Mirroring Yaksha - Yakshi in Kerala: Inscriptional

Perspectives
Sandhya M. Unnikrishnan1

1. Department of History, NSS College Manjeri, College Road, Manjeri, Malappuram,

Kerala – 676 122, India (Email: [email protected])

Received: 17 August 2019; Revised: 13 September 2019; Accepted: 25 October 2019

Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 7 (2019): 463-470

Abstract: Inscriptions are historical source material and also useful to know the language, script,
taxation, administration, religion and social life during the early period. Studies are conducted about
Brahmin settlements, and the temple oriented societies and agrarian developments in the medieval Kerala
society, but not many studies were made about the sramanic religion and their institution in Kerala
society. The Jaina order, the development of Jaina settlements along the trade routes, the decline of these
centres, the re-appropriation and assimilation of their pantheon and deities, etc. are the areas left behind
by most of the historians. The present paper is an attempt to trace out the evidence about the Jaina
Sasanadevatas – Yaksha and Yakshi found in the temple inscriptions, rock inscriptions and copper plates
from the ruins of Jaina bastis.

Keywords: Inscriptions, Jainism, Sasanadevathas, Yaksha, Yakshi, Brahmin

Settlements, Kerala

Introduction
Archaeology and epigraphy can be considered as the two hands of history. Other than
legends and literary evidence, archaeological and epigraphical sources are dependable.
In the history of Kerala, the temple records engraved on the walls, stepping stones and
base stones throw light on several factors that mould history. Most of them were
written in old vattezhuthu or in Tamil-Malayalam mixed language. It was very difficult
to read this old language and to collect details mentioned in the epigraphs. It was
Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai who ventured into this task for the first time (Puthussery
2007). He can be considered as the first scholar who utilized the temple records for
writing history. Later, Dr. M. G. S. Narayanan followed his foot- steps and deciphered
many inscriptions for historical purpose. Dr. M. R. Raghava Warrier has also made
valuable contributions to the study of epigraphs.

The temple epigraphs speak about the donations and land endowments made by the
rulers, local chief, merchants, merchant guilds and groups to the temples. During the
Chera period, the temples had assumed great significance as the centre of socio-
economic and political integration. K. A. Neelakanda Sastri has stated that the temple
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was not just a religious institution, but as social institutions it seems to have filled in
the past a considerable place in the economy of the National life (Sastri 1932). The focus
of political and economic power had clearly shifted from Brahmin settlements to
temples during the 9th and 10th centuries. The expansion of agriculture, rise of Brahmin
settlements and developments of agamic temples led to the formation of temple
centred society. The further expansion of temple culture was stimulated by the Bhakthi
Movement. Some of temple inscriptions display the names of traders and trade guilds
that supported the activities for the progress of the temples.

Together with the socio-economic activities, factors regarding the religious life of
Kerala are also available from the epigraphs. The archaeological and epigraphical
references point out that even before the establishment of Brahmin settlements, there
flourished Sramanic religions and their strong holds in Kerala. How these strongholds
were erased; what were the accommodations, assimilation, acculturation and
appropriations that occurred in the religious realm of Kerala are to be analysed to find
out the eradication processes of the Sramanic institutions, especially the Jaina vestiges
and their deities. The Sasanadevathas of Jaina Tirthankaras - Yakshas and Yakshis - were
completely disappeared from the minds of the common people; but their reflections are
seen in the archaeological and epigraphic relics of Kerala. The present paper is an
attempt to find out such reflections in the inscriptions from Kerala temples.

P. B. Desai has stated that the cults of Sasanadevathas or Yakshis were introduced in the
Jaina pantheon, as an attempt to attract the devotional mind of the common people
(Desai 1957). The Yapaniyas, a section of Jaina monks were, behind this attempt. As a
part of this, they introduced Tantrism, alchemy, Rasasiddha, Mantravada, etc. in the Jaina
order. The Yaskshi-Yakshas cult is introduced for the sake of getting material benefits
and to achieve the desires fulfilled (Shah 1987). The spread of Jainism and the cult of
Sasanadevathas in Kerala had occurred in the northernmost part from Karnataka and in
the southernmost part from Tamil Nadu. With the decline of trade, the travelling
traders did not come in large numbers. The Jaina temples were located along the trade
routes and they had received huge donations for the maintenance and for the day to
day expenditure of the temple. But, as there was a shortage of income to these temples,
most of the temples were either transformed into Hindu temples either by purchasing
or by confiscation (Padmakumariyamma 1995).

The Wayanad region has many structural evidence like ruins of temples, sculptures,
inscriptions, etc. Sometimes there may be inscriptions referring to the offerings to
Sasanadevathas hidden among the ruins of the dilapidated temples. The Thalakavu
stone inscription of 850 AD contains reference about a Yaksha to whom the
Nalpattennayiravar constituted a lamp. Some land property was also allotted for
perpetuating the lamp. Thalakavu was a Jaina Yaksha temple that had depended on
the long-distance traders and the local agriculturists (Gurukkal and Warrier 2018). This
may be the only reference to a Yaksha temple and the inscription mentioning offering
to Yaksha. This inscription was unnoticed until K. K. N. Kurup discovered it from

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Thalakavu, Poothadi village in south Wayanad in 1970 (Kurup 1974). It is deciphered

and published by Dr. M. G. S. Narayanan.

The Varadhur Jaladhara Inscription of 1684 AD found on a copper tablet states about
certain gifts of gold, silver, bronze and copper to five chaithyalayas of Wayanad. It was
given by Lalithappa of Aramana Basti from Karkala. There is another reference for
providing twelve kasis for the Sasanadevathas of Aadinatha, Chakreswari and
Gomukhayaksha but no images of the Sasanadevathas are found out from among the
ruins. Raghava Warrier was the first to read and publish this epigraph (Warrier 2009).
The Ay-rulers of the seventh century AD had the influence of Jaina establishments like
Chitaral, the famous centre of Jaina Yakshi cult and kings like Vikramaditya Varaguna
had connections with the Jain monks like Achananti and Uttananti (Gurukkal and
Warrier 2018). A record of the 28th regnal year of Vikramaditya Varaguna states that
Gunatangi Kurattiyar, the disciple of Arattanemi Bhattara of Perayakkudi has given
some gold ornaments to the Bhattariyar (Goddess) of Thirucharanattumalai (Rao and
Aiyer 1920). The inscription contains some more names who made donations to
Thirucharanattu Bhattariar. This list includes Achananti, Uttananti Adikal of
Kattampalli, Veerananti Adikal of Malaippalli and Varaguna, a disciple of
Thirucharanattu Bhattariar (Rao and Aiyer 1920). One of the south Indian inscriptions
has a reference to a lady ascetic by name Thirucharanattu Kurattiyar (Sastri 1925).

A vattezhuthu inscription carved on a rock in the southern side of the temple states that
the construction of the srikoil of Thirucharanattumalai (Chitaral) was made by a
priestess named Mattavala Narana Kurattiyar (TAS I). The same devotee had offered a
metallic lamp stand and a golden flower to the Goddess. Another inscription carved on
the stone mentions about an offering given to the temple. Now this stone has been
made a stepping stone to the pond in front of the temple. As per this inscription, one
Vijayachandra Vipaschit made a stone entrance to the temple. This inscription
mentions the deity as ‘Varasundari’ (Padmakumariyamma 1995). This epithet is
connected with Ambika Yakshi, the most popular Yakshi worshipped in Tamil Nadu.
The inscriptions of the early period speak of the Goddess as Thirucharanattu
Bhattariyar. But the later inscriptions mention the Goddess as Thirucharanattu
Bhagavati. A Tamil inscription is found on the boulders of the temple describing the
provisions made for the requirements of the temple. In this inscription, the Goddess is
saluted as Thirucharanattu Bhagavati. The date of this inscription is 1250 AD. Hence,
the appropriation of the Jaina Goddess to Hindu Bhagavati has already been over by
12th century AD (Padmakumariyamma 1995).

The Hindu temples also had records and inscriptions describing the offerings given to
Goddess Yakshi. The Huzur treasury plates belonging to the Vishnu temple Thiruvalla
is having a reference to the expenditure incurred for the special offering to Mayi Yakki
(Mahayakshi), the Upadevata of the temple. Sixteen nali paddy is set aside for the
offering during the festival of Onam (Rao and Aiyer 1988). This reference is showing

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that the ethnic Goddess Yakshi has been approved and consecrated as the upadevata in
the structural temples of Kerala. Kanyakumary inscription (Rao and Aiyer 1988) of
Veera Rajendra has a reference to king Panchapa, who, by cutting open five arteries of
his body, fed five Yakshas with blood (Verses 36-46). There is a reference to Yakshi of
Palamudu in the Pattali copper plate of Pattali (Rao and Ayyar 1988). It is not clear if
the Yakshi is the Upadevata of Pattali temple or Mannadi Bhagavati temple. Both these
temples are referred in the copper plate.

When the temple inscriptions are referred, the interesting feature noticed is the
occurrence of individual names like Yakkan, Iyyakkan, Iyyakki, Yakkaravan, etc. It
may be assumed that these names are connected with Yakshas and Yakshis. The
temple inscriptions are mostly the records of land transactions, land endowments and
donations of land provided for the temple activities. The above mentioned names are
occurring in the inscriptions as donor or done on behalf of the king or a ruler of a
principality in the temple councils for taking important decisions. In both these cases,
these names are appearing either as a landlord or as a ruler of a principality. Some of
the inscriptions having reference to such names are given below.

Kandiyur Inscription, 947 AD: This inscription is about the land endowments given
by Narayanan Chandrasekharan to Punnassery Iyakkan Parameswaran and Iyakkan
Keralan for Karanmai (TAS I). They should pay 33 Parai seed annualy and 3 nalis of
paddy daily to Thirukkadiyoor Devan. If they failed to supply, they should forfeit as
much of land as required for the seed.

Tirukkakkarai Inscription, 950 AD: Yakkan Kunrappolan of Panritturuthi, who was

one of the feudatory chiefs of Indukkodai Varma. The content of the inscription was to
register a gift of lamp to Thirukkakarai Bhattarar by Yakkan Kunrappolan and another
individual. This inscription is in Vattezhuthu, engraved on the south and east of the
surumandapa of the Vishnu temple Tirukkakkara (Rao and Aiyer 1988).

Tirukkakkarai Inscription, 960 AD: This inscription is also in Vattezhuthu. The content
of the inscription is about some regulations regarding the code of conduct for temple
servants (Rao and Aiyer 1988). They should not borrow money; if they do so the
debtor as well as the creditor should pay 100 kalanju gold to the Bhattarar. Yakkan
Kundrapolan of Panripparuthi – ruler of the country, Kothai Keralan and Sankaran
Sreekandan are the names mentioned in this inscription. Another inscription mentions
Yakkan Polan of Vembamalai offered two perpetual lamps and one agram to the
Bhattarar. Kannan Poraiyan - chief of Kalkkarai Nadu and the koil adikari agreed the
deed and received the land needed for this purpose.

Thirukkakarai Inscription, 972 AD: This inscription is incomplete which lost the last
portion of the first three lines. It registers a gift of money (36 kalanju of gold) to the
Bhattarar from Kannan Kumaran of Karilam so as to enable the temple officers to

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purchase certain land from Iyakkan Kothai of Iravimangalam and Kannamangalam

(Rao and Aiyer 1988).
Inscription of Nedumpuram Thali, 960 AD: This inscription is not complete. It gives
the offering provided by the following people. 1) Iyakkan Indirayuthan, the chieftain of
Nedumpurayoor Nadu - 1 agram. 2) Melthalippurathu Changara Nangachi - 1 agram. 3)
Nedumpurayoor Eyakkan Ayyan – 1 uthamagram. 4) Eyakkan Chathan – 1 Adisankaran
agram. The land endowment for this expenditure is also mentioned in inscription
(Puthusseri 2007: 364).

Tirunelli Copper Plate, 1005 AD: The content of this inscription is to record the land
endowments for feeding the Brahmins and for the daily offering to Tirunelli Thevar,
and for a Nandavilakku. The signature of the witness is done by Ameyamangalthu
Yakkan Chathan, the commander in chief along with the koil adhikari Attoor
Kunjivikraman and other individuals (Pillai 1963).

Nedumpuram Thali Inscription II, 960 AD: The chieftain of Nedumpurayur Nadu,
Manal manrathu Eyakkan, koil adhikari and 18 representatives of the Nadu met in the
temple premises to make regulations regarding the land endowments for feeding the
Brahmins and for providing the paddy before Thulavishu and Medavishu, failing to
which fine should be levied (Puthusseri 2007: 52).

Thirukkodithanam Inscription, 1050 AD: This records arrangements for panchavadyam

in the Tirukkodithanam temple. Lands were given as grant for the expenditure of
panchavadyam. A meeting of the sabha of the village was met under the presidency of
Iyakkan Srikanthan of Manalmanram, the chieftain of Nanjurai Nadu for making some
regulations for panchavadyam (Rao and Ayyar 1988).

Thirukkodithanam Inscription, 1010 AD: A record regarding the gift of land to the
Bhattarar of Thirukkodithanan temple for feeding twelve Brahmins, one perpetual
lamp, one day Vishuvilakku, and 12 nali offering to Bhattarar on new moon day. 400
kalam together with some other land yielding 4800 parai paddy was given as danam to
the god. This endowment is made by Iyyakkan Govindan of Mulavukadu (Rao and
Ayyar 1988).

Kollam Rameswaram Inscription, 1102 AD: Agreements signed by Ramakulasekhara

Varman for providing agram, day to day expenditure, and for conducting Thirukuthu in
the Thirunada of Thirukunavatha devan, etc. Certain land property was set aside for
this purpose. The promise is made by Ramakulasekhar washing hands to Yakkan. This
inscription is too damaged to decipher anything beyond this information (Rao and
Ayyar 1988).

Thiruvalla Copper Plate, 11th Century AD: A reference to a number of perpetual

lamps set up by various persons; one among them is Yakkan Kodai of Peruvayaloor
and for this purpose lands were granted to Thiruvallavalappan (Rao and Aiyer 1988:

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141). A reference to one Ponniyakkanayan of Kidanguparal made a gift of land

yielding annually 75 parai paddy which was to be spent for offering Akkaradalai to the
deity and for performing the kuthu in the Kuthambalam of the temple (Rao and Aiyer
1988: 142). A reference to Kumaran Iyyakkan, the governor of Thekkinkuru in
Vembolai Nadu gave land for offering and a lamp, silver salvar and a necklace set with
rubies (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 147). There is a reference to Iyyakkan Govindan of
Kodikkalam who gifted a village, Nedumbalanadu for maintaining nine persons for
panchavadyam (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 147). This gift was caused by Iyyakan Govinadan,
the officers of the temple and arunnuruvar (the six hundred). A reference is made about
certain Yakkiyammai, wife of Kunran Iravi of Ponapallam who offered ten kanam of
gold towards the income of rice for offering to be made to Thiruvallavalappan as soon
as he roused from sleep every morning (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 151). One reference is
made about Yakkan Kodai who has taken land on mortgage from Kiruttan of Karpulai
and from this land ten parai of paddy should be granted to the temple for the above
mentioned offering (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 151). There is reference about one
Neelakandan Yakkaravan of Vadaissery who assigned plots of land for food offering to
the God (Rao and Aiyer 1988: 153).

Thiruvannur Inscription, 1044 AD: There is a reference to Kanayappalli Yakkan

Cellan, who mentioned the gold to be received from Thiruvannur deity to be paid by
the naduvazhi and the servants of the deity (Sastri 1925). There is controversy among
the scholars about the meaning of this inscription. Paliyathu Kannan Kandan, the
governor of Ramavalanadu and his officials including arunnuruvar decided to reject the
claim of Kanayapalli Yakkan Cellan, to receive a payment of gold from the temple
because there was no precedence of such action.

Conclusion
The above mentioned inscriptions contain the names like Iyyakan, Yakkan, Yakki, etc.
We are not in a position to conclude that these names were connected with a particular
religious sect, especially the followers of Jainism. But we can have some inferences to
conclude that these names have some connections with Jainism. V. S. Agarwala (1970)
has stated that Yaksha appears in the Sinhalese language as Yakka and Yakshi as
Yakki. So Yakkan and Yakki may be the descendants of the traders who had come from
Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and settled in early Tamilakam. One of the inscriptions states that a
merchant who had come from Sri Lanka had dedicated a lamp to the temple of
Suchindram in the kingdom of Venadu (ARIE, 1896). Jainas were traders who were
engaged in internal trade and commercial activities in the Early Medieval times. The
Thiruvalla copper plate contains references to oil merchants like vanikar, ennaivianiyar
and vaniyan who came from Sri Lanka (Rao and Aiyer 1920: 131-207). With the decline
of trade, the Jain traders transformed themselves to agriculturalists and settled
themselves along the plains. From the predominantly trading economy of the Early
Historic period, Tamilakam (including Kerala) was now in the process of changing
towards an integrated agrarian order with the temple as the centre; consequently the

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Jains reoriented their socio-economic structures (Champakalakshmi 2011). In this

context, it should be remembered that the names mentioned in the inscriptions were
rich landlords or persons enjoying high status as koiladhikari, naduvazhi or commander
in chief.

The rise of Brahmin settlements and temples with the greatest socio-political economic
institutions, together with the decline in the flow of traders from distant lands, made
the Jaina institutions in extreme poverty. They lost the royal patronage also. In this
changed situation, many Jaina temples were re-appropriated to Brahmin fold either by
political appropriation through confiscation or by the purchase by the Brahmins. As a
case study, the Thiruvannur inscription of 1044 AD may be taken. There is a reference
about Kanayappally Yakkan Cellan, who is expected to receive gold from the
Thiruvannur deity, to be given by the naduvazhi and the servants of the temple.
Different scholars have interpreted the inscription in different ways. However, Yakkan
Cellan was not given the gold on the ground that there existed no such precedence. But
it should be noticed that Yakkan Cellan might have demanded the gold because he
might have been the authority of the temple property. There might have occurred a
transfer of ownership from Yakkan Cellan to the naduvazhi, a representative of
Brahmin hegemony. A reference to Thirukkunavi and such other terms gives a clue
that Thiruvannur was a Jaina centre.

It is a social custom in Kerala to express the identity of individuals with the family
name first, fathers name in the middle and finally the individual name. When we
examine the names mentioned in inscriptions this custom can be witnessed.
Manalmanrath Iyyakan Indirayuthan is a typical example. Hence the names like
Yakkan, Iyyakkan, etc. may be connected with Jainism whose forefathers may be Jains.

As a result of the re-appropriation and transformation of the Jaina vestiges and their
deities the Jain community in Kerala had lost their existence in the society. Gradually
they absorbed themselves into the Hindu order. In the changed social scenario, many
Jaina landlords and traders offered huge donations and land property to the temples to
regain their existence in the temple-oriented society. This fact also points to the
inference that the Yakkan, Yakkaravan, Eyakkan, Yakki, etc. might be the link in the
order that existed in the pre-Brahmin settlements.

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