The University Wits

The University Wits were a group of young, well-educated Elizabethan

dramatists and poets, active during the late 16th century, who laid the
groundwork for the flowering of English drama in the age of Shakespeare. They
were university-educated, mostly from Oxford and Cambridge, and were
instrumental in transforming English drama from rudimentary morality plays
and interludes into more sophisticated, poetic, and emotionally complex works.
The term "University Wits" was not coined during the Elizabethan era, but
was introduced later by 19th-century literary historians and critics,
particularly by George Saintsbury.
Who Were the University Wits?
The term "University Wits" was coined much later by 19th-century scholars to
collectively describe this group. The main figures include:
1. Christopher Marlowe (Cambridge)
2. Robert Greene (Cambridge)
3. Thomas Nashe (Cambridge)
4. Thomas Lodge (Oxford)
5. George Peele (Oxford)
6. John Lyly (Oxford)
7. Thomas Kyd (not a university man, but often associated due to similar
themes)
Characteristics of the University Wits:
1. University Education
 All (except Thomas Kyd, sometimes included) were graduates of
Oxford or Cambridge.
 They were classically trained, well-versed in rhetoric, Latin, Greek, and
humanist learning.
 Their education gave them literary ambition and a desire to elevate
English drama to classical standards.
2. Emphasis on Tragedy and the Heroic Theme
 Their plays often featured larger-than-life heroes, like Tamburlaine and
Doctor Faustus.
  These protagonists displayed:
o Overreaching ambition
o Renaissance individualism
o Tragic downfall
 Themes of fate, sin, hubris, and divine punishment were central.
3. Use of Blank Verse
 Christopher Marlowe perfected blank verse (unrhymed iambic
pentameter), which became the staple of Elizabethan drama.
 Their poetry was often eloquent, rhetorical, and musical.
 They moved away from clumsy rhymed couplets and prose of earlier
morality plays.
4. Stirring Themes and Passionate Tone
 Their works dealt with intense emotions, violent action, magic,
revenge, and forbidden love.
 The tone was frequently highly dramatic, theatrical, and intense.
 They made passion a driving force in character development and
conflict.
5. Bombastic and Grandiloquent Style
 Their language was ornate, elaborate, and poetic, often excessively so.
 They used figurative language, rhetorical flourishes, and long speeches.
 This “high style” reflected their classical influences but could verge on
the melodramatic.
6. Love of Sensationalism and Melodrama
 Their plays often included:
o Murder, betrayal, war, magic, ghosts, or madness
o Supernatural and mythological elements
 They appealed to the popular audience’s taste for spectacle and
sensationalism.
7. Blend of Classical and Native Traditions
  They fused classical dramatic models (like Senecan tragedy) with
native English traditions (miracle and morality plays).
 Incorporated classical unities selectively (time, place, action), but didn’t
rigidly follow them.
8. Social Criticism and Satire
 Writers like Robert Greene and Thomas Nashe were known for social
satire in prose and drama.
 They commented on:
o Corruption in church and state
o Hypocrisy of scholars
o Decline of values and exploitation
 Their pamphlets often had a biting, moralizing tone.
9. Transition from Medieval to Renaissance Drama
 They broke away from the allegorical morality play model.
 Introduced psychologically complex characters, real political themes,
and philosophical dilemmas.
 Helped transform English theatre into a more secular, human-centered,
and expressive art form.
10. Forerunners of Shakespeare
 Their innovation in structure, language, and characterization laid the
groundwork for the greatness of Shakespearean drama.
 Marlowe, in particular, deeply influenced Shakespeare in terms of:
o Character development
o Use of blank verse
o Exploration of tragic ambition
11. Marginal Social Status
 Most led bohemian, unstable lives—writing for the stage wasn’t a
respected profession.
 Many died young or poor (e.g., Marlowe killed in a tavern brawl, Greene
in poverty).
  Despite their learning, they lived on the margins of society, often clashing
with the establishment and the rising popularity of professional writers
like Shakespeare.

John Lyly (c. 1554 – c. 1606)

John Lyly was a key figure in the early development of English Renaissance
prose and drama. He is best known for pioneering a highly ornate prose style
called Euphuism, which significantly influenced English literature and courtly
writing in the late 16th century. Lyly was also a successful playwright and an
important forerunner of Shakespeare, especially in the development of court
comedies.
Biography
 Birth: c. 1554, in Kent, England.
 Education: Magdalen College, Oxford; BA in 1573 and MA in 1575.
 Career: Served under Queen Elizabeth I’s patronage; worked in the court
and wrote plays for the Children of Paul's and the Children of the Chapel,
two prominent boy acting companies.
 Death: c. 1606, largely out of public favor by then.

Style and Influence: Euphuism

Lyly’s Euphuism was characterized by:
 Alliteration and antithesis
 Balanced and symmetrical sentence structure
 Heavy use of classical and mythological references
 Use of rhetorical questions and similes drawn from nature
This style became fashionable in Elizabethan courts and greatly influenced
writers like Shakespeare (especially in his early comedies).
Major Works:
1. Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit (1578)
Summary:
The story follows Euphues, a young Athenian gentleman who travels to Naples.
He falls in love with Lucilla, but she is fickle and later betrays him. The book
becomes a medium for moral and philosophical discourses on love, friendship,
education, and courtship.
Themes:
 Education and the folly of youth
 The dangers of passion
 The value of wit and wisdom
Significance:
 Set the tone for "Euphuism"
 A didactic and philosophical novel, full of moral precepts
 First English novel to experiment so extensively with prose style
2. Euphues and His England (1580)
Summary:
A sequel to Euphues: The Anatomy of Wit, it follows Euphues' journey through
England, commenting on English society, court life, and customs. It ends with
his retreat to a scholarly life.
Themes:
 National identity and cultural commentary
 Courtly behaviour
 Ideal friendship
Significance:
 Shows early nationalistic pride in English culture
 More polished than the first book
 Combined fiction with socio-political commentary.
3. Campaspe (1584)
Summary:
Set in the court of Alexander the Great, the play revolves around his love for the
beautiful Campaspe, who in turn loves Apelles, Alexander’s painter. Ultimately,
Alexander sacrifices his love for the sake of their happiness.
Significance:
  A courtly romantic comedy
 Praised for its refined tone and balance of love and duty
 One of the earliest romantic comedies in English drama
4. Sapho and Phao (1584)
Summary:
Tells the tale of Queen Sapho’s unrequited love for Phao, a beautiful young
man. Phao is too modest and eventually leaves court life.
Significance:
 Explores themes of platonic love and female power
 Likely a veiled compliment to Queen Elizabeth
 Feminine authority vs. romantic desire
5. Endymion: The Man in the Moon (1588)
Summary:
Endymion, a courtier, is in love with Cynthia, the moon goddess (an allegory
for Elizabeth I). He is enchanted and sleeps for decades. Upon awakening, he is
reunited with Cynthia, but only in a spiritual, chaste love.
Significance:
 Major allegory praising Queen Elizabeth
 A dreamy, fantastical court comedy
 Anticipates Shakespearean themes of love, sleep, and transformation
6. Gallathea (1588)
Summary:
Two maidens, Gallathea and Phyllida, disguise themselves as boys to escape
being sacrificed to Neptune. They fall in love with each other, each believing
the other to be male. Venus finally blesses their union.
Significance:
 Early exploration of gender fluidity and same-sex love
 Mythological setting with themes of disguise and desire
 Strong female roles, cross-dressing, proto-Shakespearean
7. Midas (c. 1589)
Summary:
Based on the legend of King Midas, it weaves themes of greed, vanity, and
repentance. Midas wishes everything he touches turn to gold and is cursed. He
later seeks redemption.
Significance:
 Political allegory, possibly mocking Philip II of Spain
 Cautionary tale against greed
 Philosophical satire in a mythic framework
8. Mother Bombie (c. 1590)
Summary:
A farcical, realistic comedy set in Rochester. Parents attempt to arrange
marriages for their foolish sons and clever daughters, but trickery and disguises
reveal true matches.
Significance:
 Lyly’s only “realistic” comedy
 No mythological elements; more in line with Roman comedy
 Shows his range and versatility
9. Love’s Metamorphosis (c. 1590)
Summary:
Gods transform mortals as punishment for not submitting to love. Ultimately,
love and forgiveness restore harmony.
Significance:
 Pastoral play emphasizing the power of love
 Themes of transformation and retribution
 Strong mythological framing
10. The Woman in the Moon (written c. 1595, published 1597)
Summary:
Focuses on Nature, who creates the first woman, Pandora, bestowing her with
the qualities of all the planets. The play explores her unpredictable moods and
impact on men.
Significance:
  Early proto-feminist text showing ambivalence about female nature
 Blend of astrology, myth, and gender commentary
 Rich in symbolism
Literary Significance of John Lyly
1. Father of Euphuism: Created a new, sophisticated style of prose;
influenced the English court and educated readership.
2. Innovator of English Comedy: Helped develop the Elizabethan
romantic comedy.
3. Influence on Shakespeare:
o Shakespeare adopted his use of prose, mythological allusions, and
witty wordplay.
o Lyly's female characters and cross-dressing motifs appear in
Twelfth Night, As You Like It, and Love’s Labour’s Lost.
4. Master of Court Allegory: Many plays flatter Queen Elizabeth in veiled,
symbolic narratives.
5. Early Gender Exploration: Gallathea and The Woman in the Moon
explore complex ideas of gender, disguise, and identity, ahead of their
time.
INTERESTING FACTS
 Lyly’s prose was once as admired as Shakespeare’s verse. His style was
the trend of the 1580s.
 He frequently wrote for children’s acting troupes (not adult actors).
 Though popular in his time, Lyly fell out of favor and died neglected.
 Despite petitions, he was never granted a position at court, though he
sought one for years.
Thomas Kyd (1558–1594)
Thomas Kyd was an important figure in the development of Elizabethan drama,
best known for pioneering the revenge tragedy genre that later influenced
Shakespeare and other dramatists. His most celebrated play, The Spanish
Tragedy, set a template for theatrical conventions in the late 16th century.
Biography
  Born: 1558, London
 Education: Merchant Taylors' School, where he may have studied
alongside contemporaries like Edmund Spenser.
 Profession: Playwright, poet, possibly a scrivener’s apprentice
 Associations: Likely connected with Christopher Marlowe. His career
ended abruptly when he was arrested in 1593 for alleged heresy; this
event ruined him socially and financially.
 Died: 1594, in poverty
MAJOR WORKS
1. The Spanish Tragedy (c.1585–1587)
Summary:
The play follows Don Hieronimo, the Marshal of Spain, whose son Horatio is
murdered by Lorenzo and Balthazar, rivals in love and ambition. Initially
seeking justice through the court, Hieronimo turns to revenge after the legal
system fails him. In a climactic scene, he stages a play-within-a-play to exact
vengeance on the murderers during a court performance. The ghost of Don
Andrea (a slain soldier) and the personified figure of Revenge observe the
events, heightening the supernatural tone.
Literary Significance:
 Pioneered the revenge tragedy genre in English literature.
 Introduced the dramatic device of a play within a play, later used
famously by Shakespeare in Hamlet.
 Themes: revenge, justice vs. corruption, madness, the inefficacy of the
law.
 Featured soliloquies, ghosts, delayed revenge, and bloodshed—elements
that became standard in Jacobean drama.
Important Facts:
 Immensely popular in its time; went through multiple editions.
 Possibly influenced Senecan tragedies with its use of ghosts and chorus-
like commentary.
 The play's popularity led to several continuations by other playwrights.
2. Arden of Faversham (attributed, 1592)
(Authorship debated; possibly co-written with Shakespeare or Marlowe.)
Summary:
Based on a real-life 1551 murder case, the play tells the story of Alice Arden,
who conspires with her lover Mosby and hired assassins to murder her wealthy
husband, Arden. The murder is eventually discovered, and the perpetrators are
brought to justice.
Significance:
 Considered one of the first domestic tragedies in English drama.
 Departs from classical or royal settings to depict bourgeois life and moral
degradation.
 Pioneers the “domestic tragedy” genre that was rare in its time.
Important Facts:
 Real murder case; the events were well-known to the Elizabethan
audience.
 The female villain Alice Arden is one of the earliest complex female
characters in English drama.
3. Cornelia (1594)
A translation of a French play by Robert Garnier.
Summary:
A closet drama (meant to be read, not performed), it focuses on Cornelia, the
mother of the Gracchi brothers, lamenting the fate of her sons in the chaotic
Roman Republic.
Significance:
 Shows Kyd’s scholarly engagement with classical and continental
literature.
 Influenced by Seneca and French neoclassical tragedy.
 Serves more as a literary and rhetorical exercise than popular
entertainment.
Important Facts:
 Published shortly before Kyd’s death.
  Reflects Stoic philosophy and moral restraint, contrasting his more
violent revenge tragedies.
4. Soliman and Perseda (attributed, 1589–1592)
(Authorship disputed)
Summary:
The story revolves around Soliman, a Turkish emperor, who falls in love with
Perseda, the betrothed of Erastus, a Christian knight. Themes of love, betrayal,
and honor lead to a tragic outcome where Perseda kills herself to protect her
chastity.
Significance:
 Contains strong proto-feminist elements in Perseda’s assertion of agency.
 Includes personified characters like Death and Murder, which appear
again in The Spanish Tragedy.
 Seen as a prequel or spiritual companion to The Spanish Tragedy due to
thematic overlap.
Important Facts:
 Kyd’s authorship is debated but widely considered plausible due to
thematic and stylistic similarities.
 Explores Christian-Muslim dichotomies and political intrigue.
5. Ur-Hamlet (Lost Play, c.1587)
Summary:
Though no copies survive, contemporary references (notably by Thomas Nashe
and Thomas Lodge) suggest Kyd wrote an earlier version of the Hamlet story,
with the ghost of Hamlet’s father urging revenge.
Significance:
 Often credited as a precursor to Shakespeare’s Hamlet.
 Introduced the idea of a ghost demanding revenge—a hallmark of the
Shakespearean tragedy.
Important Facts:
 Shakespeare may have borrowed heavily from this version.
 Known mainly through allusions and commentary by Elizabethan writers.
LITERARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THOMAS KYD
 Founder of the Revenge Tragedy genre in English drama.
 Influenced Shakespeare, Marlowe, Webster, and later Jacobean
dramatists.
 Integrated Senecan elements—ghosts, long soliloquies, gore, and
philosophical introspection.
 Established dramatic techniques like:
o The play within a play
o Mad scenes (Hieronimo’s breakdown prefigures Hamlet’s)
o Commentary on corrupt justice systems
 Helped transition English drama from morality plays to psychological
realism and tragic intensity.
George Peele (c. 1556 – c. 1596)
George Peele was an important early Elizabethan dramatist and poet, part of the
group often referred to as the “University Wits.” He was educated at Oxford and
known for his contributions to early English drama, especially for his skillful
blending of classical and native English traditions. Though not as widely read
today as his contemporaries like Marlowe or Greene, Peele played a key role in
the development of English Renaissance drama.
MAJOR WORKS
1. The Arraignment of Paris (c. 1581)
Genre: Pastoral drama
Summary:
This courtly pastoral was written for performance before Queen Elizabeth I. It
re-tells the mythological story of the Judgment of Paris from a political angle.
Paris, a shepherd-prince, is tasked with choosing the fairest among the
goddesses: Venus, Juno, and Pallas (Minerva). He awards the golden apple to
Venus, leading to the Trojan War. However, in Peele’s version, a fourth
character – Diana – intervenes and declares that none of the goddesses deserve
it; instead, the apple should go to Queen Elizabeth herself, thus flattering the
monarch.
Significance:
 Celebrates Elizabethan rule through classical mythology.
  Early example of Elizabethan court drama blending allegory, classical
allusion, and political flattery.
 Introduces themes of justice, beauty, and ideal rule.
 Establishes Peele's mastery over ornate, lyrical blank verse and
mythological adaptation.
2. The Battle of Alcazar (c. 1589)
Genre: History play / Tragedy
Summary:
The play dramatizes the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (1578), in which the
Portuguese king Sebastian was killed in Morocco. The central figure is Muly
Mahamet, the villainous Moorish prince who usurps the Moroccan throne with
the help of the Portuguese. The play traces the downfall of Mahamet and the
tragic fates of those involved in the battle, including the Christian king. The
ghost of Andrea (borrowed from Seneca's Thyestes) opens the play in a revenge-
prologue style.
Significance:
 One of the earliest English plays to portray Muslims and African
characters.
 Noted for its use of graphic violence and bloodshed—an influence on
later revenge tragedies.
 Shows Peele’s flair for martial rhetoric and spectacle.
 Engages with contemporary anxieties about empire, race, and foreign
wars.
3. The Old Wives' Tale (1595)
Genre: Fantasy, Comedy, Satirical play
Summary:
This is a meta-theatrical fantasy where a group of travelers takes shelter with an
old couple. The old wife begins to tell them a story, which unfolds on stage as a
romantic fairy tale complete with knights, enchanted forests, a captive damsel, a
magician, and other fantastical elements. It parodies the popular romantic tales
of the time, mixing folk motifs with classical parody.
Significance:
 One of the first examples of English plays that satirize romantic drama.
  Influential on Shakespeare’s later use of magical and fantastical elements
(The Tempest, A Midsummer Night’s Dream).
 Playfully engages with storytelling traditions and oral folklore.
 Important as a proto-fantasy play and early example of meta-theater.
4. David and Bethsabe (published 1599, probably written earlier)
Genre: Biblical tragedy
Summary:
Based on the Old Testament story of King David and Bathsheba. Peele’s play
dramatizes David’s lust for the beautiful Bathsheba, his ordering of her husband
Uriah’s death, and the resulting divine punishment. The play combines political
drama with lyrical poetry, reflecting both moral and religious themes.
Significance:
 Considered Peele’s most ambitious and poetically accomplished work.
 The biblical subject matter was unusual for its time in English drama.
 Blends sacred history with dramatic human emotion.
 Highlights the tension between divine justice and human fallibility.
5. The Love of King David and Fair Bethsabe (Variant title of David and
Bethsabe)
Same work as above – sometimes referenced under this alternate title in
anthologies.
6. The Honour of the Garter (1593)
Genre: Pageant / Royal Panegyric
Summary:
A poem written in honor of the Order of the Garter and dedicated to Queen
Elizabeth I and the Earl of Essex. It praises the chivalric ideals of the English
monarchy and celebrates national identity.
Significance:
 A political and patriotic piece affirming loyalty to Elizabeth.
 Reinforces the idea of England as a modern Camelot.
 Reflects Peele’s interest in pageantry and ceremonial poetry.
7. A Farewell to Arms (1590)
Genre: Lyric poem
Summary:
Included in the Phoenix Nest anthology, this poem is a farewell by a soldier to
his life of arms. It praises Sir Henry Lee, Queen Elizabeth’s Champion, and
reflects on the passing of time, honor, and personal decline.
Significance:
 An elegant lyric showcasing Peele's poetic talent.
 Reflects Elizabethan ideals of chivalry and personal honor.
 Frequently anthologized for its beauty and pathos.
8. Translations and Collaborations
 “Tale of Troy” (in The Arraignment of Paris) and other allusions reflect
Peele’s classical education.
 Some scholars believe he may have collaborated on parts of Titus
Andronicus and Edward I (though authorship is debated).
 Peele also wrote pageants and city entertainments, such as “Descensus
Astraeae” for Queen Elizabeth’s visit to London in 1591.
LITERARY STYLE AND TECHNIQUE
 Peele’s works are marked by rich poetic diction, ornate classical
references, and variety of genres.
 He was experimental—mixing pageantry, satire, allegory, and romance.
 His plays often feature highly rhetorical speeches, classical and
biblical themes, and innovative use of structure.
 Contributed to the evolution of blank verse in drama.
IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT GEORGE PEELE
 Birth: c. 1556 in London
 Education: Educated at Christ’s Hospital and Oxford University (BA and
MA)
 University Wit: Alongside Greene, Marlowe, Nashe, and Lodge
 Influence: Precursor to Shakespearean drama in terms of verse form and
structure
  Death: Around 1596, probably in poverty; accounts suggest a dissipated
lifestyle
 Reputation: Celebrated in his time but later overshadowed by
Shakespeare and Marlowe
LEGACY
Though not as widely studied today, Peele’s work:
 Helped transition English drama from morality plays and classical models
to a more flexible, narrative-based, emotionally-driven form.
 His lyrical style influenced Shakespeare, especially in early comedies and
histories.
 Modern critics reappraise Peele for his genre-blending, early
experimentation, and poetic craftsmanship.

Robert Greene (1558–1592)

Robert Greene was one of the earliest professional writers in England and a
notable figure in the English Renaissance, particularly in the 1580s and early
1590s. Known for his prose romances, plays, and pamphlets, Greene was also
infamous for his bohemian lifestyle and for being one of the first writers to live
off his pen. He is often remembered today for his rivalry with William
Shakespeare, particularly for his scathing comment in A Groatsworth of Wit
(1592).
Biographical Background
 Education: Greene was educated at Cambridge (St John's College, B.A.,
1578; possibly M.A., 1583) and later received an M.A. from Oxford.
 Bohemian Life: After university, Greene led a dissolute life in London,
mingling with actors, writers, and prostitutes, often writing pamphlets
confessing his sins.
 Death: He died in poverty in 1592, reportedly after a "banquet of Rhenish
wine and pickled herring," cared for by a shoemaker’s wife named
Mistress Isam.
MAJOR WORKS:
1. Pandosto: The Triumph of Time (1588)
  Summary: Pandosto, the king of Bohemia, suspects his wife of infidelity
with his friend the King of Sicilia. This leads to a series of tragic events
including his wife's death and the abandonment of their daughter. The
daughter, brought up in Sicilia, eventually returns and is reunited with her
father.
 Significance: It is widely accepted as the primary source for
Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale. Greene’s use of romance, jealousy, and
reconciliation influenced Elizabethan drama.
 Themes: Jealousy, fate, repentance, familial bonds.
2. Menaphon (1589)
 Summary: A prose romance set in Arcadia. Menaphon is a shepherd and
poet whose love story unfolds with many interruptions from
philosophical and literary digressions.
 Significance: Included a preface by Thomas Nashe that criticized
contemporary poets and dramatists. The work is important for showing
Greene’s early interest in blending romantic tales with classical learning.
 Themes: Love, pastoral simplicity vs. courtly sophistication.
3. The Honourable History of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (c. 1590)
 Genre: Comedy/play
 Summary: The play mixes English legend and magic. Friar Bacon, a
magician, builds a brass head to predict England’s future. Meanwhile, a
romantic subplot develops with Prince Edward and Margaret, a
commoner.
 Significance: A leading example of early English romantic comedy and
one of the few plays from the period to blend magic, science, and
comedy. Influenced Shakespeare's The Tempest and Doctor Faustus by
Marlowe.
 Themes: Science vs. magic, love across class boundaries, national pride.
4. The Scottish History of James IV (1590)
 Summary: The play fictionalizes the life of King James IV of Scotland
and includes magical elements like the character of Bohan the
necromancer and the ghostly figure of Ateukin. It also features a subplot
about domestic betrayal.
  Significance: Early example of mixing history with morality drama.
Showcases Greene’s skill at weaving multiple narratives.
 Themes: Power and corruption, morality, fate.
5. Alphonsus, King of Aragon (c. 1587)
 Summary: A chronicle history play. Alphonsus defeats the Moors and
becomes king of Aragon, rising from a lowly soldier.
 Significance: Greene's attempt at historical drama. The structure and
bombastic tone parody Marlowe’s Tamburlaine.
 Themes: Ambition, war, legitimacy.
6. Orlando Furioso (c. 1591)
 Summary: Loosely adapted from Ariosto’s Italian epic. Follows the
knight Orlando, driven mad by love, and his adventures across fantastical
lands.
 Significance: Popular for its theatrical spectacle and fantastical elements.
Demonstrates the Elizabethan appetite for chivalric romance.
 Themes: Madness, chivalry, love and betrayal.
7. A Groatsworth of Wit Bought with a Million of Repentance (1592)
 Summary: A prose tract written just before Greene’s death, it mixes
autobiography with moral allegory. The most famous part is Greene’s
attack on Shakespeare (referring to him as an "upstart crow").
 Significance: One of the first literary documents to acknowledge
Shakespeare as a rising dramatist. Offers insight into the professional
jealousies of Elizabethan writers.
 Themes: Repentance, vanity of worldly life, literary rivalry.
8. Greene’s Vision (1592)
 Summary: An allegorical prose vision in which Greene imagines seeing
the fates of other writers and mourns his own sins.
 Significance: Part of Greene’s “repentance pamphlets,” where he reflects
on the moral failures of his life.
 Themes: Morality, literary pride, redemption.
9. The Repentance of Robert Greene (1592)
  Summary: Greene’s final autobiographical pamphlet, where he expresses
guilt over his wayward lifestyle and urges others not to follow his
example.
 Significance: A valuable source for understanding the precarious life of
writers in Elizabethan England.
 Themes: Death, sin, salvation.
10. The Second Part of Cony-Catching (1592)
 Summary: One of several tracts on criminal life in London. Greene
pretends to expose the tricks of conmen and pickpockets.
 Significance: Early example of rogue literature; blends journalism and
fiction. Inspired later rogue tales like The Roaring Girl.
 Themes: Urban corruption, deception, morality.
Important Facts about Greene
 “Upstart Crow” Quote: In Groatsworth of Wit, Greene mocked
Shakespeare, calling him “an upstart crow beautified with our feathers.”
This is one of the earliest references to Shakespeare in print.
 Professional Writer: Greene was among the first English authors to live
solely by writing, paving the way for professional authorship.
 Pamphlet Warfare: Greene often attacked other writers in his pamphlets
and was also satirized in turn (e.g., by Nashe and Dekker).
 The University Wits: Greene was part of a group of educated
playwrights (including Marlowe, Nashe, and Peele) who elevated English
drama before Shakespeare.
 Moral Duality: Though known for his libertine lifestyle, Greene wrote
extensively about morality and repentance.
Literary Significance
1. Bridge between Morality Plays and Elizabethan Drama: Greene was a
key transitional figure, moving from allegorical and moralistic writing
toward more complex characterization and romantic narratives.
2. Influence on Shakespeare: Apart from The Winter’s Tale, themes, plot
devices, and characters from Greene’s works appear reimagined in
several of Shakespeare’s plays.
 3. Prose Romance Innovator: His prose romances like Pandosto and
Menaphon influenced the development of the English novel.
4. Rogue Literature Pioneer: With works like Cony-Catching, Greene
helped establish a new genre exploring crime and underworld life in
London.

Thomas Lodge (c. 1558–1625)

Thomas Lodge was an important English writer of the late 16th and early 17th
centuries—renowned as a poet, dramatist, satirist, pamphleteer, and one of the
earliest Elizabethan prose romance writers. He also became a physician later in
life. His work is deeply connected to the development of English prose fiction
and the pastoral romance genre, and he was a significant contemporary of
Shakespeare and other University Wits.
Life Overview:
 Born: Around 1558, London, England.
 Education: Studied at Trinity College, Oxford, and received an M.A.
from Oxford in 1581. He also studied law at Lincoln's Inn.
 Career: Initially a writer, then turned to medicine and obtained an M.D.
from Avignon in 1600.
 Death: Died in 1625, probably of the plague.
Major Works of Thomas Lodge:
1. An Alarum Against Usurers (1584)
Genre: Pamphlet/Social Critique
Summary:
This was Lodge’s first published work. It’s a prose tract that attacks the practice
of usury (lending money at high interest rates), which he saw as a social evil
preying upon the youth and unestablished members of society.
Significance:
 Demonstrates Lodge’s concern for societal ethics.
 Written in response to a personal experience—he had faced trouble at
university for defending literary pursuits.
 Early example of prose used for social commentary in the Renaissance.
2. Scillaes Metamorphosis (1589)
Genre: Narrative Poem / Mythological Allegory
Summary:
A mythological and moral poem, based on the classical story of Scylla and
Glaucus, using Ovidian sources. Lodge added a frame tale and moralizations to
classical elements.
Significance:
 One of the earliest attempts to imitate Ovid in English literature.
 It blends classical myth with Elizabethan concerns and styles.
 Helped establish the vogue of mythological narrative poetry.
3. Rosalynde: Euphues’ Golden Legacy (1590)
Genre: Pastoral Romance / Prose Fiction
Summary:
 The story revolves around Rosader, who is unjustly disinherited by his
brother, and flees to the Forest of Arden.
 He meets Rosalynde (a noblewoman in disguise) and falls in love.
 The narrative is filled with lyrical interludes, pastoral settings, and
romantic escapades.
 Eventually, love triumphs, wrongs are righted, and all characters are
united happily.

Significance:
 Most famous work of Lodge.
 Primary source for Shakespeare’s As You Like It. Shakespeare adapted
the plot and characters from Rosalynde, especially the pastoral setting and
romantic intrigue.
 Combines Euphuistic prose (elaborate and ornamental) with rustic
simplicity and romance.
 Helped popularize prose fiction and the pastoral mode in Elizabethan
literature.
4. The Life and Death of William Longbeard (1593)
Genre: Historical Novel / Prose Romance
Summary:
 Based on a historical rebel of the 12th century, William Fitz Osbert
("Longbeard").
 Lodge idealizes him as a Robin Hood-type figure who defends the poor
and critiques corrupt rulers.
 A mix of history, legend, and romance.

Significance:
 One of the earliest English attempts at a historical novel.
 Blends fact with fiction to create a nationalist and moral narrative.
 Shows Lodge’s political idealism and interest in social justice.
5. A Margarite of America (1596)
Genre: Prose Romance / Travel Fiction
Summary:
 Set in exotic locales (America, imagined fantastically), the plot involves
love, virtue, and loyalty.
 Incorporates tales of shipwreck, separation, cross-dressing, and romantic
perseverance.

Significance:
 Reflects England’s growing interest in the New World and overseas
exploration.
 Combines romance with themes of exploration.
 The geographical imagination in the book is significant for early colonial
literature.
6. Catharos (1591)
Genre: Satirical Pamphlet
Summary:
 A work of satire and philosophical argument.
 Lodge attacks vice and argues for moral reformation.
 Significance:
 Part of the late Elizabethan tradition of satirical tracts.
 Showcases Lodge’s engagement with ethics and philosophy.
7. Wit's Misery and the World's Madness (1596)
Genre: Satirical Allegory
Summary:
 A dark allegorical satire describing how the seven deadly sins operate in
the world.
 Features personified figures of Sin, the Devil, and Folly.
Significance:
 Influences the later development of allegorical moral satire.
 One of the earliest uses of the Devil as a character in Elizabethan prose
satire.
8. A Fig for Momus (1595)
Genre: Collection of Satires and Epistles
Summary:
 A mixture of Horatian-style satires and verse epistles.
 Lodge critiques courtly corruption, materialism, and poetic
pretentiousness.
Significance:
 The first formal satire in English modeled after classical satirists like
Horace and Juvenal.
 Shows Lodge’s transition from romantic prose to verse satire.
 Helped establish the satirical tradition in Elizabethan poetry.
9. Plays
a. A Looking Glass for London and England (c. 1590, co-written with Robert
Greene)
Genre: Morality Play
Summary:
 Set in Nineveh, it uses the biblical story of Jonah to critique moral decay
in Elizabethan London.
  Contains elements of repentance, divine judgment, and allegorical
representation of sins.

Significance:
 A rare collaboration with Greene.
 Blends biblical themes with social critique.
 Precursor to later city comedies.
10. Translations and Medical Writings
 Lodge also translated medical texts and wrote several scholarly treatises
after turning to medicine.
 Translations include "The Works of Josephus" (1602), a massive
historical and religious text.
 As a physician, he published "A Treatise of the Plague" (1603) during a
major outbreak.
Literary Significance:
 Pioneer of Elizabethan Prose Fiction: Among the first to popularize the
prose romance in England.
 Influence on Shakespeare: His Rosalynde was a direct source for As
You Like It.
 Versatile Writer: Spanning pamphlets, satires, romances, poetry, and
drama.
 Classical and Humanist Influence: Deeply read in classical literature—
his works show Ovidian and Virgilian themes and style.
 Political and Social Concerns: Lodge consistently wrote about justice,
morality, and ethical behavior.
 Contribution to Satire: He helped establish formal verse satire in
English literature.
Important Facts:
1. Association with the University Wits: Lodge was part of a group of
young, university-educated writers like Marlowe, Greene, and Nashe.
2. Conflict with Authorities: His early defense of poetry against Puritan
attacks got him into trouble with university authorities.
 3. Sea Voyages: He traveled to the Canary Islands and South America—
experiences that influenced his exotic fiction (A Margarite of America).
4. Later Life as a Doctor: Abandoned literary pursuits around 1600,
became a Roman Catholic, and turned to medicine.
5. Catholic Identity: His conversion is visible in his later writings and
religious tone.

THOMAS NASHE (1567–c. 1601)

Thomas Nashe was a prominent Elizabethan pamphleteer, satirist, dramatist,
and poet. He was known for his sharp wit, biting satire, and innovation in
English prose. A contemporary of Christopher Marlowe and William
Shakespeare, Nashe was a key figure in the development of English
Renaissance literature.
BIOGRAPHY & BACKGROUND
 Born: 1567 in Lowestoft, Suffolk, England
 Education: Attended St. John's College, Cambridge; received his B.A. in
1586
 Career: After leaving Cambridge, Nashe moved to London and became
involved in the vibrant world of Elizabethan pamphlet-writing and
playwriting.
 Death: Around 1601 (exact cause and date unknown)
MAJOR WORKS & DETAILED SUMMARIES
1. Anatomy of Absurdity (1589)
Genre: Prose satire / Criticism
Summary:
This was Nashe's first published work, in which he criticized various
contemporary literary styles, especially the pedantic and obscure prose of
scholars and moralists. He attacked philosophical jargon, bad poetry, and
pseudo-intellectualism. Nashe positions himself as a critic of pretension and a
defender of clear, forceful English.
Significance:
It introduced Nashe’s style—flamboyant, energetic, and filled with allusions and
rhetorical flourishes. It set the tone for his later work as a critic and satirist.
2. Preface to Robert Greene's Menaphon (1589)
Genre: Literary criticism / Preface
Summary:
Although a preface to Greene’s romance Menaphon, Nashe uses this space to
deliver a manifesto on literary style. He critiques “ink-horn” terms (overly
Latinate diction) and defends the use of plain, vigorous English. He attacks
amateur poets and praises genuine artistry.
Significance:
One of the earliest examples of English literary criticism. It places Nashe in the
center of Elizabethan literary debates.
3. The Unfortunate Traveller, or The Life of Jack Wilton (1594)
Genre: Picaresque novel / Fictional travel narrative
Summary:
This is Nashe’s only novel. It follows the adventures of Jack Wilton, a court
page who travels across Europe during the reign of Henry VIII. The narrative
includes war, betrayal, satire on Renaissance society, and depictions of violence,
learning, and religion. Jack meets historical figures like Erasmus and Sir
Thomas More.
Significance:
 One of the earliest English novels.
 Noted for its vivid narrative style and episodic structure.
 A forerunner to the picaresque novels of later centuries.
 Blends fiction and historical fact—a significant literary innovation.
4. Pierce Penilesse His Supplication to the Divell (1592)
Genre: Satirical prose pamphlet
Summary:
A bitter, witty attack on the corruption of Elizabethan society, written as a
mock-supplication to the Devil. The narrator, Pierce, complains about the
world's evils: vice, greed, gluttony, lust, and pride. It satirizes contemporary
types such as lawyers, courtiers, scholars, and players.
Significance:
 Established Nashe as a leading pamphleteer.
 Reflects London’s social unrest during the plague years.
  Combines religious imagery with biting social satire.
 One of the most influential early modern prose satires.
5. Christ’s Tears Over Jerusalem (1593)
Genre: Religious prose / Mourning treatise
Summary:
This is a passionate, moralistic lament over the state of England, paralleling
Christ’s lamentation over Jerusalem. It combines apocalyptic warning, religious
fervor, and social commentary.
Significance:
 Reflects Nashe’s attempt to show moral seriousness.
 Possibly written to appease authorities after his earlier satirical work.
 Showcases his rhetorical power in non-satirical prose.
6. Have with You to Saffron-Walden (1596)
Genre: Satirical pamphlet / Literary feud
Summary:
This pamphlet is part of Nashe’s literary war with Richard and Gabriel Harvey.
It is filled with invective, personal insults, and mockery. Nashe defends himself
and attacks the Harveys’ pretentiousness and dishonesty.
Significance:
 One of the most famous literary quarrels of the Elizabethan era.
 Shows Nashe’s verbal dexterity and fierce literary combativeness.
7. Nash’s Lenten Stuff (1599)
Genre: Humorous prose
Summary:
Written during a plague year, this work is a humorous and exaggerated praise of
the red herring, using the fish as a pretext for wide-ranging commentary and
digressions.
Significance:
 Example of Nashe’s skill in humorous digression.
 Offers a glimpse of Elizabethan life, especially in Yarmouth.
 A satirical self-parody of panegyrics and serious works.
8. Summer’s Last Will and Testament (1592)
Genre: Allegorical play / Pastoral masque
Summary:
This allegorical drama presents personified seasons and concepts (Summer,
Autumn, Winter, Bacchus, Christmas, etc.). Summer, at the end of his time,
reflects on the state of the world and prepares for his “death.”
Significance:
 Blends masque, morality play, and satire.
 Written for private performance.
 Shows Nashe’s awareness of theatrical conventions.
9. Dido, Queen of Carthage (1594)
Genre: Tragedy (co-authored with Christopher Marlowe)
Summary:
Based on Virgil’s Aeneid, this tragedy tells the story of Dido’s love for Aeneas
and her eventual suicide. Nashe is believed to have contributed parts of the play,
possibly the comic or romantic scenes.
Significance:
 Often attributed primarily to Marlowe but believed to include Nashe’s
contributions.
 One of the early English literary adaptations of Virgil.
LITERARY SIGNIFICANCE OF THOMAS NASHE
1. Innovator of English Prose:
o Nashe’s prose was lively, colloquial, and full of verbal invention.
o Helped transition English writing from medieval formalism to
modern flexibility.
2. Father of English Satire:
o One of the earliest and most influential satirists in English
literature.
o Predecessor to Jonathan Swift and Alexander Pope.
3. Key Pamphleteer:
 o Mastered the art of the Elizabethan pamphlet: witty, polemical, and
accessible.
o His literary feuds, especially with Gabriel Harvey, helped shape
Elizabethan print culture.
4. Early Novelist:
o The Unfortunate Traveller is considered a precursor to the English
novel.
5. Bridge between University Wits and Shakespeare:
o Part of the University Wits (along with Marlowe, Greene, and
Lyly).
o His work helped develop literary prose at a time when poetry and
drama dominated.
IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT NASHE
 Literary Feud: His vicious pamphlet war with Gabriel Harvey, over the
memory of Robert Greene, is legendary. Both used personal insults and
satire.
 Censorship and Trouble with Authorities:
Nashe often ran into trouble with government censors due to his
irreverent tone and critiques. His collaboration with Ben Jonson on the
play The Isle of Dogs (1597) caused such offense that it was banned and
both were briefly arrested.
 Master of Language:
Nashe’s writing is full of rhetorical flourishes, neologisms, classical
references, and wordplay. He played a major role in shaping early modern
English prose style.
 Largely Out of Print in His Time:
Many of his works were ephemeral pamphlets—meant to sell quickly.
His literary reputation grew posthumously.
 Influence on Shakespeare:
Some critics argue Nashe may have influenced Shakespeare’s Henry IV
(especially Falstaff) and Hamlet.

Christopher Marlowe (1564–1593)

Christopher Marlowe was a preeminent Elizabethan playwright, poet, and
translator who significantly influenced the development of English drama. A
contemporary of Shakespeare, Marlowe is known for his blank verse,
overreaching protagonists, and controversial themes. His dramatic career was
short-lived due to his untimely death at the age of 29.
Biographical Overview
 Born: February 26, 1564, Canterbury, England
 Education: Scholar at King’s School, Canterbury, and Corpus Christi
College, Cambridge.
 Career: By 1587, he was a recognized playwright in London.
 Death: May 30, 1593, stabbed to death under mysterious circumstances
—possibly connected to espionage.
Marlowe is often alleged to have worked as a spy for the Elizabethan secret
service under Sir Francis Walsingham.
Major Works by Christopher Marlowe
1. Tamburlaine the Great, Part I and II (1587–1588)
Genre: Tragedy / Historical Drama
Structure: Two parts, five acts each
Source: Loosely based on the historical figure Timur (Tamerlane), a 14th-
century Central Asian conqueror
Part I: Rise of Tamburlaine
Act I – The Shepherd's Ambition
 Tamburlaine is introduced as a Scythian shepherd and bandit.
 He captures Zenocrate, the daughter of the Egyptian Sultan, and falls in
love with her.
 Despite his humble origins, he dreams of conquering empires and
becoming king.
Act II – Ascent to Power
 Tamburlaine defeats Persian forces and captures Cosroe, the brother of
the Persian king Mycetes.
 After helping Cosroe seize the throne, Tamburlaine betrays him and
crowns himself King of Persia.
Act III – Love and Conquest
 Tamburlaine woos Zenocrate and treats her with honor.
 He defeats the Turkish Emperor Bajazeth and humiliates him by keeping
him in a cage and using him as a footstool.
Act IV – Imperial Victories
 Tamburlaine continues his military campaigns, defeating the Sultan of
Egypt (Zenocrate’s father), who eventually blesses their union before
dying.
 Zenocrate agrees to marry Tamburlaine.
Act V – Coronation and Ruthlessness
 Tamburlaine is crowned emperor of a vast empire.
 Bajazeth and his wife Zabina commit suicide in captivity.
 Tamburlaine declares himself the "Scourge of God," believing he is
divinely ordained to conquer the world.
Themes in Part I:
 Ambition, fate, divine authority, cruelty, love vs power, rise from humble
origins.
Part II: The Tyranny and Fall of Tamburlaine
Act I – Legacy and Expansion
 Tamburlaine now rules a vast empire with Zenocrate as empress.
 She dies early in the play, and Tamburlaine is devastated.
 Their sons—Calyphas, Amyras, and Celebinus—are introduced.
Act II – Legacy and Conflict
 Tamburlaine prepares his sons for war and expects them to inherit his
ambition.
 Calyphas is portrayed as peace-loving, which disappoints Tamburlaine.
Act III – Barbarity and Revenge
 Tamburlaine fights against Christian and Muslim kings.
 In one brutal scene, he burns a copy of the Qur’an, shocking even his
allies.
  When Calyphas refuses to fight, Tamburlaine kills his own son for
cowardice.
Act IV – Merciless Conqueror
 Tamburlaine defeats the kings of Trebizond and Soria, chaining them to
his chariot.
 His madness and megalomania escalate.
Act V – Illness and Death
 Tamburlaine falls gravely ill.
 He passes on his empire to his remaining sons, warning them never to be
weak.
 He dies refusing to believe that even death could conquer him, attempting
to defy mortality until the end.
Themes in Part II:
 Hubris, tyranny, legacy, human limits, mortality, religious intolerance,
downfall after greatness.
Overall Significance
 Tamburlaine is a study of ambition, power, and the dangers of
overreaching.
 Part I celebrates human potential and conquest; Part II questions the cost
and morality of unchecked ambition.
 Tamburlaine begins as an admirable visionary and ends as a ruthless
tyrant.
 Marlowe uses the character to explore the Renaissance ideals of the "self-
made man" as well as the tragic consequences of excessive pride (hubris).
Doctor Faustus
Full Title: The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus
Author: Christopher Marlowe
Genre: Tragedy
Structure: Divided into a Prologue, 20 scenes (or 5 acts, depending on the
edition)
Prologue:
The Chorus introduces Faustus as a man of humble origins who has excelled in
learning. Rather than following traditional paths (law, medicine, theology), he
chooses necromancy (black magic) in his desire for ultimate knowledge and
power.
Act I: Faustus’s Bargain
 Faustus, a brilliant scholar, grows dissatisfied with traditional forms of
knowledge. He believes magic will give him god-like powers.
 He summons Valdes and Cornelius, two magicians, who teach him the
dark arts.
 He performs a ritual and conjures Mephistopheles, a demon.
 Faustus demands that Mephistopheles serve him. Mephistopheles says he
serves only Lucifer and must gain permission.
 Faustus offers his soul in exchange for 24 years of service from
Mephistopheles.
 A written contract is drawn up and signed in Faustus’s blood.
Act II: Temptation and Warnings
 Faustus receives books and begins using magic.
 He is frequently visited by a Good Angel and a Bad Angel, symbolizing
his inner struggle.
 He is warned by Mephistopheles about the horrors of hell, but Faustus
ignores it.
 He briefly considers repentance but is seduced again by the promise of
knowledge and power.
 Mephistopheles brings him gifts, including a devilish companion: a
demon in the shape of a clown, Wagner.
Act III: Trivial Pursuits
 Faustus travels through Europe using his magical powers.
 Instead of great philosophical or scientific pursuits, he plays pranks on
peasants, innkeepers, and even the Pope, displaying his powers for
amusement.
 He is introduced to the Seven Deadly Sins, who personify human vices
in a theatrical scene.
  Faustus remains blind to the consequences of his actions.
Act IV: Fame and Disillusionment
 Faustus becomes famous, and even the Holy Roman Emperor invites
him to court.
 He conjures the ghost of Alexander the Great and impresses everyone
with illusions.
 He also torments a skeptical knight by growing horns on his head.
 Despite his fame, Faustus grows increasingly anxious about his fate as
the 24 years draw to a close.
Act V: The Final Hours
 Faustus begins to regret his pact and considers turning to God.
 He is again urged to repent by the Good Angel but silenced by
Mephistopheles.
 As a last indulgence, he conjures Helen of Troy to distract himself. He
utters the famous line:
“Was this the face that launch’d a thousand ships / And burnt the topless towers
of Ilium?”
 He ultimately fails to repent out of fear and despair.
 In the final hour, Faustus begs for time to stop or for God’s mercy, but it
is too late.
 As the clock strikes midnight, devils drag him to hell.
Epilogue:
The Chorus concludes by reminding the audience that Faustus’s fall was due to
his ambition and pride. It serves as a moral warning against overreaching
beyond human limits.
Themes in Brief:
 Ambition and Overreaching: Faustus represents Renaissance ambition
that oversteps divine boundaries.
 Knowledge vs. Wisdom: Faustus gains power but not true wisdom.
 Sin, Redemption, and Damnation: Faustus repeatedly has chances to
repent, but pride and despair prevent him.
  Good vs. Evil: The inner moral struggle is dramatized through
personifications like Good and Bad Angels.
The Jew of Malta – Summary
Genre: Tragedy / Revenge play
Date of Composition: c. 1589–1590
Setting: Malta, during the period of religious and political tension between
Christians and Turks
Act I
The play begins with a prologue spoken by Machiavel, a personification of
Machiavellian philosophy, who sets the tone: power and cunning rule the world.
We meet Barabas, a wealthy Jewish merchant of Malta, who gloats over his
immense fortune. However, Malta is under pressure from the Turkish Sultan to
pay a tribute, and in order to raise funds, the Christian governor Ferneze
decides to seize half the wealth of all Jews. When Barabas refuses, all his
wealth is confiscated and he is stripped of his house and possessions.
Barabas is furious and vows revenge. He secretly observes as his house is
turned into a convent, and his daughter Abigail is sent there. But Barabas
convinces Abigail to feign conversion and recover his hidden gold from the
house.
Act II
Abigail retrieves the treasure and returns it to her father. She later truly converts
to Christianity and joins the convent for real, rejecting her father.
Meanwhile, Barabas begins his revenge. He enlists the help of Ithamore, a
cunning Turkish slave, to carry out his schemes. He poisons the nuns of the
convent (including Abigail) after she betrays him.
Act III
Barabas begins to manipulate the political and romantic relationships around
him. He pits two noblemen—Lodowick (son of the governor Ferneze) and
Mathias (Abigail’s suitor)—against each other by forging letters. This results in
both men killing each other in a duel.
Barabas's acts of deception and murder escalate. Abigail, before dying,
confesses her father’s crimes to a friar. In response, Barabas murders the friars
too.
Act IV
Barabas continues to kill those who threaten him. However, Ithamore, his
servant, becomes greedy and attempts to blackmail him along with two
courtesans, Bellamira and Pilia-Borza.
Barabas poisons all three to cover his tracks.
Act V
Eventually, Barabas is arrested by Governor Ferneze. However, he escapes
punishment by pretending to convert to Christianity and offers to help the
Christians defeat the approaching Turkish army.
He betrays the city by aiding the Turks instead, who then conquer Malta. The
Turkish leader Calymath appoints Barabas as governor of Malta.
Once in power, Barabas double-crosses the Turks and tries to betray them back
to the Christians. He arranges to trap Calymath and his men, but his plot fails.
In the final twist, Barabas falls into his own trap—a boiling cauldron—and
dies. Ferneze reclaims Malta and decides to keep Calymath as a prisoner.
Themes in The Jew of Malta
 Religious hypocrisy: Both Christians and Jews are shown as corrupt and
self-serving.
 Greed and revenge: Barabas is consumed by vengeance after being
wronged, but the Christian leaders are also greedy and unjust.
 Machiavellianism: The prologue suggests that cunning and manipulation
are how the world truly works.
 Anti-Semitism and satire: Barabas is a stereotypical villainous Jew, but
Marlowe also mocks Christian and Muslim characters—suggesting the
play is a satire of religious conflict.
Edward II
Full Title: The Troublesome Reign and Lamentable Death of Edward the
Second, King of England
Written: c. 1592
Genre: Historical tragedy
Based on: The reign of King Edward II of England (1307–1327)
Act I
King Edward II ascends the throne and immediately recalls his exiled favorite,
Piers Gaveston, a commoner of questionable morals. Their intense personal
relationship causes scandal at court. The nobles—especially Mortimer,
Warwick, and Lancaster—are offended by Gaveston’s arrogance and the
king’s favoritism. Edward bestows titles and gifts on Gaveston, while neglecting
his duties and alienating his queen, Isabella.

Act II
The barons confront Edward, demanding Gaveston’s banishment. Edward
reluctantly agrees but plots Gaveston’s return. Tensions mount between the
monarchy and nobility. Isabella, who initially pleads with the nobles on
Edward’s behalf, grows bitter and politically ambitious due to her husband’s
continued neglect.
Act III
Gaveston returns secretly. Civil war erupts between Edward and the rebellious
nobles. Gaveston is captured and, despite Edward’s desperate pleas for mercy, is
executed by Warwick and the nobles. Edward is devastated and swears revenge.
Meanwhile, Isabella grows closer to Mortimer, who harbors ambitions of his
own.
Act IV
With Gaveston dead, Edward elevates two new favorites: Spencer (the
younger) and Baldock. The war intensifies. The queen, now allied with
Mortimer and backed by foreign support, invades England and captures
Edward. Edward is imprisoned, forced to abdicate in favor of his son, Prince
Edward (later Edward III).
Act V
Edward is degraded, humiliated, and eventually murdered in secret at Berkeley
Castle—killed gruesomely with a red-hot poker, symbolizing both physical
torture and political betrayal. Mortimer and Isabella now rule as regents, but the
young Edward III grows suspicious. In the final scene, Edward III asserts his
authority, arrests Mortimer for treason, and orders his execution, restoring royal
order.
Key Themes
 Abuse of Power and Favoritism: Edward’s excessive affection for
Gaveston alienates his nobles and weakens his reign.
  Kingship and Responsibility: The play questions what it means to be a
good ruler—Edward’s personal indulgences contrast with his public
duties.
 Sexuality and Politics: The homoerotic relationship between Edward
and Gaveston adds depth and controversy to the play’s political tensions.
 Betrayal and Revenge: Political alliances shift rapidly; betrayal leads to
downfall, and revenge drives the plot forward.
 Tragic Downfall: Edward’s fall mirrors classical tragedy—his flaws
doom him, but his suffering elicits sympathy.
Why It Matters
 One of the first English plays to present a monarch’s fall as personal and
political tragedy.
 A precursor to Shakespeare’s Richard II in tone and structure.
 Marlowe humanizes Edward, making him a complex figure torn between
love and kingship.
 The play boldly explores power dynamics, sexual identity, and rebellion
in a politically charged age.
The Massacre at Paris by Christopher Marlowe (c. 1593)
Genre: History/Tragedy
Setting: France, primarily Paris
Historical Context: Based on real events—the St. Bartholomew's Day
Massacre of 1572, where thousands of French Huguenots (Protestants) were
killed by Catholic mobs.
Overview:
The Massacre at Paris is a fast-paced, politically charged play that dramatizes
the violent religious and political tensions between Catholics and Protestants in
late 16th-century France. The central figure is Henry, Duke of Guise, a
Catholic nobleman who schemes to gain power by eliminating Protestant
influence.
Plot Summary:
1. Rising Tensions:
o The play opens with the marriage between Henry of Navarre (a
Protestant) and Margaret of Valois, sister to the French Catholic
 King Charles IX, arranged to foster peace between Protestants and
Catholics.
o Behind the scenes, the Duke of Guise, a powerful Catholic leader,
conspires with Queen Mother Catherine de’ Medici to massacre
the Huguenots gathered in Paris for the wedding.
2. The Massacre Begins:
o Guise unleashes a wave of assassinations, beginning with the
murder of Admiral Coligny, a Protestant leader.
o The violence escalates into a full-scale slaughter on St.
Bartholomew's Day, with innocent Huguenots massacred in the
streets of Paris.
3. Political Maneuvering:
o Guise manipulates King Charles IX and later King Henry III,
pushing a Catholic agenda and increasing his own influence.
o The Guise faction grows increasingly powerful, attempting to
control the throne.
4. Henry III's Response:
o Alarmed by Guise’s ambitions, King Henry III orders his
assassination. Guise is murdered in the king’s chambers.
o Catherine de’ Medici also dies shortly after.
5. Henry of Navarre Ascends:
o After Henry III is assassinated by a monk, Henry of Navarre
becomes King Henry IV of France.
o The play ends with him vowing to restore order and religious
tolerance after years of bloodshed.
Key Characters:
 Duke of Guise – Ruthless Catholic leader and main antagonist
 Henry of Navarre – Protestant prince who eventually becomes King
Henry IV
 Charles IX – Weak and easily manipulated Catholic king
 Catherine de’ Medici – Queen mother, a central conspirator
  Henry III – Successor to Charles IX, ultimately kills Guise
 Admiral Coligny – Protestant leader, assassinated early in the massacre
Themes:
 Religious Fanaticism and Hypocrisy
 Political Ambition and Treachery
 The Futility of Violence
 Power and Manipulation
 Tyranny vs Tolerance
Literary Notes:
 The surviving version is incomplete and fragmentary—just over 1,250
lines, possibly from a memorial reconstruction (actors’ memory).
 The play is action-heavy with rapid scene changes and violence.
 It lacks the psychological depth of Marlowe’s other tragedies but
compensates with political urgency and dark realism.
Significance:
 One of the earliest English dramatizations of recent European political
events.
 Portrays brutality and extremism on both sides of the religious divide.
 Offers a powerful critique of political corruption and moral decay.
 Though lesser known, it reflects Marlowe’s boldness in tackling
controversial subjects.
Dido, Queen of Carthage
Background:
The play is based on Books I and IV of Virgil’s Aeneid and centers around the
tragic love story between Queen Dido of Carthage and Aeneas, the Trojan
hero. While Virgil frames the love affair as a divine distraction from Aeneas’s
destined journey to found Rome, Marlowe reimagines Dido as a more active
and emotionally intense character.
Plot Summary:
Act I: Divine Manipulations
  The play opens with Jupiter doting on Ganymede, ignoring the woes of
Aeneas and the Trojans.
 Venus, Aeneas’s mother, pleads for her son’s safety after the fall of Troy.
 Jupiter assures her that Aeneas will reach Italy eventually.
 Meanwhile, Mercury is sent to ensure that Dido offers Aeneas
hospitality.
Act II: Arrival in Carthage
 Aeneas, along with Anchises (his father), Ascanius (his son), and his
companions, is shipwrecked on the coast of Carthage due to a storm
stirred by Juno, who hates the Trojans.
 They are found and welcomed by Queen Dido, who is ruling Carthage
after fleeing Tyre.
 Venus replaces Ascanius with Cupid (her other son) to make Dido fall
madly in love with Aeneas.
Act III: Love and Politics
 Under Cupid’s spell, Dido falls passionately in love with Aeneas.
 She offers him shelter, wealth, and a share in her kingdom.
 Aeneas, forgetting his divine mission, reciprocates Dido’s love and
remains in Carthage.
 Dido grows possessive and becomes jealous of any attention Aeneas
gives to others.
Act IV: Fate Reasserts Itself
 Mercury is sent again by Jupiter to remind Aeneas of his destiny—to
found a new Troy in Italy.
 Aeneas, torn between love and duty, ultimately decides to leave Dido
secretly.
 When Dido finds out, she is devastated and furious, accusing Aeneas of
betrayal.
 Despite her pleas, Aeneas departs, leaving Dido heartbroken.
Act V: Tragic End
  Dido prepares a funeral pyre under the pretense of burning Aeneas’s
belongings.
 In reality, she intends to burn herself.
 Before dying, she curses Aeneas and prophesies eternal enmity between
Carthage and Rome, alluding to the Punic Wars.
 Dido stabs herself and dies in flames, an image of passionate despair.
Themes:
 Love vs. Duty: The central conflict is between personal passion (Dido)
and heroic destiny (Aeneas).
 Female Agency and Tragedy: Dido’s transformation from a powerful
ruler to a forsaken lover critiques the romanticization of empire-building
at the cost of women’s lives.
 Divine Intervention: Gods act selfishly, manipulating human emotions
and fate.
 Colonial Allegory: The destruction of Carthage for the sake of Rome
mirrors imperial conquest.
Dido in Marlowe’s Version:
Unlike Virgil’s dignified and restrained queen, Marlowe’s Dido is passionate,
expressive, and tragic. She dominates the play with her emotional intensity and
depth. Some scholars argue that Marlowe feminizes power and critiques the
masculine values of conquest and empire.
Marlowe's Style and Literary Innovations
 Blank Verse: Marlowe is credited with perfecting the use of unrhymed
iambic pentameter in drama—“Marlowe’s mighty line.”
 Overreaching Protagonists: His characters often strive for power,
knowledge, or greatness beyond human limits.
 Tragic Heroes: His plays exhibit the fall of heroes due to ambition,
pride, or moral blindness.
 Bold Themes: Religion, sexuality, politics, and rebellion are often
central.
Important Facts and Legacy
 Spy Allegations: Marlowe was possibly a secret agent for Queen
Elizabeth I’s government.
 Atheism and Controversy: Accused of heresy and atheism—dangerous
charges in Elizabethan England.
 Death: Killed in Deptford in what was officially recorded as a dispute
over a bill. Some believe it was an assassination tied to espionage or
censorship.
 Influence on Shakespeare:
o Doctor Faustus influenced Macbeth and Hamlet.
o Edward II influenced Richard II.
o Marlowe’s language and themes are echoed in Shakespeare’s early
works.