Module-1
Introduction
Dr. Jaishree Mayank
Contents
• Basics of computer
• Basic Functional Blocks of a Computer
• Understanding the Working Principle of Computer
• Types of Architecture
• Generations of Computer
• Digital Circuits
Introduction
• Computers have become part of our daily lives.
▪ They are everywhere (embedded systems?)
▪ Laptops, Tablets, Mobile Phones, Intelligent Appliances.
• What we have to understand? How a computer works!
▪ What are there inside a computer?
▪ How does it work?
Computer Organization
• Design of the components and functional blocks using which computer
systems are built.
• Analogy: Computer Organization is like the construction plan executed by the
civil engineer.
Computer Architecture
• How to integrate the components to build a computer system to
achieve a desired level of performance.
• Analogy: Computer Architecture is like the blueprint made by the architectural
engineer.
Program
• What is a Program?
• Types of Programs
• Application
• Financial accounting software
• Mathematical packages like MATLAB or MATHEMATICA
• An app to book a cab
• An app to monitor the health of a patient
• System
• Operating Systems:
• Handling user requests
• Managing application programs and storing them as files
• File management in secondary storage devices
• Running standard applications such as word processor, internet browser, etc.
• Managing I/O units
• Compilers : Program translation from source form to object form
• Linker : Combine multiple object files and libraries into a single executable
• Loader: Loads the executable into memory and starts program execution
Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer
Four basic units:
• Central Processor Unit
• Arithmetic Logical Unit
• Control Unit
• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Memory Unit
• Primary Memory
• Secondary Memory
Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer
• Central Processor Unit [CPU] : Central processor unit consists of two
basic blocks :
• Program control Unit
• It has a set of registers and control circuit to generate control signals.
• Execution unit or Data Processing unit
• Contains a set of registers for storing data.
• An Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) for execution of arithmetic and logical operations.
• In addition, CPU may have some additional registers for temporary storage
of data.
Basic Computer Model and different units of
Computer
• Memory unit is used to store the data and program.
• CPU can work with the information stored in memory unit.
• Primary or Main Memory Unit :.
• Stores the active instructions and data for the program being executed on the
processor.
• Semiconductor memories.
• There ate two types of semiconductor memories –
• Volatile Memory : RAM (Random Access Memory).
• Non-Volatile Memory :
• ROM (Read only Memory),
• PROM (Programmable ROM),
• EPROM (Erasable PROM),
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM).
Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer
• Secondary Memory :
• non volatile memory
• permanent storage of data and program.
Type Examples Purpose
Hard Disk Drive (HDD), Magnetic
Magnetic Storage Traditional high-capacity storage
Tape
Solid-State Storage SSD, USB Flash Drive, SD Card Fast, durable, no moving parts
Optical Storage CD, DVD, Blu-ray Disc Media distribution, backups
Cloud Storage Google Drive, OneDrive Online access and file sharing
External Storage External HDD, USB Pen Drive Portable data transfer and backup
Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer
Input Unit : Data from outside can be supplied to the computer.
• Program or data is read into main storage from input device or secondary storage under the
control of CPU input instruction.
Category Examples Purpose / Function
Enter text, numbers, and
Text Input Devices Keyboard, Stylus
commands
Mouse, Touchpad, Trackball, Navigate and interact with
Pointing or Control Devices
Touchscreen graphical interfaces
Scanner, Webcam, Digital Capture images, video, or
Image/Video Input
Camera documents
Microphone, Voice Recognition Capture and process sound or
Audio Input
Systems voice input
Joystick, Gamepad, VR Provide real-time input for
Gaming Controllers
Controllers games and simulations
Fingerprint Scanner, Face/Iris Authentication and secure
Biometric Sensors
Scanner identification
Temperature Sensor, Collect data from surroundings
Environmental Sensors
Accelerometer or movement
Basic Computer Model and different units of Computer
• Output Unit : Computer results can be provided to the user or other system
• Output data from main storage go to output device under the control of CPU output
instructions.
• Output data can be used directly or it can be stored in storage device permanently for future
use
Category Examples Description
Monitor, LCD/LED Screen, Display text, images, videos, and
Visual Output Devices
Projector graphical interfaces in real time.
Convert digital signals into sound
Audio Output Devices Speakers, Headphones, Earbuds for playback, alerts, or
communication.
Produce physical output on paper
Hard Copy Devices Printer (Inkjet, Laser), Plotter or other media (documents,
drawings).
Provide tactile feedback
Haptic Output Devices Game Controllers, Smart Watches (vibrations, pulses) to enhance
user interaction.
Convert digital text into Braille dots
Braille Devices Braille Display
for visually impaired users.
Classification of Computer Architecture
• Broadly can be classified into two types:
• Harvard architecture
• Von-Neumann architecture
• How is a computer different from a calculator?
Harward Architecture
• Based on Harvard Mark I (also known as IBM Automatic Sequence
Controlled Calculator, or ASCC),
Program
• Proposed by Howard Aiken in 1944 Memory
Processor
Data Memory
• Advantages:-
• Separate memory for program and data.
• Instruction and data accesses can be done in parallel.
• Embedded systems, microcontrollers, DSPs-PIC microcontrollers, etc.
• Faster: Data and instructions have separate bus
• Disadvantages: –
• More complex hardware
Von-Neumann Architecture
• Instructions and data are stored in the same memory module.
• Designed by Von Neumann in 1945.
Processor Program/Data
Memory
• Advantages:-
• More flexible and easier to implement.
• Suitable for most of the general purpose processors-x86, ARM (in Von Neumann mode).
• Fewer memory modules and buses mean lower hardware cost.
• Disadvantages: –
• Slower: Data and instructions share the same bus, so only one can be fetched at a time.
• Programming bugs could overwrite code.
• Compared to Harvard architecture, it is less suitable where speed and predictability are
critical.
Instruction Execution
Step-by-step operation of a CPU instruction:
• Fetch: Get instruction from memory
• Decode: Identify operation & operands
• Execute: Perform operation (ALU/memory/control)
• Memory Access: Read/write (if required)
• Write Back: Store result in register/memory
• Example – ADD R1, R2, R3:
• Fetch → Decode → Execute (R2 + R3) → Write to R1
Register Transfer
• Movement of data between CPU registers
• R1← R2(Copy content of R2 into R1)
• Occurs in a single clock pulse
• Controlled by the control unit
• Example:
• R3←R1+R2
• ALU adds R1 and R2
• Result stored in R3
Micro-operations
• Basic operations on data in registers
• Types of Micro-operations:
• Register Transfer
• R1←R2
• Arithmetic
• R3←R1+R2
• Logic
• R4←R1∧R2
• Shift
• R5←R5<<1
Working Principle of a Computer
• ALU Operations and Control Signal Encoding
• Main Memory Organization
• Memory Access Signals and Buses in a Computer
• Address Decoder and Memory Access
Thanks
