In order to do this, the rats had
obviously soaked in the knowledge about the rest of the maze even without reinforcement. In
this experiment, therefore, the rats which were not rewarded until later caught up with the
continuously rewarded rats. To have done so means that even when not rewarded, they must
have been learning. So, this experiment clearly demonstrates the phenomenon of latent learning.
This experiment shows that between stimulus (the maze) and response (reaching the end of the
maze), a mediational process was occurring; the rats were actively processing information in

41 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

their brains by mentally using their cognitive map (which they had latently learned). Cognitive
map is an internal representation (or image) of external environmental feature or landmark
(McLeod, 2018). By using this internal representation of a physical space, learners could get
to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental features. Short cuts and
changeable routes are possible with this model.
Latent learning also occurs in humans. Children may learn by watching the actions of their

AN
parents but only demonstrate it at a later date, when the learned material is needed. For
example, suppose that Ravi’s dad drives him to school every day. In this way, Ravi learns the

G
route from his house to his school, but he’s never driven there himself, so he has not had a

RE
chance to demonstrate that he’s learned the way. One morning Ravi’s dad has to leave early
for a meeting, so he can’t drive Ravi to school. Instead, Ravi follows the same route on his bike
that his dad would have taken in the car. This demonstrates latent learning. Ravi had learned
CE
the route to school, but had no need to demonstrate this knowledge earlier. Another example:
IN
Suppose, you go home via a same route every day. You notice all the different cafes and shops
without even trying. This information might stay unused for years. But some day, when you
PR

have to get to a certain “X” café at “Y” street, you will easily be able to track the place using
the information you had acquired over the years.
BY

4.3 INSIGHT LEARNING (A must Read)

4.3.1 Description of Insight Learning
ED

Most of the learning in human beings takes place not only through observation or making
associations between stimuli and responses, but also by solving problem which they come
AR

across in their day-to-day life. Have you ever been so focused on a problem that it took stepping
away for you to figure it out? You can’t find the solution when you are looking at all of the
SH

moving parts. But once you get distracted with something else, “A-ha!”, you have it. While
solving a problem, if you reach the solution all of a sudden, we say that you have learnt by
insight. In our daily life, we describe this mode of learning (learning by insight) by using
phrases like seeing the point, or getting the idea (Chakma, 2021).
Insight learning, or learning by insight) is a method or type of learning in which you suddenly
realize the solution of any problem without repeated trials or continuous practices (Shrestha,
2017), and the solution to a problem presents itself quickly and without warning (Wikipedia,
n.d.). It is the type of learning in which one draws on previous experience and also seems to

42 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

involve a new way of perceiving logical and cause-and-effect relationship (Shrestha, 2017).
Insight learning is considered a type of learning because it results in a long-lasting change
(YogiRaj Logo, 2016). Insight learning is a form of cognitive learning in which one draws on
previous experience and also seems to involve a new way of perceiving logical and causeand-
effect relationship. It is achieved through cognitive processes, rather than interactions with the
outside world. It involves no gradual shaping, but rather internal processes that lead to a sudden

AN
epiphany (i.e., the “a-ha” experience). Insight learning is also known as Gestalitic learning,
which means that learning is concerned with the whole individual and arises from the

G
interaction of an individual with his situations or environment; implying that every situation or

RE
experience is more than the sums of all its parts. For example: a house is more than the bricks
and mortar and other materials that are in the building. A book is more than a collection of a
few printed pages. Similarly a learning situation is more than the elements of which it is
CE
composed.
IN
4.3.2 How Insight Learning was experimented
The mode of Insight Learning was first proposed by Wolfgang Kohler, a gestalt psychologist.
PR

To understand the process of insight learning, we describe here Kohler’s famous experiment
of chimpanzee and bananas basing on Chakma (2021) and Shrestha (2017) descriptions.
BY

Kohler placed a chimpanzee, named Sultan, inside a cage. Outside the cage, on one side were
put some bananas. The chimpanzee was hungry, and its long arms could not reach the bunch
ED

of bananas. Two bamboo sticks, one long and another short, were placed near the door inside
the cage. Neither of the sticks could reach the banana alone and the only possible way to reach
AR

the banana was to join the two sticks. The chimpanzee first tried to reach bananas with its
hands. It did not get success. Gradually, he tried to draw the banana towards him with the
SH

sticks. After countless fruitless efforts, Sultan nearly gave up. He sat in a corner, seemingly
brooding on the problem. But as he was playing with the sticks, Sultan accidentally managed
to join the two sticks by fitting a small stick into the longer stick; and with the help of one long
stick, Sultan pulled the banana inside the cage. Sultan immediately grabbed the banana when
faced with the same problem next day. Kohler repeated the experiment by bringing some
variations in the design.
This ‘sudden flash of idea’ to reach bananas with longer stick is what Kohler called ‘Insight’,
and learning through such insight is called insight learning. Insight is the sudden discovery and

43 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

understanding of a solution to a problem. It is an awareness of key relationships between cause
and effect, which comes after assembling the relevant information and either overt or covert
testing of possibilities (Shrestha, 2017). Insight is sometimes called an epiphany or an "aha"
moment when a solution to a problem presents itself suddenly (Wikipedia, n.d.). Following the
occurrence of insight, the realization of how to solve the problem can be repeated in future
similar situations. In other words, once we realize the solution to a problem, we become aware

AN
of how to solve similar problems in the future in similar ways (Shrestha, 2017).
From Kohler’s experiment, four Steps to Insight Learning can be noted: I)

G
Failure: Sultan jumped at the bananas that are hung out of his reach.

RE
II) Pause: After Sultan has been trying to reach the bananas for a certain period of time,
with no success, they become frustrated, walk away, and pause as they retreat.
III) Look at the Potential Tools: Sultan looked from the food to the tools, then back at the
CE
food and back at the tools again.
IN
IV. The Attempt: Sultan begins to use the sticks to get to the bananas.
On the basis of his experiments, Kohler described the process of learning by insight as follows
PR

(Chakma, 2021):
(a) The learner perceives the situation in its totality.
(b) He analyzes the various aspects of the situation and tries to establish a meaningful
BY

relationship among them. On the basis of this new perception he redefines the situation.
(c) The process goes on till he solves the problematic situation all of a sudden. That is
ED

what we mean when we say that a learner suddenly gets an insight into the solution.
4.3.3 Theories representing insight
AR

There are three theories representing insight: Dual-process theory, three-process theory and the
four-stage model (Wikipedia, n.d.). At present, no one theory dominates interpretation.
SH

(a) Dual-process theory:

According to the dual-process theory, there are two systems used to solve problems. The first
involves logical and analytical thought processes based on reason, while the second involves
intuitive and automatic processes based on experience.
(b) Three-process theory:
According to the three-process theory, intelligence plays a large role in insight. Specifically,
insight involves three different processes which require intelligence to apply to problems. (¡)

44 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Selective encoding: the process of focusing attention on ideas relevant to a solution, while
ignoring features that are irrelevant.
(ii) Selective combination: the process of combining the information previously deemed
relevant.

(iii) Selective comparison: the use of past experience with problems and solutions that are
applicable to the current problem and solution.

AN
(c) Four-stage model
According to the four-stage model of insight, there are four stages to problem solving:

G
preparation, incubation, insight, and verification (Theodore, 2020).

RE
First, you prepare to solve a problem. In other words, in the preparation stage, the process begins
as you try to solve the problem. You have the materials and information in front of you and
CE
begin to make connections. Although you see the relationships between the materials, things
just haven’t “clicked” yet. This is the stage where you start to get frustrated; you feels helpless
IN
(“I am never going to figure this out”).
Second, you incubate on the problem, which encompasses trial-and-error, etc. During the
PR

incubation period, you consciously put the problem aside. You “give up” for a short period of
time. Although you’ve abandoned the project, your brain is still making connections on an
BY

unconscious level.
Third, the insight occurs, and the solution is illuminated. During the insight stage, the “aha”
ED

‘Aha – now I know what to do’ moment (occurs and a solution to a problem presents itself
suddenly. The “a-ha” moment occurs when the right connections have been made in your mind.
AR

Finally, the verification of the solution to the problem is experienced in the fourth stage. You
physically test out the solution that is mentally arrived at; and, hopefully, it works. This is a
SH

great moment in your learning journey. The connections you make solving this problem are
likely to help you in the future.
4.3.4 Laws of insight learning
The laws of insight learning are rules that describe how the human eye perceives and groups
visual elements. Grouping can occur in both visual and auditory visual fields (and stimuli).
These laws aim to show how complex scenes can be reduced to more simple shapes. They also
aim to explain how the eyes perceive the shapes as a single, united form rather than the separate
simpler elements involved. These laws include the following:

45 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

1) The law of similarity, which states that things that are alike tend to be grouped together
(that is, we tend to perceive things that physically resemble one another as part of the same
object). This law leads us to link together parts of the visual field that are similar in color,
lightness, texture, shape, or any other quality.
2) The law of proximity, which asserts that things that are close to one another appear to
be grouped together (i.e., we tend to group objects that are close together as part of the same

AN
object).
3) Law of Closure, according to which we organize our perceptions into complete objects

G
rather than as a series of parts. So, when a shape is not complete, but enough of the shape is

RE
shown, our minds will fill in the blanks and construct the whole of the shape.
4) The Law of Continuity, which holds that “we link individual elements of a
configuration so that they form continuous pattern that makes sense to us”. That is, we tend to
CE
perceive the components of a perceptual field as smoothly flowing rather than discontinuous
IN
forms. 5) Figure-ground relationship, according to which we tend to segment our visual world
into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that is the focus of the visual field, while
PR

the ground is the background.

6) The Law of Common Region that suggests that elements that are grouped together within
BY

the same region of space tend to be grouped together.

4.3.5 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF INSIGHT LEARNING
The Teacher can use insight learning in the teaching-learning process in many ways. To learn
ED

about the role of the Teacher in Insight Learning, read the article titled “Kohler's Theory of
learning by Insight (Gestalt Theory of Learning)” by Wand of Knowledge Team (n.d.)
AR

available at https://wandofknowledge.com/kohlers-theory-of-lear
Topic Conclusion
SH

In this topic, we have described cognitive learning; define cognitive learning, latent learning,
and learning by insight; and described the experiments that were conducted to demonstrate
both latent learning and learning by insight. Also, we have discussed theories representing
insight, laws of learning by insight and educational implications of insight learning References

Chakma, D. (2021). Modes of learning. Retrieved 3rd September 2021 from

https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com/2021/04/11/m

46 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to psychology. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/. McLeod,
S. A. (2018). Tolman - latent learning. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/tolman.html Shrestha, P. (2017). Insight
Learning. In Psychestudy.
https://www.psychestudy.com/behavioral/learning-memory/insight-learning

AN
Wand of Knowledge Team. (n.d.). Kohler's theory of learning by insight (gestalt theory of
learning). Retrieved 31st August 2021 from https://wandofknowledge.com/kohlers-theory-

G
oflear

RE
Wikipedia. (n.d.). Insight. Retrieved 1st September 2021 from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insight
YogiRaj Logo. (2016). Insight Learning - Wolfgang Kohler: Theory and definition. Retrieved
CE
30th August 2021 from https://www.yogiraj.co.in/insight-learning-wolfgang-k
IN
PR

TOPIC 5: HUMAN MEMORY AND FORGETTING

INTRODUCTION
BY

In the previous four topics, we have learnt about how we learn. But learning emphasizes that
one must also remember the information learned or skill learned. Any learning is effective
when we can remember it for a long duration. Imagine if you were unable to retain or remember
ED

all that you have earlier learned. As the ability to remember, memory is a
AR

very important process for our learning. In this topic, you will learn about how we remember
things. We shall look at what memory is, its basic processes, systems and types. You will also
SH

learn what makes us forget and how we can improve memory.

Topic Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the processes, systems and types of memory.
2. Define and explain forgetting.
3. Illustrate the strategies for improving memory.
Topic Outline
5.1 Memory

47 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

 5.2 Nature and causes of forgetting
5.3 Strategies for enhancing memory
5.0 MEMORY AND FORGETTING
5.1 MEMORY
5.1.1 Meaning of Memory
Memory is the ability to store sensory information for later retrieval as images, thoughts and

AN
idea (Michela, n.d.). Memory is the cognitive process we use to retain and retrieve information
for later use. Memory is an information processing system that we often compare to a

G
computer. Psychologists conceptualize memory in terms of types, in terms of stages, and in

RE
terms of processes. 5.1.2 Processes of memory

In this section, we will consider the types of processing that we do on the information we want
CE
to remember. To be successful, the information that we want to remember must be encoded
and stored, and then retrieved.
IN
A. Encoding
We get information into our brains through a process called encoding. Encoding is the input of
PR

information into the memory system. It is the process by which we place the things that we
experience into memory. Encoding is the process of integrating new information processed in
BY

the working memory with what is already known to facilitate storage in the long-term memory
(Michela, n.d.). Unless information is encoded, it cannot be remembered. Encoding information
ED

occurs through both automatic processing and effortful processing. Automatic processing is
usually done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time you studied for a test is
AR

another example of automatic processing. But what about the actual test material you studied?
It probably required a lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that information.
SH

This is known as effortful processing. When you first learn new skills such as driving a car, you
have to put forth effort and attention to encode information about how to start a car, how to
brake, how to handle a turn, and so on. Once you know how to drive, you can encode additional
information about this skill automatically. There are four primary types of encoding: visual,
acoustic, elaborative, and semantic. The encoding of words and their meaning is semantic
encoding, which involves the use of sensory input that has a specific meaning or can be applied
to a context; Example: you might remember a particular phone number based on a person’s
name or a particular food by its color. Visual encoding is the encoding of images and visual

48 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

sensory information. The creation of mental pictures is one way people use visual encoding.
This type of information is temporarily stored in iconic memory, and then is moved to long-
term memory for storage. Acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, words in particular. It
is the use of auditory stimuli or hearing implant memories. This is aided by what is known as
the phonological loop. The phonological loop is a process by which sounds are sub-vocally
rehearsed (or “said in your mind over and over”) in order to be remembered. Elaborative

AN
encoding uses information that is already known and relates it to the new information being
experienced. The nature of a new memory becomes dependent as much on previous information

G
as it does on the new information. Studies have shown that the long-term retention of

RE
information is greatly improved through the use of elaborative encoding. Once information has
been encoded, we somehow have to retain it. Our brains take the encoded information and place
it in storage. CE
B. Storage
IN
Storage is the creation of a permanent record of information. In order for a memory to go into
storage, it has to pass through three distinct memory storage systems: Sensory Memory, Short-
PR

Term Memory, and finally Long-Term Memory. Refer to the subsection on the levels of
memory for the details of these memory storage systems.
BY

C. Retrieval
You have worked hard to encode (via effortful processing) and store some important
ED

information for your upcoming final exam. So, how do you get that information back out of
storage when you need it? The act of getting information out of memory storage and bringing
AR

it back into conscious awareness is retrieval.

In addition to the two retrieval processes, namely: implicit memory and explicit memory, There
SH

are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term memory storage system: (i)
recognition, (ii) recall, and (iii) relearning.
Recognition is when information retrieval is aided by cues or aids. It happens when you identify
information that you have previously learned after encountering it again. It involves
determining which item from a list seems most correct. When you take a multiple-choice test,
you are relying on recognition to help you choose the correct answer. In other words, a
multiple-choice test is an example of a recognition memory test, a measure of explicit memory
that involves determining whether information has been seen or learned before. Recall means

49 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

you can access information without cues. A recall memory test is a measure of explicit memory
that involves bringing from memory information that has previously been remembered. We
rely on our recall memory when we take an essay test, because the test requires us to generate
previously remembered information. There are three main types of recall:
• Free recall is the process in which a person is given a list of items to remember and
then is asked to recall them in any order (hence the name “free”). This type of recall often

AN
displays evidence of either the primacy effect (when the person recalls items presented at the
beginning of the list earlier and more often) or the recency effect (when the person recalls items

G
presented at the end of the list earlier and more often), and also of the contiguity effect (the

RE
marked tendency for items from neighbouring positions in the list to be recalled successively).
• Cued recall is the process in which a person is given a list of items to remember and is
then tested with the use of cues or guides. When cues are provided, people tend to remember
CE
items on the list that they did not originally recall without a cue, and which were thought to be
IN
lost to memory. This can also take the form of stimulus-response recall,

as when words, pictures and numbers are presented together in a pair, and the resulting
PR

associations between the two items cues the recall of the second item in the pair.
• Serial recall refers to our ability to recall items or events in the order in which they
BY

occurred, whether chronological events in our autobiographical memories, or the order of the
different parts of a sentence (or phonemes in a word) in order to make sense of them.
ED

The third form of retrieval is relearning, and it’s just what it sounds like. Relearning assesses
how much more quickly information is processed or learned when it is studied again after it
AR

has already been learned but then forgotten. If you have taken some French courses in the past,
for instance, you might have forgotten most of the vocabulary you learned. But if you were to
SH

work on your French again, you’d learn the vocabulary much faster the second time around.
Relearning can be a more sensitive measure of memory than either recall or recognition
because it allows assessing memory in terms of “how much” or “how fast” rather than simply
“correct” versus “incorrect” responses. Relearning also allows us to measure memory for
procedures like driving a car or playing a piano piece, as well as memory for facts and figures.
5.1.2 Systems of Memory
Another way of understanding memory is to think about it in terms of stages that describe the
length of time that information remains available to us. According to this approach, information

50 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory, and eventually moves to long-term
memory. But not all information makes it through all three stages; most of it is forgotten.
I. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the part of memory where any information is first registered. A simple
example of sensory memory is to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just
a second of observation, or memorization. Although sensory memory has a large capacity, it

AN
briefly stores sensory information or brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes.
Information fades from sensory memory very quickly. The degradation of information is

G
remarkably quick in this type of memory, which does not even allow an individual to recall all

RE
of the items they experienced. This form of memory is considered to be an automatic response
and is outside of cognitive control. Information stored in sensory memory can in fact be
considered as the raw data that provides snapshot of an individual’s overall sensory experience.
CE
There are three types of sensory memory, namely: iconic memory, echoic memory and haptic
IN
memory. Iconic memory stores image, visual information, which has been perceived for a small
duration. The type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds, auditory information, which
PR

has been perceived for a small duration, is called echoic memory. On the other hand, haptic
memory briefly stores tactile sense of touch is called haptic memory. Experiencing pressure,
BY

itching, and pain throughout the body follows various pathways, which comprises the
somatosensory system, and is stored in haptic memory. Because we are constantly bombarded
with sensory information, we cannot absorb all of it. As a result, most of the information that
ED

gets into sensory memory is forgotten. However, information that we turn our attention to, with
the goal of remembering it, may pass into short-term memory.
AR

II. Short-Term Memory

SH

Short-term memory is a temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory

information. It is the place where small amounts of information can be temporarily kept for
more than a few seconds but usually for less than one minute. Short-term memory not only
takes information from sensory memory, but it also holds information retrieved from long term
memory to be used temporarily. Short-term memory encoding often uses acoustic codes, even
if inputs are not originally auditory. However, visual, semantic, and kinesthetic (physical
movement) codes can also be used for information. Short-term memory corresponds roughly

51 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

to awareness, or what one is conscious of at a given moment (Michela, n.d.). It involves active
processing of information.
Information in short-term memory is not stored permanently but rather becomes available for
us to process, and the processes that we use to make sense of, modify, interpret, and store
information in short-term memory are known as working memory. Short-term memory is
distinguished from working memory because working memory includes both temporary

AN
storage and active processing, while short-term memory is usually referred to only as
temporary storage of information (Michela, n.d.). Although it is called “memory,” working

G
memory is not a store of memory like short-term memory; but, rather, it is a set of memory

RE
procedures or operations. There are four elements in working memory that process different
types of sensory input (Michela, n.d.): I) the central executive, which controls attention and
mental resources; II) the phonological loop, which processes verbal and auditory information;
CE
III) the visuospatial sketchpad, which works on visual and spatial information; and IV) the
IN
episodic buffer, which integrates information from the previous processors with information
from long-term memory to make sense of it all.
PR

Short-term memory is limited in both the length and the amount of information it can hold.
First, short-term memory is temporary. If you do nothing with the information in the shortterm
BY

memory, it usually fades in 10 to 30 seconds and decays quickly from memory. One way to
prevent the decay of information from short-term memory is to use working memory to
rehearse it. Rehearsing is just repeating the information that you have in your short-term
ED

memory. A person can engage in maintenance or elaborative rehearsal (refer to rehearsal under
the section of enhancing memory for details). If we continue to rehearse information, it will
AR

stay in short-term memory until we stop rehearsing it, but there is also a capacity limit to short-
term memory. The capacity of short-term memory has been found to be 5 to 9 items, with the
SH

average being 7. But if we can only hold a maximum of about nine digits in shortterm memory,
then how can we remember larger amounts of information than this? For instance, how can we
ever remember a 10-digit phone number long enough to dial it? One way we are able to expand
our ability to remember things in short-term memory is by using a memory technique called
chunking. Chunking is the process of organizing information into smaller, meaningful
groupings, thereby increasing the number of items that can be held in STM. For example, if
you were given a list of districts to include Apace, Arua, Bugiri, Bududa, Bukomasimbi,

52 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Dokoro, Iganga, Insingiro, Kabale, Kalungu, Kisoro, Lira, Masaka, Mbale, Mbarara, Moyo,
Namutumba, Ntungamo, Rukungiri, Sironko, and Yumbe, you could group them as follows:

• Kabale, Kisoroand Rukungiri being in Kigezi subregion;

• Insingiro, Mbarara and Ntugamo being in Ankole subregion;
• Bukomasimbi, Kalungu and Masaka being in greater Masaka subregion;
• Dokoro, Lira and Apac being in Lango subregion;

AN
• Arua, Moyo and Yumbe being in West Nile subregion;
• Bugiri, Iganga and Namutumba being in Busoga subregion; and

G
• Bududa, Mbale and Sironko being in Elgon subregion.

RE
The above list of 21 items exceeds our capacity for short-term memory but making seven
smaller lists falls on the short side of our capacity. In this case, chunking changes the number
CE
of items you have to remember from 21 to only seven. Information in short-term memory either
is discarded or goes to long-term memory. Chunking, or segmenting, information into smaller
IN
pieces or groups may help reduce the load on working memory (Michela, n.d.). For example,
instead of one long string of numbers, telephone numbers are segmented into three sections. It
PR

is generally agreed upon that short-term and working memory are limited in both capacity and
duration, and information will be lost if it is not constantly rehearsed or transferred to long-
BY

term memory (Michela, n.d.).

III. Long-term memory.
ED

Long-term memory is where images, thoughts, and ideas are stored for greater lengths of time
(Michela, n.d.). It is a passive memory system where most information is processed in the form
AR

of semantic codes. Information is generally stored in long-term memory as verbal

representations, though as ideas rather than in specific sentences (Michela, n.d.). For example,
SH

when trying to recall something my friend said yesterday, I am likely to remember the idea and
recreate it in my own words instead of repeating my friend’s words verbatim.
Information can also be stored as visual images. Stored information is accessed through cues,
such as a question or request for information. While short-term memory is limited in duration
and capacity, long-term memory is, theoretically, unlimited in both (Michela, n.d.). Information
stored in this memory system is retained for a long period of time with the ability to be retrieved
when needed. There seems to be no time limit for long-term memory, and information can
remain there indefinitely. It is the memory storage that can hold information for days, months,

53 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

and years. Also, long-term memory is a limitless storehouse for information; its storage capacity
is large. It encompasses all the things you can remember that happened more than just a few
minutes ago to all of the things that you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years
ago. Although the long-term memory is unlimited, memories can decay or fade over time.
Long-term memory is broken down into two major types: implicit and explicit (refer to types
of memory section for details).

AN
5.1.3 TYPES OF MEMORY

G
There are two types of memory that are considered the divisions of long-term memory: implicit

RE
and explicit memory.
I. Explicit memory
When we assess memory by asking a person to consciously remember things, we are measuring
CE
explicit memory. Explicit Memories are our conscious memories that we have to put effort in
IN
to remember. They include the knowledge of facts and events. This type is said to be declarative
as it can be deliberately accessed. One must declare the knowledge of facts and events; the
PR

knowledge is not automatic. There are two kinds of explicit memory: episodic memory and
semantic memory. Semantic memory is the memory of general knowledge of the world stored
BY

as facts. If you remember the names of psychology course units you covered in the first
academic year, then you have a semantic memory. Episodic memory is remembering of
specific events. Think of this like episodes of your life; like remembering your 4th birthday
ED

party. Explicit memory is assessed using three measures in which the individual being tested
must consciously attempt to remember the information, and these are recall, recognition and
AR

relearning (refer to memory retrieval process).

II. Implicit Memory.
SH

While explicit memory consists of the things that we can consciously report that we know,
implicit memories (also called non-declarative memories) are unintentional memories that we
might not even realize we have. Implicit memory includes knowledge that we cannot
consciously access and knowledge based on prior experience. One of the most important
characteristics of implicit memories is that they are frequently formed and used automatically,
without much effort or awareness on our part. There are three general types of implicit memory.
The first type is procedural memory, which is the memory of skills and how to perform them

54 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

or the memory of how to complete a task. Riding a bike, making a grilled cheese sandwich,
ringing up a customer on a cash register, are procedural memories. Procedural memory allows
us to perform complex tasks, even though we may not be able to explain to others how we do
them. There is no way to tell someone how to ride a bicycle; a person has to learn by doing it.
The idea of implicit memory helps explain how infants are able to learn. The ability to crawl,
walk, and talk are procedures, and these skills are easily and efficiently developed while we are

AN
children despite the fact that as adults we have no conscious memory of having learned them.
A second type of implicit memory is classical conditioning effects, in which we learn, often

G
without effort or awareness, to associate neutral stimuli (such as a sound or a light) with another

RE
stimulus (such as food), which creates a naturally occurring response, such as enjoyment or
salivation. The memory for the association is demonstrated when the conditioned stimulus (the
sound) begins to create the same response as the unconditioned stimulus (the food) did before
CE
the learning. The final type of implicit memory is known as priming, or changes in behaviour
IN
as a result of experiences that have happened frequently or recently. Priming refers both to the
activation of knowledge (e.g., we can prime the concept of “kindness” by presenting people
PR

with words related to kindness) and to the influence of that activation on behaviour (people who
are primed with the concept of kindness may act more kindly). One measure of the influence of
BY

priming on implicit memory is the word fragment test, in which a person is asked to fill in
missing letters to make words.
ED

III. OTHER TYPES OF MEMORY

(a) Habit Memory and True Memory
AR

Habit memory means memory of an object or idea resulting in a mechanical repetition of the
activity. A habit is formed by doing a particular activity repeatedly over a period of time; for
SH

example, playing a musical instrument. Habit memory becomes more a physical activity. But
true memory involves independent recollection of a past experience. It involves the ability to
reproduce a learnt material without any mechanical mechanism.

(b) Rote Memory and Logical Memory

Rote memory is verbal repetition of a learnt material mechanically; it is somewhat similar to
habit memory and impossible without understanding the learnt material. For example, learning
the addition or multiplication tables. But, on the other hand, Logical memory involves proper

55 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

understanding of the material learnt. When the content of a lesson is understood by a student,
then he can retain it in his mind for a longer period and can reproduce it, whenever required,
in future. It does not depend on the mechanical verbal repetition. Usually teachers encourage
logical memory in higher classes while rote memory can be useful occasionally especially in
lower classes.

(c) Immediate Memory and Permanent Memory

AN
When a learnt material is reproduced or recalled immediately after learning it is called
immediate memory. Here, the time gap between learning a material and reproducing it is very

G
little. For example, pupils studying just before the exams and then reproducing the learnt

RE
material, but only a part of it are remembered after a long period of time. But permanent
memory is different — when after a sufficiently long period of time the learnt material can be
CE
easily recalled by a person it is called permanent memory. The ability to remember a material
after a long gap is the best type of memory. It is true memory.
IN
5.2 NATURE AND CAUSES OF FORGETTING
Memories are not necessarily permanent: they can disappear over time (Boundless, n.d.). This
PR

process is called forgetting. But why do we forget? According to McLeod (2008), there are
two simple answers to this question. First, the memory has disappeared - it is no longer
BY

available. Second, the memory is still stored in the memory system but, for some reason, it
cannot be retrieved. These two answers summaries the main theories of forgetting developed
ED

by psychologists. The first answer is more likely to be applied to forgetting in short term
memory, the second to forgetting in long term memory.
AR

There are several theories that address why we forget memories and information over time.
Forgetting information from short term memory can be explained using the theories of trace
SH

decay and displacement while forgetting from long term memory can be explained using the
theories of interference, retrieval failure and lack of consolidation (McLeod, 2008).
.Trace Decay Theory
Trace decay theory states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of
the memory trace (McLeod, 2008). This theory focuses on time and the limited duration of
short term memory (McLeod, 2008). Under this theory, you need to follow a certain pathway,
or trace, to recall a memory (Boundless, n.d.). If this pathway goes unused for some amount of
time, the memory decays, which leads to difficulty recalling, or the inability to recall, the

56 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

memory. This theory also suggests short term memory can only hold information for between
15 and 30 seconds unless it is rehearsed (McLeod, 2008). After this time the information / trace
decays and fades away. The longer the time, the more the memory trace decays and as a
consequence more information is forgotten. Rehearsal, or mentally going over a memory, can
slow this process (Boundless, n.d.). But disuse of a trace will lead to memory decay, which
will ultimately cause retrieval failure.

AN
2) Displacement theory
Displacement theory suggests that forgetting is due to a lack of availability in the short-term

G
memory (McLeod, 2008). Because of the limited capacity of the short-term memory suggested

RE
to be 7plus/minus 2 items, short-term memory can only hold small amounts of information.
When the short-term memory is 'full', new information displaces or 'pushes out’ old
CE
information and takes its place. The old information which is displaced is forgotten in the short-
term memory. 3) Interference theory
IN
The interference theory suggests that information in long term memory may become confused
or combined with other information during encoding thus distorting or disrupting memories
PR

(McLeod, 2008). Imagine that you're in history class, and you are learning about the Ugandan
presidents. First, you learn about Milton Obote, then Idi Amin, then Yoweri Kaguta
BY

Museveni. You are trying to pay attention and remember the details about each person, but
by the time you get to Museveni, you are starting to get them mixed up. The problem you're
ED

experiencing is called proactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when previously

learnt information, such as learning about the first president, interferes with new information
AR

that you're trying to learn. The previous information is already there, taking up space in your
working memory, so any new information has to compete. In this example, you would
SH

probably have a pretty good memory for the information about Milton Obote because there
was nothing else to distract you. But, as each person got added to the list, you would get more
and more confused as you try to learn new information. The opposite problem can also occur.
Let's go back to the idea of studying the Ugandan presidents. You are reading a magazine
article about President Yoweri Kaguta Museveni in which you hear about recent changes he
has made to the state house furniture. Later, you are having a conversation with your friend
about the history of the state house and you get confused regarding which President made
which changes. You mistakenly state that Idi Amin reupholstered the dining room chairs,

57 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

when really Museveni is the one who did that. Before you read the Museveni article, you
knew all about Idi Amin and wouldn't have made this mistake. What happened to you in this
example is that newly acquired information made it more difficult for you to remember
previously acquired information. This problem is called retroactive interference. Your
learning new information has gotten mixed up with old information you had, making it more
difficult to remember the old information. Therefore, there are two ways in which interference

AN
can cause forgetting: proactive and retroactive interference (Boundless, n.d.). Proactive
interference occurs when old memories hinder the ability to make new memories. In this type

G
of interference, old information inhibits the ability to remember new information, such as

RE
when outdated scientific facts interfere with the ability to remember updated facts. Retroactive
interference occurs when old memories are changed by new ones, sometimes so much that
the original memory is forgotten. This is when newly learned information interferes with and
CE
impedes the recall of previously learned information. The ability to recall previously learned
IN
information is greatly reduced if that information is not utilized, and there is substantial new
information being presented.
PR

Proactive and retroactive Interference is more likely to occur where the memories are similar
(McLeod, 2008), or when memories are learned in similar contexts or regarding similar things
BY

(Boundless, n.d.), for example: confusing old and new telephone numbers. It causes transience,
which refers to the general deterioration of a specific memory over time (Boundless, n.d.).
ED

Under interference theory, transience occurs because all memories interfere with the ability to
recall other memories. 4) Retrieval (or cue-Dependent Forgetting) theory
AR

When we store a memory, we not only record all sensory data, we also store our mood and
emotional state. Our current mood thus will affect the memories that are most effortlessly
SH

available to us, such that when we are in a good mood, we recollect good memories, and when
we are in a bad mood, we recollect bad ones. This suggests that we are sometimes cued to
remember certain things by, for example, our emotional state or our environment. Retrieval
failure, also known as cue-dependent forgetting, is the failure to recall information in the
absence of memory cues (Boundless, n.d.). It is where the information is in long term memory
but cannot be accessed (McLeod, 2008). Such information is said to be available (i.e. it is still
stored) but not accessible (i.e. it cannot be retrieved). Retrieval failure occurs when appropriate
cues are not present (Mcleod, 2021).

58 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

There are three types of cues that can stop this type of forgetting: semantic cues, statedependent
cues and context-dependent cues (Boundless, n.d).
· Semantic cues are used when a memory is retrieved because of its association with another
memory. For example, someone forgets everything about his trip to Ohio until he is reminded
that he visited a certain friend there and that cue causes him to recollect many more events of
the trip.

AN
· State-dependent cues are governed by the state of mind at the time of encoding. The emotional
or mental state of the person (such as being inebriated, drugged, upset, anxious, or happy) is

G
key to establishing cues. In other words, state retrieval clues may be based on statethe physical

RE
or psychological state of the person when information is encoded and retrieved (Mcleod, 2021)
(Mcleod, 2021). For example, a person may be alert, tired, happy, sad, drunk or sober when
the information was encoded. They will be more likely to retrieve the information when they
CE
are in a similar state. Therefore, state-dependent forgetting occurs when your mood or
IN
physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning
(Mcleod, 2021).
PR

· Context-dependent cues depend on the environment and situation. Memory retrieval can be
facilitated or triggered by replication of the context in which the memory was encoded. Such
BY

conditions can include weather, company, location, and the smell of a particular odor, hearing
a certain song, or even tasting a specific flavor. Therefore, context-dependent forgetting can
occur when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when
ED

you were learning (Mcleod, 2021).

According to retrieval-failure theory, forgetting occurs when information is available in
AR

longterm memory but is not accessible (McLeod, 2008). Accessibility depends in large part on
retrieval cues. Forgetting is greatest when context and state are very different at encoding and
SH

retrieval. In this situation, retrieval cues are absent and the likely result is cue-dependent
forgetting. Thus, under cue-dependent forgetting theory, a memory might be forgotten until a
person is in the same state.
5) The gestalt theory
The gestalt theory states that when memories lack detail, other information is put in to make
the memory a whole. This leads to the incorrect recall of memories. This Theory suggests that
memories are forgotten through distortion. This means that, ssometimes, people forget because

59 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

information in long-term memory is distorted, altered or changed and so it is no longer
accessible when searching for what it “used to be”. Here the cause of forgetting is distortion.
Distortions are misrepresentations of information that occur when an imperfect image is
recalled from long-term memory.
6) Motivated forgetting theory
According to this theory, people intentionally forget things they don’t want to remember. Freud

AN
considered that why we forget is often motivated. Unpleasant, painful, or threatening situations
are forgotten. We tend to forget what is unpleasant to us through either repression or

G
suppression. Repression is an unconscious process (defense mechanism) through which an

RE
individual blocks a memory of an event or experience from entering conscious awareness
because of the anxiety associated with recall. Suppression is a type of motivated forgetting in
which an individual actively keeps a memory out of conscious awareness by choosing not to
CE
attend to or think about it. For instance, when you ask some students who failed their major
IN
exam, how they went, if they tell you they can't remember, then they are consciously
suppressing their upsetting memory. 7) Other causes/Types of forgetting
PR

Trace decay, interference, and lack of cues are not the only ways that memories can fail to be
retrieved. Other types of forgetting are absentmindedness, blocking and amnesia (Boundless,
BY

n.d.).
A. Amnesia
ED

The most famous type of forgetting is in people who have amnesia (Boundless, n.d.). There are
three basic types of amnesia. Let's talk about each type (Boundless, n.d.). Dissociative amnesia
AR

occurs because someone experiences something that is psychologically traumatic or stressful.

That event is so stressful that the person unconsciously blocks all biographical information
SH

about him or herself, as a way of avoiding the painful memory. Instead of just forgetting the
single memory, which would be called repression, with dissociative amnesia, a person's
biographical history is removed from the mind as a way of removing the painful memory. The
person might lose his or her entire life's history or it might just be parts that are relevant to the
traumatic event. Even though dissociative amnesia is the subject of lots of movies and TV
shows, in real life it is extremely rare. While dissociative amnesia is caused by psychological
trauma, the other two major types of amnesia are both caused by physical problems, and
therefore, they are much more common. The types of problems you might experience to get a

60 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

physical form of amnesia might be a car accident, a blunt trauma to the head or certain diseases
that cause damage to the neurons in your brain. With retrograde amnesia, a person loses
memories for a period of time before the physical damage occurred. In other words, let's say
you experience a head trauma - the time period right before that event will be lost from your
memory. You can remember the term 'retrograde' because the term 'retro' means going back in
time, like wearing 'retro' clothes from the 1970s. With retrograde amnesia, you lose memories

AN
from your past. For example, a woman has a mild form of epilepsy, which causes him to have
occasional seizures. One, time he was giving a speech, but he had a seizure that made him fall

G
to the ground and bump his head. When he woke up, he couldn't remember anything that had

RE
happened to him the entire week leading up to the seizure. The worst part about this story is
that his family had taken him to Kampala that week, and now he couldn't remember the trip!
The second type of physical amnesia is called anterograde amnesia. With anterograde amnesia,
CE
you remember everything that happened to you before the physical damage, but you lose the
IN
ability to form and retrieve new memories. Starting from the moment of the accident, it's like
you're stuck in time. You'll be able to remember everything about who you are and that kind
PR

of thing, but you won't be able to learn anything new since after the accident occurred.
B. Absentmindedness
BY

If you've ever put down your keys when you entered your house and then couldn't find them
later, you have experienced absentmindedness. Attention and memory are closely related, and
absent-mindedness involves problems at the point where attention and memory interface.
ED

Common errors of this type include misplacing objects or forgetting appointments.

AR

Absentmindedness occurs because, at the time of encoding, sufficient attention was not paid to
what would later need to be recalled.
SH

C. Blocking
Occasionally, a person will experience a specific type of retrieval failure called blocking.
Blocking is when the brain tries to retrieve or Encode information, but another memory
interferes with it. Blocking is a primary cause of the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. This is the
failure to retrieve a word from memory, combined with partial recall and the feeling that
retrieval is imminent. People who experience this can often recall one or more features of the
target word, such as the first letter, words that sound similar, or words that have a similar
meaning. Sometimes a hint can help them remember: another example of cued memory.

61 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

5.3 STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING MEMORY
How can you work to strengthen your overall memory? Some people have stronger memories
than others, but memorizing new information takes work for anyone. Below are some strategies
that can aid memory.
5.3.1 Rehearsal
One strategy for enhancing your memory is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of

AN
information to be remembered. For example, think about how you learned your multiplication
tables. You may recall that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7 = 42, and 6 x 8 = 48. Memorizing these facts is

G
rehearsal. There are two kinds of rehearsal: Maintenance and elaborative rehearsal.

RE
Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information mentally or out loud with the
goal of keeping it in memory. It is simply repeating information over and over again without
thinking about the information (e.g. we engage in maintenance rehearsal to keep something
CE
that we want to remember (e.g., a person’s name, e-mail address, or phone number) in mind
IN
long enough to write it down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory. When no
longer needed, this information is forgotten. Elaborative rehearsal is repetition of information
PR

that involves creating meaning to the material. It involves thinking about how the information
relates to the already-known information or linking it with information already existing in the
BY

long term memory. Elaboration can take a variety of forms, including generating one’s own
personal examples that help illustrate concepts or principles, enriching the material by
concentrating on its meaning, discussions or arguments about various topics, and explaining a
ED

concept to a friend. Elaborative rehearsal is important for information to be transferred to the

long term memory.
AR

5.3.2 Mnemonics
Another memory-enhancing strategy is creating mnemonics. A mnemonic is a memory device
SH

or memory aid that help us organize information for encoding. It is a strategy for placing
information in an organized framework in order to remember it more easily. Mnemonics can
help us retain information while only needing to remember a unique phrase or letter pattern
that stands out. They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of information
such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system. Mnemonic devices can assist with
elaboration by giving meaning to something easily remembered (Michela, n.d.). Types of

62 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

mnemonics include acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, storytelling and chaining. An acronym is a
word formed by the first letter of each of the words you want to remember.
According to the strictest definition of an acronym, only abbreviations that form pronounceable
words qualify as acronyms. Acrostics are sentences or phrases in which the first letters of their
words act as memory clues of the items you need to remember. In other words, in forming an
acrostic, you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. Rhymes put information in the
form of a poem. Story telling involve making up a story that includes the items to be

AN
remembered in the appropriate order. Chaining makes one item of information to trigger for
the next piece of information Focused on the key points of what you are learning and arranging
them in a logical sequence. If you had to remember the words cup, table, cat, butter, and

G
camera, you might create a chain that had a cup falling off a table and onto a cat who was
standing in butter and you took a picture of it with a camera.

RE
5.3.3 Chunking
Chunking is another memory-enhancing technique. Chunking, where you organize information
CE
into manageable bits or chunks. Chunking is useful when trying to remember information like
dates and phone numbers. Instead of trying to remember 5205550467, you remember the
IN
number as 520-555-0467. So, if you met an interesting person at a party and you wanted to
remember his phone number, you would naturally chunk it, and you could repeat the number
PR

over and over, combining the strategies of chunking and rehearsal.

5.3.4 Elaborative encoding
BY

Elaboration is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to

what one knows (Michela, n.d.). When we engage in elaborative encoding, we process new
information in ways that make it more relevant or meaningful. Material is better remembered
ED

if it is processed more fully. Think, for instance, “Proactive interference is like retroactive
interference but it occurs in a forward manner”. Also, imagine that you are trying to remember
AR

the characteristics of the different schools of psychology you learnt in first semester of your
first academic year. Rather than simply trying to remember the schools and their
SH

characteristics, you might try to relate the information to things you already know. For instance,
you might try to remember the fundamentals of the cognitive school of psychology by linking
the characteristics to the computer model. The cognitive school focuses on how information is
input, processed, and retrieved, and you might think about how computers do pretty much the
same thing. You might also try to organize the information into meaningful units. For instance,
you might link the cognitive school to structuralism because both were concerned with mental
processes. You also might try to use visual cues to help you remember the information. You

63 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

might look at the image of Freud and imagine what he looked like as a child. That image might
help you remember that childhood experiences were an important part of Freudian theory. Each
person has his or her unique way of elaborating on information; the important thing is to try to
develop unique and meaningful associations among the materials.
5.3.4 The spacing effect
Information is learned better when it is studied in shorter periods spaced over time. The spacing

AN
effect refers to the fact that memory is better when it is distributed rather than massed. Another
good strategy is to study and then wait as long as you can before you forget the material. Then

G
review the information and again wait as long as you can before you forget it.
(This probably will be a longer period of time than the first time.) Repeat and repeat again. The

RE
spacing effect is usually considered in terms of the difference between distributed practice
(practice that is spread out over time) and massed practice (practice that comes in one block),
CE
with the former approach producing better memory. So, spacing effect refers to the fact that
learning is better when the same amount of study is spread out over periods of time than it is
IN
when it occurs closer together or at the same time. This means that even if you have only a
PR

limited amount of time to study, you’ll learn more if you study continually throughout the
semester (a little bit every day is best) than if you wait to cram at the last minute before your
exam (.
BY

5.3.5 Overlearning:
Researchers have also found that overlearning helps encoding. Overlearning is continuing to
ED

practice and study even when we think that we have mastered the material. Students frequently
think that they have already mastered the material but then discover when they get to the exam
AR

that they have not. The point is clear: Try to keep studying and reviewing, even if you think
you already know all the material.
SH

5.3.6 Context-dependent learning

Context-dependent learning refers to an increase in retrieval when the external situation in
which information is learned matches the situation in which it is remembered. We are more
likely to be able to retrieve items from memory when conditions at retrieval are similar to the
conditions under which we encoded them. For instance, you might want to try to study for an
exam in a situation that is similar to the one in which you are going to take the exam. Therefore,
use context-dependent retrieval. We have better retrieval when it occurs in the same situation

64 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

in which we learned the material. If possible, study under conditions similar to the conditions
in which you will take the exam.
5.3.7 state-dependent learning
Whereas context-dependent learning refers to a match in the external situation between
learning and remembering, state-dependent learning refers to superior retrieval of memories
when the individual is in the same physiological or psychological state as during encoding. We

AN
have better retrieval when we are in the same psychological state as we were when we learned
the material. Many possibilities, but don’t study under the influence of drugs or alcohol, unless

G
you plan to use them on the day of the exam (which is not recommended). People who learn

RE
information when they are in a bad (rather than a good) mood find it easier to recall these
memories when they are tested while they are in a bad mood, and vice versa. It is easier to
recall unpleasant memories than pleasant ones when we’re sad, and easier to recall pleasant
CE
memories than unpleasant ones when we’re happy.
IN
5.3.8 Quality sleep
Although some people require more or less sleep than the recommended amount, most people
PR

should aim for six–eight hours every night. School puts a lot of demands on the brain, and, like
tired muscles after a long workout, your brain needs to rest after being exercised and taking in
BY

all sorts of new information during the day. While you are sleeping, your brain is still at work.
During sleep, the brain organizes and consolidates information to be stored in long-term
ED

memory. A good night’s rest can help you remember more information.
CONCLUSION
AR

In this topic, we have looked at memory and forgetting. We have defined memory and
forgetting. Also, we have consider the types of processing that we do on the information we
SH

want to remember. Additionally, we have talked about the three memory storage systems
(sometimes considered as stages) through which a memory can pass through to reach storage,
and the types of memory of which implicit and explicit memories are subdivisions of the long-
term memory. Moreover, we have discussed the various explanations of why forgetting may
occur and how we can improve memory.
TOPIC REFERENCES
Boundless. (n.d.). The Process of Forgetting | Boundless psychology. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/the-process

65 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Mcleod, S. (2021). Context and state dependent memory. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/context-and-state-dependent-memory.html
McLeod, S. A. (2008). Forgetting. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/forgetting.html
Michela, E. (n.d.). Cognitivism - The Students' Guide to Learning Design and Research.
Retrieved 28th August 2021 from https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/cognitivism

AN
TOPIC 6: TRANSFER OF LEARNING

G
INTRODUCTION

RE
The purpose of school is to develop children’s skills and knowledge necessary for functioning
effectively inside and outside the school. It is meaningless to learn something that you can’t
CE
apply. So, worth of any learning is the ability to apply knowledge and skills in learning new
skill or concept or using it in another situation. In this unit, we will look at the ability called
IN
transfer of learning. We will define transfer of learning and talk about the different types and
dimensions of transfer of learning. We will also try to understand the nature of transfer of
PR

learning with the help of various viewpoints of psychologists as reflected in their theories.
Lastly, we will look at the ways of teaching for transfer and fostering positive transfer.
BY

Topic 1 Learning outcomes

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
ED

1. Define transfer of learning

2. Explain the different types and dimensions of transfer of learning
AR

3. Describe the theories of transfer of learning

4. Contrast the laws of learning by insight
SH

5. Consider ways of teaching for transfer

6. Discuss how positive transfer can be fostered.
Topic outline
6.1 Definition of transfer of learning
6.2 Types and dimensions of transfer of learning
6.3 Theories of transfer of learning
6.4 Teaching for transfer
6.5 Fostering positive transfer

66 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

 6.0 TRANSFER OF LEARNING
6.1 Meaning of transfer of learning
One of the important characteristics of learning is that the acquisition of skills, habits,
knowledge and attitudes, influences the acquisition of new learning due to some kind of carry-
over effect (CHAKMA, 2021). The carrying over of feelings, habits, skills, and knowledge
from one learning area to another is called transfer of learning. Transfer of learning is the

AN
application of learned knowledge in new ways or situations, as well as to how prior learning
affects new learning (Ertmer & Newby2018). It occurs when people apply information,

G
strategies, and skills they have learned to a new situation or context (Wikipedia,

RE
n.d.). It comes from similarity of contents, similarity of techniques, similarity of principles, or
a combination of these (CHAKMA, 2021). 6.2 Types of transfer of learning
A. Positive, negative and neutral transfer CE
There are three types of transfer of learning: positive, negative and neutral.
IN
When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is known as positive
transfer (Wand of Knowledge Team, n.d.). In the positive transfer, learning of one activity
PR

makes learning of another activity easier (CHAKMA, 2021). For example, skills in playing
violin facilitate learning to play piano. Knowledge of mathematics facilitates to learn physics
BY

in a better way. Driving a scooter facilitates driving a motorbike.

When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder, it is known as negative
transfer (Wand of Knowledge Team, n.d.). Example: left hand drive vehicles hindering the
ED

learning of right hand drive. Negative transfer occurs when the previous puts hindrances in the
performance of the subsequent task (CHAKMA, 2021). The content, techniques or principles
AR

which make for negative transfer are opposed to those required by the new situation.
When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of another task, it is a
SH

case of neutral transfer (Wand of Knowledge Team, n.d.). Neutral transfer refers to the fact
that previous learning has no effect on the subsequent learning (CHAKMA, 2021). For
example, knowledge of history in no way affects learning of driving a car or a scooter

B. Vertical versus Lateral transfer

Positive transfer can operate at two levels. These are: vertical transfer and lateral transfer.
Lateral (or horizontal) transfer refers to the individual’s ability to apply a skill learned or
knowledge acquired in one situation to another situation at similar levels of complexity. It

67 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

happens when learning in one context is employed at the same level in a new context. Lateral
transfer occurs when performing the skill exactly as learned but in a new situation (Wikipedia,
n.d.).
On the other hand, vertical transfer refers to learning at one level facilitating subsequent task
performance at higher levels of complexity. It occurs when a skill or bit of knowledge
contributes directly to the acquisition of a superordinate skill or bit of knowledge. Vertical

AN
transfer is based on the belief that previously learning facilitates new learning only to the extent
that the new learning task contains elements identical to those in the previous task and that

G
aspects of an initial skill are used to build a more advanced skill.

RE
C. Near versus far transfer
Near transfer refers to transfer between very similar contexts (Perkins & Salomon, 1992), as for
instance when students taking an exam face a mix of problems of the same kinds that they have
CE
practiced separately in their homework, or when a garage mechanic repairs an engine in a new
IN
model of car, but with a design much the same as in prior models. Near transfer occurs when
many elements overlap between the conditions in which the learner obtained the knowledge or
PR

skill and the new situation (Wikipedia, n.d.). It is applying what has been learnt to new situations
that are closely similar to, but not identical, to the original learning situation.
BY

So, near transfer tasks are perceptually similar.

With far transfer, the two situations or tasks are interestingly different on the surface but follow
the same rules. Far transfer, therefore, refers to transfer between contexts that, on appearance,
ED

seem remote and alien to one another (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). For instance, a chess player
might apply basic strategic principles such as take control of the center'' to investment practices,
AR

politics, or military campaigns. Far transfer occurs when the new situation is very different
from that in which learning occurred (Wikipedia, n.d.). It entails the application of what has
SH

been learnt to situations which are different from the original learning situation.
D. Proactive versus retroactive transfer
Transfer of learning can work both ways in that a skill currently being learnt may affect a skill
previously learnt, or previous learning may affect current learning. When a skill learnt in the
past influences a skill currently being learnt or to be learnt in the future, it is called proactive
transfer. When learning a new skill influences a previously learnt skill, it is called retroactive
transfer.

68 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Low road versus high road transfer

Low road transfer happens when stimulus conditions in the transfer context are sufficiently
similar to those in a prior context of learning to trigger well-developed semi-automatic
responses (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). It figures most often in near transfer. For example, when
a person moving a household rents a small truck for the first time, the person finds that the
familiar steering wheel, shift, and other features evoke useful car-driving responses.

AN
Driving the truck is almost automatic, although in small ways a different task.
On the other hand, high road transfer, in contrast, depends on mindful abstraction from the

G
context of learning or application and a deliberate search for connections (Perkins & Salomon,

RE
1992). It occurs when the learner consciously and deliberately ("mindfully") evaluates the new
situation and applies previous learning to it (Wikipedia, n.d.).
E. Bilateral Transfer
CE
In addition to all the above forms of transfer, there is also bilateral Transfer in which the
IN
learning of one skill is transferred from one limb to the other.
6.3 Theories of transfer of learning
PR

Different theories of transfer of learning have been proposed to explain how and why transfer
takes place, and what transfers from one situation to the next.
BY

1. Mental Discipline Theory

The mental discipline theory believed that specific mental faculties could be strengthened by
ED

particular courses of training and that these strengthened faculties transferred to other situations
(Wikipedia, n.d.). According to this theory, transfer of learning implies that training in one
AR

faculty of the mind may help in the functioning of older faculties as well various faculties of
mind (CHAKMA, 2021). Memory, reasoning, judgment, observation etc are directed or trained
SH

through various academic subjects. Learning and training is a mental process. Basic in the
transfer of learning is understanding of classical knowledge which includes the study of logic,
grammar, science and mathematics. This means that if you acquire knowledge and
understanding in these fields, you can be able to understand better the knowledge in other
fields. Examples: languages and mathematics give training to the mind which helps in learning
other subjects; a person who possesses a good knack for language can learn and retain any fact
easily. 2. Theory of Identical Elements

69 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

This theory was developed by E. L. Thorndike according to whom most of transfer occurs from
one situation to another in which there are most similar or identical elements (Wand of
Knowledge Team, n.d.). Thorndike, by proposing the theory of identical elements, took the
stand that resemblance and similarity between situations has a considerable effect on the
amount and kind of transfer of learning that can be carried over from one situation to the other
(CHAKMA, 2021). According to this theory, learning can be transferred from one activity to

AN
another if the two activities are highly similar and share many common elements (Hajian,
2019). This theory, therefore, explains that carrying over from one situation to another is

G
roughly proportional to the degree of resemblance in situation (Wand of Knowledge Team,

RE
n.d.). The level of transfer is determined by the level of similarity between the original context
of the training and the target context of the performance (Hajian, 2019). The more the
similarity, the more the transfer. The degree of transfer increases as the similarity of elements
CE
increase. For example, learning to ride moped is easy after learning to ride a bicycle. Here,
IN
transfer is very fast because of identical elements in both vehicles (n.d.). For instance, take
memorization. When a learner practices memorization in one subject area, s/he becomes
PR

capable of memorizing other subjects as well, to some extent. And it is quite possible that s/he
memorizes the content of some other subject areas quickly.
BY

3. Theory of Generalization of Experience

This theory was developed by Charles Judd who says that transfer of learning is nothing but a
generalization (CHAKMA, 2021). Generalization consists of perceiving and understanding
ED

what is common to a number of situations (Wand of Knowledge Team, n.d.). This theory
assumes that what is learnt in task ‘A’ transfers to task ‘B’, because in studying ‘A’, the learner
AR

develops a general principle which applies in part or completely in both ‘A’ and ‘B’ (n.d.).
Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to which they can
SH

be generalized and applied to another situation.

4. Theory of Low and High Road Transfer
In 1989, Perkins and Salomon developed the integrative theory of low and high road transfer
according to which there are two different, but connected, underlying mechanisms for transfer,
namely, low road and high road (Hajian, 2019). Low road transfer usually occurs when the
target and original activities share a countless number of features. For example, a person who
is driving a small truck for the first time usually finds the experience very similar to the

70 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

experience of driving a sedan car. Driving the truck is the same habitual experience although
it seems like a different task (Perkins & Salomon, 1992). These reflexive behaviours or
automatic responses in similar activities are the result of countless hours of practice.

However, high road transfer occurs as a result of mindful abstraction of general principles
among different events in different contexts and a deliberate search for connections among
their structures. For example, a person who takes a C++ programming course and is assigned

AN
a game development project at the end of the semester needs to ensure that he or she knows
the programming language well and then deliberately search for the connections between what

G
has been learned and what needs to be designed in a novel context. Similarly, learning

RE
Newton’s Laws in a Physics course and applying them to building an aircraft model needs
flexible adaptations of underlying principles to a completely new environment. High road
CE
transfer demands time for exploration, discovery, flexible adaptation of skills, and asking
questions such as what the problems are, what principles need to be applied and how the final
IN
outcomes need to be assessed. In practice the low and high road theory has offered two ways
for learners to increase their chance of applying their knowledge in different situations flexibly:
PR

effective practice and mindful abstraction of knowledge (Perkins & Salomon, 1988, 1989,
1992).
BY

This theory of low load and high load transfer leads to two broad instructional strategies in
fostering transfer: hugging and bridging (Hajian, 2019; Perkins & Salomon, 1992). Hugging is
ED

when the teacher encourages transfer by incorporating similarities between the learning
situation and the future situations in which the learning might be used (Wikipedia, n.d.). It is
AR

an instructional strategy that directly guides and engages the learner in the desired target
performance and therefore promotes reflexive transfer (Hajian, 2019). For example, a teacher
SH

might give students sample exam questions rather than just explaining how some particular
strategies may help them succeed in the exam. Similarly, a university job counselor might
encourage students to engage in mock interviews rather than just providing them with some
general rules of effective job interviews. This way the learning experience hugs the target
performance and optimizes the likelihood of automatic performance in similar situations (low
road transfer). On the other hand, bridging is when the teacher encourages transfer by helping
students to find connections between learning and to abstract their existing knowledge to new
concepts (Wikipedia, n.d.). It is an instructional strategy that employs the high road to transfer

71 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

and encourages intentional abstraction of the general rules by searching for possible
connections among various experiences or examples and applying them to unknown cases
(Hajian, 2019O). For example, an instructor who prompts students to adopt an exam strategy
based on their previous experiences creates an opportunity for students to analyze and reflect
on their strengths and weaknesses and create a general strategic plan for their future exams. To
maximize high road transfer, instructional designers need to create generic skills that can be

AN
used in various situations and not uniquely applicable to their original context (Winn, 1993).
5. The schema theory

G
Schemas or schemata are personalized organizational structures. They encompass our general

RE
knowledge of specific situations that are used to plan our actions and interactions (Michela,
n.d.). The schema theory suggests that during the learning process, a particular schema (or
schemata) is activated and serves as a structure for representing information and as a source of
CE
hypotheses about what kind of information to expect. According to schema theory, knowledge
IN
is stored in the memory in the form of mental models or representations known as schemata.
Schemata are coherent knowledge structures that are stored in memory. They arise from and
PR

mentally represent frequently experienced situations such as those pertaining to recognizing

people, executing a tennis stroke, visiting the doctor, remembering the route to work,
BY

understanding the nature of a theory and reading a textbook. Schemas are of two kinds. The
first is an abstract data structure consisting of generic entries for frequently experienced events
or concepts. As an example, a "going to the restaurant" schema include such information as
ED

restaurants are places to eat, one pays for the food there, one does not have to cook or clean up
at restaurants, etc. The second kind of schema contain procedural information. So, for example,
AR

we might activate a procedural schema when faced with learning a list of free recall words in
a psychology experiment. The procedural schema would activate subschemas having to do
SH

with particular strategies, such as active rehearsal, category clustering, etc., for learning the
words. Schema theory also provides a reasonably good account of transfer in those situations
involving the utilization of a previously learned skill.

If we conceptualize a skill (such as performing addition or long divisioas a sequence of

activities which could be performed in a variety of situations, we could then represent that skill
as a set of procedurals for operating on a data base. In summary, the schema theory is the idea

72 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

that knowledge is retained in the mind in terms of representations which are continually
reconstructed according to new experience.
6. Gestalt theory
According to this theory, transfer of learning occurs when a person is able to understand the
information or idea, its meaningfulness and its application to the daily life during the time of
learning or when experiencing something. This depends on the learners’ ability to understand

AN
the meaning of the idea or knowledge in one situation and understanding its application in other
situations.

G
6.4 TEACHING FOR TRANSFER

RE
Recommendations for teaching for transfer include the substantive method, procedural
methods, and the hugging and bridging strategies.
The substantive method is derived from the theory of identical elements which says that for
CE
transfer to take place there has to be similarity for example, if the child is learning how to ride
IN
a tricycle, then he should be tutored using a real tricycle. If he is being taught how to swim,
then we should have a pool of water.
PR

The procedural method entails the teacher ensuring that basic principles and concepts are
understood. If the main principles and concepts are not understood, understanding becomes
BY

very difficult. For example, in learning the meaning of words such as untie, unfair or unarmed,
it is useful for the learner to be told that the prefix “un” means not or contrary to. The learner
will then find meanings for many works like unaffected, unaccompanied, etc. In this kind of
ED

teaching for transfer, teachers should try to present a wide range of examples in which the
learners can see how new principles and techniques are used. Examples should be placed in
AR

real world settings.

Hugging is when the teacher encourages transfer by incorporating similarities between the
SH

learning situation and the future situations in which the learning might be used. Some methods
for hugging include simulation games, mental practice, and contingency learning. Bridging is
when the teacher encourages transfer by helping students to find connections between learning
and to abstract their existing knowledge to new concepts. Some methods for bridging include
brainstorming, developing analogies, and metacognition.

6.5 Fostering Positive Transfer of Learning

73 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

A. Teach subject matter in meaningful rather than rote contexts. Information that is not
meaningful will not be associated with other information and will be forgotten quickly.
B. Use principles and concepts. A major cause of transfer failure is that students have a
poor grasp of the concept or skills. When teaching, emphasis should be on principles and
concepts rather than on isolated facts (e.g. not just ask children to cram a formula in
Mathematics). If a child has learned the principle behind a type of mathematical problem,

AN
he/she should be able to do related problems without difficulty. If he/she has only learned to
do a particular type of problem by imitation, he/she may be totally unable to transfer the

G
problem-solving ability to similar problems. Poorly understood concepts do not transfer. Deep

RE
learning prepares student to transfer.
c. Constantly review the learnt material. Reviews remind students of what they already
know and point to where their knowledge will be relevant in your class. Studies show that
CE
where learners review what they previously learnt, they show more positive transfer of learning
IN
than those who do not.
d. Distributed learning: This means there should be intervals in the learning e.g. breaks in
PR

between school terms. When there are no pauses or breaks, we have what we call massed
learning. Material learnt under distributed learning shows more positive transfer than that
BY

learnt under massed learning. Therefore, as a teacher, provide opportunities for distributed
practice after the information has been initially learnt. The additional opportunities for practice
in a variety of realistic settings should be spread out over a lengthy period of time, rather
ED

combined into a single study session.

E. Provide opportunities for self-explanations. Have students explain in their own words
AR

to others or to themselves what they are learning. This type of explaining not only does help
students identify their incorrect assumptions, but it also helps them to generalize concepts for
SH

future applications.
F. Teach knowledge in a variety of contexts. Knowledge that is taught in a variety of
contexts is more likely to support flexible transfer than knowledge that taught in a single
context.
TOPIC CONCLUSION
In this topic, we have defined transfer of learning. We have defined and illustrated the different
types and dimensions of learning transfer. We have also described the theories of learning

74 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

transfer that have helped us to understand the nature of transfer of learning. Additionally, we
have talked about some strategies for teaching for transfer and how we can ensure positive
transfer.
References
Chakma, D. (2021). Transfer of learning: Meaning, nature and types of transfer of learning.
Retrieved 31st August 2021 from https://onlinenotebank.wordpress.com/2021/04/12/t

AN
Ertmer, P. A., Newby, T. J. (2018). Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Constructivism –
Foundations of Learning and Instructional Design Technology. Retrieved 27th August 2021

G
from https://lidtfoundations.pressbooks.com/chapter/beha

RE
Hajian, S. (2019). Transfer of Learning and Teaching: A Review of Transfer Theories and
Effective Instructional Practices. IAFOR Journal of education, 7(1), 93-111.
https://doi.org/10.22492/ije.7.1.06 CE
Michela, E. (n.d.). Cognitivism - The Students' Guide to Learning Design and Research.
IN
Retrieved 28th August 2021 from https://edtechbooks.org/studentguide/cognitivism Perkins,
D. N., & Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. International encyclopedia of education,
PR

2, 6452-6457. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2402396_Tr

Wand of Knowledge Team. (n.d.). Transfer of Learning: Types, Theories & Educational
BY

Implications. Retrieved from https://wandofknowledge.com/transfer-of-learning-ty Wikipedia.

(n.d.). Transfer of learning. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer_of_learning
ED

TOPIC 7: STUDENT MOTIVATION

AR

INTRODUCTION
In topics 5 and 6, we looked at memory and transfer of learning from which we can realize that
SH

learners need to remember what they have learnt and apply them in other learning situations if
they are to succeed in learning. However, the success of learning also depends on whether or
not the learners are motivated. Learning is inherently hard work; it is pushing the brain to its
limits. This can only happen with motivation, which is probably the single most important
element of learning. Motivating learners to learn is pertinent to curriculum implementation.
Highly motivated learners are likely to learn readily and make any class fun to teach, while
unmotivated learners may likely learn very little and generally make teaching painful and
frustrating. So, you cannot take learners’ motivation for granted, and you have a responsibility

75 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

to ensure learners are motivated to learn. You must persuade learners to want to do what they
ought to do. It is, therefore, important for you to understand and consider motivation when
designing learning experiences for students and also recognize the fact that motivating learning
is a central element of good teaching. This topic introduces what motivation is, its components,
types and dimensions as well as the theories that tell why your students may be motivated or
demotivated to learn and the strategies for motivating your learners.

AN
Topic Learning Outcomes
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

G
1. Define motivation and describe the three components of motivation

RE
2. Illustrate the different types of motivation.
3. Outline the four major dimensions that contribute to students’ motivation
4. Explain some theories of motivation CE
5. Discuss the techniques that you can employ to motivate learners.
IN
Topic Outline
7.1 Definition and components of motivation
PR

7.2 Types of Motivation

7.3 Dimensions of Students’ Motivation
BY

7.4 Theories of motivation

7.5 Techniques FOR MOTIVATING LEARNERS
7.0 STUDENT MOTIVATION
ED

7.1 Definition and Components of motivation

Motivation is defined as a theoretical construct used to explain the initiation, direction,
AR

intensity, persistence, and quality of behaviour, or more simply, the reasons a person engages
in a given behaviour (Thompson, 2018). It is the energisation and direction of behaviour. It is
SH

a desire to engage and persist in a task. It is the internal energy or driving force that initiates a
behaviour, directs a behaviour towards a goal, sustains behaviour and regulates behaviour.
Therefore, motivation refers to a state of being moved to do something, a movement that drives
a person’s behaviour. Students without motivation feel no impetus or inspiration to learn a new
behaviour and will not engage in any learning activities.
There are three major components of motivation that ensure that goals are reached. They are
1) activation, 2) persistence and 3) intensity.

76 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

1) Activation is the initial effort that you put in to instigate motivated action or behaviour.
It involves the decision to initiate behaviour, such as enrolling in an education class, or making
a courtesy call to initiate dialogue with a prospective client.
2) Persistence is continued and stimulated effort that you put in to reach your goal, steering
various obstacles that come your way. An example of persistence is taking more education
courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a significant investigation of time. 3)

AN
Intensity is the magnitude of the drive and energy you expend to reach your goal. It can be
seen in the concentration and vigor that goes in pursuing a goal. Example: one student might

G
coast by without much effort while other students will study regularly, participating in

RE
discussions and taking advantage of research activities outside of class. The first student lacks
intensity, while the second pursues his education goal with greater intensity.
7.2 TYPES OF MOTIVATION CE
There are different types of motivation that yield different effects on students’ learning.
IN
Generally, motivation is divided into two types, namely: primary motivation and secondary
motivation.
PR

7.2.1 .1 Primary motivation

Primary motivation is towards the satisfaction of physiological needs (i.e., things you need to
BY

do to maintain survival), such as the need for food, water, shelter, sex and other primary needs.
Because it concerns our needs for survival, it is also known as basic motivation.
7.2.2 Secondary motivation
ED

Secondary motivation is towards a behaviour that you do because you want to do it and not
because you need to do it. Secondary motivators are things that drive you personally to do
AR

something. Because you can choose what you want to achieve, behaviour derived from
secondary motivation takes the form of conscious actions. Secondary motivation is again
SH

divided into two types, namely: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.
A. Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation is an inner force that motivates students to engage in academic activities,
because they are interested in learning and they enjoy the learning process. It comes from
within the person. It is the choice people make for their own sake without considering any
external component. Here, the stimulus is internal to the person; it can be biological, emotional,
spiritual, or social. In this case, there are no external rewards. It is driven by an interest or

77 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

enjoyment which a person feels in a task. Intrinsic motivation is about being motivated by the
activity itself. In this case, there are no external rewards; an activity is undertaken for self-
pleasure and individual satisfaction. A person undertakes an activity for self-pleasure and
individual satisfaction (Filgona et al., 2020). So, a person is intrinsically motivated when he or
she finds an activity enjoyable, interesting, meaningful, or worthwhile. The end goal is not a
visible or external thing but, rather, an internal desire to become better at something or know

AN
more about it even if there is no visible or physical reward. Examples, people have intrinsic
motivation to write poetry if they do it simply they enjoy; students may study for a test because

G
they enjoy the content of the course; and children play games for no other reward than the fun

RE
they get from the game itself.
B. Extrinsic motivation
With intrinsic motivation, learners learn better and are more process-oriented, more persistent
CE
in learning and more prone to self- learning and development (Filgona et al., 2020). However,
IN
some forms of extrinsic motivation may be necessary for the situation. Extrinsic motivation
means being motivated not by the activity itself but by the things it brings. It refers to the
PR

performance of a task for attaining an outcome (Filgona et al., 2020). Here, the stimulus is
outside the person, it may be in the form of some kind of reward, social approval, or
BY

appreciation. It arises from outside the individual and from rewards obtained not from the
activity but as a consequence of the activity. It occurs when a person expects an external
reward. Thus, learners who are externally motivated perform an action with an anticipation of
ED

some outcome other than the learning itself. Extrinsic motivation promotes effort and
performance with rewards serving as positive reinforcers for the desired behaviour.
AR

C. Other types of motivation

SH

There are some other types of motivation also found in literature (Filgona et al., 2020). These
include:
I. Instrumental motivation, which is extrinsic in nature where students perform an activity
in order to obtain tangible rewards.
II. Social motivation: This is where students perform a task in order to earn praise from
those they respect or admire (e.g. teachers and parents). III. Amotivation: This is the situation
in which the learner lacks the intention to engage in the learning activity—not feeling
worthwhile to make any effort in the study—as a result of being externally controlled. IV.

78 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Achievement motivation, with which learners learn with the hope of succeeding. There are
three elements in achievement motivation:
* Cognitive drive: Students tries to satisfy his/her need ‘to know’; * Self-
enhancement: Students tries to satisfy his/her self-esteem; and
* Affiliation motivation: Students wants to earn approval from others.

AN
7.3 DIMENSIONS OF STUDENT MOTIVATION
Researchers generally agree on four major dimensions that contribute to students’ motivation

G
(Filgona et al., 2020). At least one of these dimensions must be satisfied for a student to be

RE
motivated. The more dimensions that are met, and the more strongly they are met, the greater
the motivation will be. These dimensions are:
CE
(a) Competence: The student believes he or she has the ability to complete the task. (b)
Control/autonomy: The student feels in control by seeing a direct link between his or her
IN
actions and an outcome and retains autonomy by having some choice about whether or how
to undertake the task.
PR

(c) Interest/value: The student has some interest in the task or sees the value of completing it.
(d) Relatedness: Completing the task brings the student social rewards, such as a sense of
BY

belonging to a classroom or other desired social group or approval from a person of social
importance to the student.
ED

The interplay of these dimensions, along with other dynamics like school climate and home
environment, is quite complex and varies not only among different students but also within the
AR

same students in different situations. Still, this basic framework can be helpful in designing or
analyzing the impact of various strategies to increase students’ motivation.
SH

7.4 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

There are several theories of motivation that each describe different aspects of the concept and
that contribute to our understanding of it in different ways.
1) The theory of goal orientation
What drives an individual to be successful is referred to as a motive. A motive is a reason or
purpose for behaviour.
One way motives vary is by the kind of goals that students set for themselves, and by how the
goals support students’ academic achievement (Filgona et al., 2020; Thompson, 2018). Goals

79 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

are the outcome that a person is trying to accomplish. Besides goal content (i.e., what a person
wants to achieve), the reason that a person tries to achieve a certain goal also has a significant
influence on learning and performance. The reasons or purposes for engaging in learning
activities and explain individuals’ different ways of approaching and responding to
achievement situations refer to goal orientations.

Seifert and Sutton [2009] classified students’ goals into four categories, namely: (i) mastery

AN
goal, (ii) performance goal, (iii) failure-avoidance goal, and (iv) social goals. Imagine three
individuals—Maria, Sara, and Lindsay—who are taking algebra together. Maria’s main

G
concern is to learn the material as well as possible because she finds it interesting and because

RE
she believes it will be useful to her in later courses, perhaps at university. Hers is a mastery
goal because she wants primarily to learn or master the material. Sara, however, is concerned
CE
less about algebra than about getting top marks on the exams and in the course. Hers is a
performance goal because she is focused primarily on looking successful; learning algebra is
IN
merely a vehicle for performing well in the eyes of peers and teachers. Lindsay, for her part, is
primarily concerned about avoiding a poor or failing mark. Hers is a performance avoidance
PR

goal, or failure-avoidance goal, because she is not really concerned about learning algebra, as
Maria is, or about competitive success, as Sara is; she is simply intending to avoid failure.
BY

Mastery and performance goals encourage and enhance achievement, but failure-avoidance
and social goals indirectly affect achievement (Thompson, 2018).
ED

Mastery goals tend to be associated with enjoyment of learning the material at hand, and in this
sense represent an outcome that teachers often seek for students. By definition therefore they
AR

are a form of intrinsic motivation. As such, mastery goals have been found to be better than
performance goals at sustaining students’ interest in a subject.
SH

Performance goals, on the other hand, imply extrinsic motivation focus on doing better than
others (e.g., "My goal in this class is to do better than other students."). When pursuing
performance goals, an individual's purpose is to demonstrate competence relative to others, for
instance, by striving to best others, using social comparative standards to make judgments
about their abilities while seeking favorable judgment from others. Thus, individuals can be
motivated to achieve for two very different reasons: to increase their competence by learning
as much as they can or to gain favorable judgments of their competence by performing as well
as they can compared to others. Unlike mastery goals that are form of intrinsic motivation,

80 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

performance goals imply extrinsic motivation, and tend to show the mixed effects of this
orientation. A positive effect is that students with a performance orientation do tend to get
higher grades than those who express primarily a mastery orientation. The advantage in grades
occurs both in the short term (with individual assignments) and in the long term (with overall
grade point average when graduating). But there is evidence that performance oriented students
do not actually learn material as deeply or permanently as students who are more mastery

AN
oriented.
Failure-avoidant goals by nature undermine academic achievement. Often they are the negative

G
by-product of the competitiveness of performance goals. If you put too much emphasis on

RE
being the best in the class, and if interest in learning the material as such, therefore , suffers,
then you may decide that success is beyond your reach or may not be desirable in any case.
The alternative— simply avoiding failure—may seem wiser as well as more feasible. Once
CE
you adopt this attitude, you may underachieve more or less deliberately, doing only the
IN
minimum work necessary to avoid looking foolish or to avoid serious conflict with the teacher.

Students with social goals are primarily concerned about looking good to someone else. Most
PR

students need and value relationships, both with classmates and with teachers, and often
(though not always) they get a good deal of positive support from the relationships. But the
BY

effects of social relationships are complex and at times can work both for and against academic
achievement. If a relationship with the teacher is important and reasonably positive, then the
ED

student is likely to try pleasing the teacher by working hard on assignments (Dowson &
McInerney, [113]). Many assignments can be accomplished productively in groups, for
AR

example, as long as the groups are formed thoughtfully. But the majority of students’ social
contacts are likely always to come from students’ own initiatives with each other in simply
SH

taking time to talk and interact. The teacher’s job is to encourage these informal contacts,
especially when they happen at times that support rather than interfere with learning.
2) Attribution theory
Attributions are perceptions about the causes of success and failure (Thompson, 2018) Suppose
that you get a low mark on a test and are wondering what caused the low mark. You can
construct various explanations for (that is, make various attributions about) this failure: maybe
you did not study very hard; maybe the test itself was difficult; maybe you were unlucky;
maybe you doubt your own intelligence. Each explanation attributes the failure to a different

81 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

factor. The explanations that you settle upon may reflect the truth accurately, or then again,
they may not. What is important about attributions is that they reflect personal beliefs about
the sources or causes of success and failure. Therefore, the attribution theory considers the
source of people’s motivation to be their perception of why they succeeded or failed. The
theory assumes that people try to understand causal determinants of their own success and
failures.

AN
Attributions are classified along three dimensions: locus, stability, and controllability
(Thompson, 2018). The locus of an attribution is the location of the source of success or failure;

G
it is concerned with whether a cause is within or outside the individual. For instance, if you

RE
attribute a top mark on a test to your ability, then the locus is internal; if you attribute the mark
to the test’s having easy questions, then the locus is external. The stability of an attribution is
its relative permanence. It refers to whether or not the cause is constant. If you attribute the
CE
mark to your ability, then the source of success is relatively stable — by definition, ability is a
IN
relatively lasting quality. If you attribute a top mark to the effort you put into studying, then
the source of success is unstable — effort can vary and has to be renewed on each occasion or
PR

else it disappears. The controllability of an attribution is the extent to which the individual can
influence it. It concerns how much control an individual has over a cause. Learners can control
BY

effort but not luck or task difficulty. If you attribute a top mark to your effort at studying, then
the source of success is relatively controllable—you can influence effort simply by deciding
how much to study. But if you attribute the mark to simple luck, then the source of the success
ED

is uncontrollable—there is nothing that can influence random chance. 3) The drive-reduction

theory
AR

The drive-reduction theory of motivation proposes that the maintenance of homeostasis is

SH

particularly important in directing behaviour (Walters, 2020). Homeostasis is the tendency to

maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. According to the
drivereduction theory of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs.
These needs result in psychological drive states that direct behaviour to meet the need and,
ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. For example, if it’s been a while since you
ate, your blood sugar levels will drop below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a
physiological need and a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek out
and consume food. Eating will eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels

82 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

will return to normal. The Drive reduction theory can be simply described as you don't want to
be hungry, thirsty, or in pain. If your body wants something, that want is the drive. You are
motivated to reduce the drive. There are two types of drives: primary or secondary drives,
which mirrors our earlier discussion of primary and secondary reinforcers and punishers.
4) The arousal theory
Just as the drive-reduction theory aims to return the body to homeostasis, arousal theory aims

AN
to find the optimal level of arousal. In psychology, arousal represents mental alertness and
attentiveness. It is a physiological and psychological state of being awake or reactive to stimuli.

G
The arousal theory asserts that there is an optimal level of arousal that we all try to maintain

RE
(Walters, 2020). If we are underaroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of
stimulation. On the other hand, if we are overaroused, we will engage in behaviours to reduce
our arousal. In other words, the arousal theory suggests that to improve the efficiency and
CE
maintain your output, you take necessary steps to increase or decrease the stimulation
IN
accordingly. If the stimulation is too low, you try to work it through indulging in other activities
that can excite you. On the other hand, when the stimulation is too high, you try to do activities
PR

that can calm your excitement such as meditation, etc. The theory claims that the need for
increased or decreased state of arousal depends on the individual, to reach the optimum level.
BY

Most students have experienced this need to maintain optimal levels of arousal over the course
of their academic career. Think about how much stress students experience toward the end of
spring semester. They feel overwhelmed with seemingly endless exams, papers, and major
ED

assignments that must be completed on time. They probably yearn for the rest and relaxation
that awaits them over the extended summer break. However, once they finish the semester, it
AR

doesn’t take too long before they begin to feel bored. Generally, by the time the next semester
is beginning in the fall, many students are quite happy to return to school. This is an example
SH

of how arousal theory works.

5) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a motivational theory in psychology comprising a five-tier
model of human needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. At the base of
the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are necessary for survival (Walters, 2020).
These are followed by basic needs for security and safety, the need to be loved and to have a
sense of belonging, and the need to have self-worth and confidence. The top tier of the pyramid

83 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to achieving one’s full potential,
and it can only be realized when lower on the pyramid needs have been met. Needs lower down
in the hierarchy must be satisfied before individuals can attend to needs higher up. The original
hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:

a) Physiological needs - these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g. air,
food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human

AN
body cannot function optimally. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important
as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.

G
b) Safety needs - once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for

RE
security and safety become salient. People want to experience order, predictability and control
in their lives. These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g. police, schools,
CE
business and medical care). For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g.
employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property,
IN
health and wellbeing (e.g. safety against accidents and injury).
c) Love and belongingness needs - after physiological and safety needs have been
PR

fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
Belongingness, refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating,
BY

connectedness, and being part of a group. Examples of belongingness needs include friendship,
intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love. d) Esteem needs are
ED

the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy and include self-worth, accomplishment and respect.
Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (i) esteem for oneself (dignity,
AR

achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others
(e.g., status, prestige).
SH

e) Self-actualization needs are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the
realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences. This level is described as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to
become the most that one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very
specifically. For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent.
In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically or athletically. For others,
it may be expressed creatively, in paintings, pictures, or inventions.

84 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

This five-teer model is divided into deficiency needs and growth needs (McLeod, 2020). The
first four levels are often referred to as deficiency needs, and the top level is known as growth
or being needs. Deficiency needs arise due to deprivation and are said to motivate people when
they are unmet. Also, the motivation to fulfill such needs will become stronger the longer the
duration they are denied. For example, the longer a person goes without food, the more hungry
he will become. In the case of growth needs, behaviour is not driven or motivated by deficiency

AN
but, rather, by one’s desire for personal growth and the need to become all the things that a
person is capable of becoming.

G
The expanded hierarchy of needs

RE
It is important to note that Maslow's five-stage model has been expanded to include cognitive
and aesthetic needs and later transcendence needs (McLeod, 2020). Changes to the original
five-stage model are highlighted below and include a seven-stage model and an eight-stage
CE
model; both developed during the 1960s and 1970s.
IN
I. Biological and physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
II. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from
PR

fear. III. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance,
receiving and giving affection and love. Affiliating, being part of a group (family, friends,
BY

work). IV. Esteem needs - which Maslow classified into two categories: (i) esteem for
oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, and independence) and (ii) the need to be accepted
and valued by others (e.g., status, prestige).
ED

V. Cognitive needs - knowledge and understanding, curiosity, exploration, need for meaning
and predictability.
AR

VI. Aesthetic needs - appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
VII. Self-actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal
SH

growth and peak experiences. A desire “to become everything one is capable of becoming”
(Maslow, 1987, p. 64).

VIII. Transcendence needs - A person is motivated by values which transcend beyond the
personal self (e.g., mystical experiences and certain experiences with nature, aesthetic
experiences, sexual experiences, service to others, the pursuit of science, religious faith,
etc.).
6) Self-efficacy theory

85 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

Self efficacy is a person's belief in his or her ability to perform a particular behaviour. For
instance, self-efficacy is a belief that you can write an acceptable term paper. Thus, the
selfefficacy theory suggests that if we judge ourselves as having high self-efficacy, we tend to
be motivated. When students believe that they are competent to successfully accomplish a task,
they are more motivated to engage in and complete the task. Compared to low-efficacy
learners, high-efficacy students choose to engage in more challenging tasks, work harder,

AN
persist longer in the face of difficulties, and perform better.
7) Self-determination theory

G
Self-determination theory, which was proposed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan

RE
(Thompson, 2018), is a theory of human motivation and personality which suggests that people
are able to become self-determined when their needs for competence, relatedness, and
autonomy are fulfilled (Lopez-Garrido, 2021). It proposes that understanding motivation
CE
requires taking into account three basic human needs: competence, relatedness and autonomy
IN
(Thompson, 2018), and that personal well-being is a direct function of the satisfaction of these
basic psychological needs (Lopez-Garrido, 2021).
PR

A. Competence (need to be effective in dealing with the environment): Competence is a

term utilized to describe someone who has sufficient qualities to perform a given task or to
BY

describe the state of having sufficient intellect, judgment, skill, and/or strength. When an
individual feels competent they feel able to interact effectively within their environment, and
they have the skills needed for success to ensure that their goals are achieved. A competent
ED

person feels a sense of mastery over their environment. If tasks are too challenging or a person
receives negative feedback, feelings of competence can decrease. Alternatively, feelings of
AR

competence are enhanced when the demands of a task are optimally matched to a person's
skills, or positive feedback is received.
SH

B. Relatedness (need to have close, affectionate relationships): Relatedness is the ability

to feel a sense of both attachment to other people and a sense of belonging amongst other
people. Relatedness involves feelings of closeness and belonging to a social group. Without
connections, self-determination is harder to achieve because the individual would lack access
to both help and support. Feelings of relatedness are enhanced when individuals are respected
and cared for by others, and are part of an inclusive environment. Alternatively, feelings of
relatedness are undermined by competition with others, cliques, and criticism from others.

86 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

C. Autonomy (need to feel self-governing and independent): Autonomy is the ability to
feel in control of one's behaviour and destiny, and involves self-initiation and self-regulation
of one's own behaviour. Autonomy involves being able to make your own decisions and is
associated with feelings of independence. Feelings of autonomy are enhanced when
individuals are given choice and are able to govern their own behaviour, and when other people
acknowledge their feelings. Alternatively, individuals lack autonomy if they feel controlled or

AN
threatened by others, or have to operate according to deadlines. Tangible rewards can also
reduce feelings of autonomy. If one were to give someone an extrinsic reward for already

G
intrinsically motivated behaviour, then the likelihood that autonomy is undermined (given that

RE
the extrinsic reward is likely to draw attention away from autonomy) is fairly large. It gets even
worse if the behaviour is repeated: as the behaviour becomes increasingly controlled by
external rewards rather than by autonomy. Thus, intrinsic motivation is diminished, and people
CE
start to feel both a different source for their motivation and less belief in their own personal
IN
qualities.
These needs are about personal growth or development, not about deficits that a person tries to
PR

reduce or eliminate. Unlike food or safety needs, you can never get enough autonomy,
competence, or relatedness. You will seek to enhance these continually throughout life. This
BY

theory focuses on the interplay between the extrinsic forces acting on persons and the intrinsic
motive and needs of human beings (Lopez-Garrido, 2021). People can generally be motivated
by outside factors such as money, acclaim, and fame, and this type of motivation is known as
ED

extrinsic motivation. However, self-determination theory focuses primarily on internal sources

of motivation (known as intrinsic motivation), such as learning to gain independence and
AR

wanting to prove yourself. Thus, the key idea of self-determination theory is that when people
feel that these basic needs are reasonably well met, they tend to perceive their actions and
SH

choices to be intrinsically motivated or “self-determined.” (Thompson, 2018). In other words,

students will be motivated more intrinsically if these three needs are met as much as possible.
Therefore, according to the theory, intrinsic motivation emerges spontaneously from satisfying
these three needs.
8) The Reinforcement theory
This theory was proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states that individual’s behaviour
is a function of its consequences, which means an individual develops a behaviour after

87 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

performing certain actions. This reinforcement theory is based on the “law of effect”, which is
the idea that behaviours are selected by their consequences, positing that an individual is likely
to repeat behaviours having positive consequences and will avoid those behaviours that result
in negative or unpleasant outcomes. Reinforcement theory proposes that you can change
someone's behaviour by using reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Reinforcement are
used to reinforce the behaviour you want and punishments are used to prevent the behaviour

AN
you do not want. Extinction is a means to stop someone from performing a learned behaviour.
Therefore, this theory describes five interventions teachers can use to modify or control

G
students’ behaviour. These are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction,

RE
positive punishment and negative punishment.

9) The incentive theory

CE
An incentive is something that motivates, rouses, or encourages; it is an anticipated reward or
aversive event from the environment. Incentive theory is based on the idea that behaviour is
IN
primarily extrinsically motivated. It argues that people are more motivated to perform activities
if they receive a reward afterward, rather than simply because they enjoy the activities
PR

themselves. For instance, grades offer extrinsic motivation to engage in learning behaviours:
students are generally motivated to do a better job if they know their performance will be
BY

judged. Also, the incentive theory suggests that people act to obtain positive stimuli and avoid
negative stimuli. 10) Expectancy-value Theory
ED

The expectancy-value theory suggests that the two most immediate predictors of achievement
behaviours are expectancies for success and task value beliefs (Thompson, 2018). Expectancies
AR

for success refer to students’ beliefs of whether they will do well on an upcoming task. The
more students expect to succeed at a task, the more motivated they are to engage with it. On
SH

the other hand, task value answers the question, “Why should I do this task?” There are four
possible answers to the question: intrinsic value, attainment value, utility value, and cost.
Intrinsic value is pure enjoyment a student feels from performing a task. When they are
intrinsically interested in it, students are willing to become involved in a given task. Attainment
value refers to the importance of doing well on a task. Tasks are perceived important when
they reflect the important aspects of one’s self. Utility value is the perception that a task will
be useful for meeting future goals, for instance, taking a Chinese class to get a job in China.
The last component of task value, cost, refers to what an individual has to give up to engage in

88 | Shared by Julius Nasasira

a task or the effort needed to accomplish the task. If the cost is too high, students will be less
likely to engage in a given task. Therefore, according to the expectancy-value theory, in order
to be motivated, it is necessary for a person to have at least a modest expectation of success
and to assign a task at least some positive value. If you have high expectations of success but
do not value a task at all (mentally assign it a “0” value), then you will not feel motivated at
all. Likewise, if you value a task highly but have no expectation of success about completing

AN
it (assign it a “0” expectancy), then you also will not feel motivated to perform.
7.5 TECHNIQUES FOR MOTIVATING LEARNERS

G
There are several techniques that you can employ to motivate learners. To learn about the

RE
different techniques for motivating your learners, read about strategies for motivating the
learners on Pages 27-30 of Filgona, J., Sakiyo, J., Gwany, D. M., & Okoronka, A. U. (2020)
available at https://doi.org/10.9734/AJESS/2020/v10i430273.
CE
Topic Conclusion
In this topic, we have looked at what motivation is, its components, types and dimensions as
IN
well as the theories that tell why your students may be motivated or demotivated to learn and
PR

the strategies for motivating your learners.

Topic References
Filgona, J., Sakiyo, J., Gwany, D. M., & Okoronka, A. U. (2020). Motivation in learning.
BY

Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 10(4), 16-37.

https://doi.org/10.9734/AJESS/2020/v10i430273
ED

Lopez-Garrido, G. (2021). Self-determination theory and motivation. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-determination-theory.html
AR

McLeod, S. A. (2020). Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Simply Psychology.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html
SH

Seifert, K. & Sutton, R. (2009). Educational Psychology (3rd ed.) the Saylor Foundation.
Available at https://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Educational-
Psychology.pdf
Thompson, P. (2018). Foundations of educational technology. Retrieved from
https://epress.library.okstate.edu/catalog/foundations-of-educational-
technology/foundationsof-educational-technology-2018.pdf
Walters, S. (2020). 11.2 Theories of motivation – Psychology – 1st Canadian Edition.
Retrieved from https://psychology.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/11-2-t
89 | Shared by Julius Nasasira